typography in graphic design
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TypographyinGraphicDesign
TypographyisawordthathasitsoriginsintheoldGreeklanguage;typosmeans
formandgraphemeanswritinginGreek.Sotypographyisatechniqueandanartinthesametimethathelpsustocommunicatevisuallyourlanguage.
Inordertounderstandtypographywehavetoknowabouttypeface,pointsize,line
length,leading,tracking,kerning.ThereforIwillgiveashortdescriptionoftheseterms,bellow:
Typefaceisasetofcharactersthathaveasimilardesign.Theyaresomanytypefacesexistingonthemarkettodayandnewonesarebeingdevelopedcontinuously.
Theartandcraftofdesigningtypefacesiscalledtypedesignandthedesignersarecalled
typedesigners.Intheworldofdigitaltypography,whichissomuchdevelopedtoday,thetypedesignersarealsocalledfontdesignersorfontdevelopers.
Pointsize Linelengthisthewidthoccupiedbyablockoftypesettext;itismeasuredininches,
picasandpoints.Thetextinsidethelinecanbeflushleft(alignedtotheleftmargin)
andraggedright,flushrightandraggedleftorjustifiedalllinesareequalinlengthandthetextisalignedalongboththeleftandrightmargin.
Leadingisthedistancebetweenthebaselinesofsuccessivelinesoftype.Inourdays,especiallyinwordprocessingsoftware,leadingisknownaslinespacingor
interlinespacing.
Trackingmeansadjustingthespacebetweengroupsofletters. Kerningmeansadjustingthespacebetweenpairsofletters.
Letterformmeanstheshapeofaletter;alsomeansthestudyanddesignofindividualletters.Letterformsaredesignedformetalprintorcomputer.
TheoriginofletterformIntheancienttime,peopleusedpicturestotransmittheirmessagesorto
communicate.Theyarecalledpictograms.AseriesofpicturesfoundacoupleofthousandyearsagoBCdemonstratethat.
2600-1900BC
WritingsfromIndus
Valleycivilization
TheearliestscriptinIndia
sofarknownistheIndus
Valleypictographicscript.
Over4000symbolbearingsealshavebeendiscovered
intheIndusValley.
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Afterawhile,thepictogramswerereplacedbytheideographs.Thesearethesymbolsthatrepresentanidea,apictureoragroupofpictures.Theywereusedespeciallyby
theNativeAmericansandEgyptians.
SomesaythatChinesealphabetisbasedonideographsorpictographs.Butthisiswrongbecausemostcharacterscontainphoneticpartstoo.Thereforeitisrecognised
todaythatChinesecharactersevolvedfromearlierformofhieroglyphs.Formanyyearspeopleusedtocommunicatetheirideasbydrawingpicturescalled
pictograms.
ASan,orBushman,pictographsfoundintheTsodiloHillsofBotswana.Someofthepaintingshavebeendatedas24,000yearsold,makingthisoneoftheoldestsuch
sitesyetdiscovered.
300,000BC50,000BCPaleolithic
70,000BCAfricanPythonGod
70,000BCPythonWorship70,000BCAfricanreligionPredatesHinduism
38,000BC32,000BCtusk
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InSouthAfrica,intheremoteNgamilandregionofBotswana,itwasfoundtheoldestcultobject.Thiswasamysteriousrockthatlookedliketheheadofahugepythonandwas
sixmeterlongbytwo-metertallrock.Onittheydiscoveredalsothree-to-fourhundred
indentationsthatcouldonlyhavebeenman-made.HieroglyphswerefirstintroducedbyEgyptiansandtheyrepresentsobjects,ideasbutalso
sounds.
EgyptianhieroglyphstypicaloftheGraeco-Romanperiod,
sculptedinRelief.
Glyphs:owl,viper,3-strokes(plural),'breadbun',cloth
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieroglyph
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InGreek,hieroglyphmeanssacredcarvingasthecharacterswereincravedinstones.Hieroglyphicsarefoundonthewellscaves,insidepyramids,crypts,burialchambers,on
papyrusscrolls.ItissaidthatthehieroglyphicswereusedintheAncientEgyptformore
than3,000years.However,theyweredifficulttomakeandlearnandbecauseofthis,mainlyroyalty,scribes,priestandpoliticiansusedthem.
Inthe1stcenturyA.D.thehieroglyphicswerentusedanymore.In1799,duringtheNapoleonsreign,hisarmyfoundnearAlexandria,inapacecalled
Rosetta,abrokenpieceofrockwithcarvedtextwrittenin3differentlanguages,but
meaningthesamething.TwoofthoselanguageswereEgyptianlanguagesscripts-hieroglyphicanddemotic(a
cursivehieroglyphicstyleofwriting)andoneinclassicalGreek.ThisRosettaStonewas
createdin196BCandnotlongafteritwasdiscoveredbytheFrench,theEnglishtookittotheircountryin1802.TodayitcanbeseenattheBritishMuseuminLondon.Thebritish
scientistThomasYoungandtheFrenchscholarJean-FrancoisChampollionwerestydyingthehieroglyphicscravedonthisstone,tryingtodeciphertheprinciplesofhieroglyphs
writing.Thisstoneis114.4cm,72.3cmwideand27.9cmthick,weighingalmost760kg.It
wassupposedtobeinitiallyofgraniteorbasaltbuttodaytheysayitismadeofgranodioriteofadarkgrey-pinkishcolour.
ImageRosettastoneattheBritish
MuseumLondon
ImageRosettastonecloseup
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GreekAlphabet
BelowisatablelistingtheGreekletters,aswellas
theirformswhenromanized.Thetablealsoprovides
theequivalentPhoenicianletterfromwhicheachGreek
letterisderived.Pronunciationstranscribedusingthe
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet
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TheGreekalphabetisover2500yearsoldanditwasborrowedfromPhoenicians.WhileGreeksweretradingwithPhoenicians,theysawthemwritingthingsdownandthoughtthat
wasverycleversotheydecidedtoaddacoupleofvowelstothePhoeniciansalphabetand
startusingitthemselves.ThisishowtheGreeksstartedtheirwrittenlanguage.Theyhaveleftuswonderfulfables,mythsandlegends,hugeepics,storiesandplays.Theyusedtowrite
toeachotherletterstosharetheirdailylife.WhatweusetodayfromtheGreekalphabetarethevowels.
Eventhewordalpha-betismadeupofthefirsttwolettersoftheGreekalphabet:alpha
andbeta.Inourtimes,peoplechangedtheGreekalphabetsothelettersweusetodaydonotlookthe
sameastheoneoftheGreekalphabetandtheyarepronouncedinadifferentwaytoo.The
orderoflettersisalsodifferentfromtheoneoftheGreekalphabet.Lookatthepicturebellow:
FactsabouttheEvolutionofAlphabets
(fromHistoryoftheAlphabettaughtbyProf.RobertFradkinatUniversityofMaryland)
TheevolutionoftheCuneiformcharactersetSumerianpicturesevolvedintosyllabicsymbolsusedbymanylanguagesforalmosttwo
thousandsyearsbeforethePhoeniciansdevelopedthesingle-soundsymbolsweknowasanalphabet.
Thecuneiformscriptunderwentconsiderablechangesoveraperiodofmorethantwo
millennia.TheimagebelowshowsthedevelopmentofthesignSAG"head".
Stages:
1.showsthepictogramasitwasdrawnaround3000BC2.showstherotatedpictogramaswrittenaround2800BC3.showstheabstractedglyphinarchaicmonumentalinscriptions,fromca.2600BC
http://uncyclopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Ancient_Greek
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4.isthesignaswritteninclay,contemporarytostage35.representsthelate3rdmillennium6.representsOldAssyrianductusoftheearly2ndmillennium,asadoptedintoHittite7.isthesimplifiedsignaswrittenbyAssyrianscribesintheearly1stmillennium,anduntil
thescript'sextinction.
TheevolutionofThePhoeniciancharactersetfromtheProte-SinaiticglyphsTherearethepictographsfoundintheSinaipeninsula,ca.1500BCandareassumedtobe
thesourceofthesoundsymbolsdevelopedseveralcenturieslaterbythePhoenicians.
CuneiformtabletfromtheKirkorMinassiancollectionintheUSLibraryof
Congress,ca.24thcenturyBC.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform
AlistofSumeriandeities,ca.2400BC
AspecimenofProto-Sinaiticscriptcontainingaphrasewhichmaymean'to
Ba'alat'.Thelinerunningfromtheupperleftto
lowerrightmayreadmtlbclt.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Bro
nze_Age_alphabets
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TheevolutionofTheGreekcharactersetfromitsPhoenicianroots1.TheeventualevolutionoftheArabicCharactersetfromitsPhoenicianroots
2.NotpicturedarethedevelopmentsofAramicandNabatean,whichledtothe
modernArabicscript.
ThePhoeniciancharacters,whichisGreekrotated90degrees,orthenon-symmetricalcharactersthatflippedhorizontallywhenthedirectionofGreek
switchedfromlefttoright.
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TheevolutionoftheSquareAramaic/HebrewcharactersetfromthePhoeniciancharacterset
WhatwecallsquareHebrewcertainly*was*theAramaicscript.http://www.ancientsudan.org/images/14_articles_ElephantinePa
rusCol6cmh. if
TheHebrewalphabetisadescendantoftheAramaicalphabet,whichisitselfadescendantofthePhoenicianalphabet.
http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2010/06/22/the-beauty-of-typography-writing-systems-and-calligraphy-part-2/
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TheevolutionoftheModernCyrilliccharactersetfromtheGreekcharacterset
CyrillicscriptspreadthroughouttheEastandSouthSlavicterritories,beingadoptedforwritinglocallanguages,suchastheOldEastSlavic.Itsadaptationtolocallanguages
producedanumberofCyrillicalphabets,discussedhereafter.
TheearlyCyrillicalphabet
TheevolutionoftheLatincharacterset
(http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html)
SomescientistsaidthatGreekadoptedthePhoenicianalphabetatthebeginningofthe8thcenturyB.C.,perhapsinEuboca.EubocaisthesecondlargestGreekislandinareaand
population,afterCrete.Itissaidthatthisislandwasoncepartofthemainlandandanearthquakeseparatedit.
TherewerefoundGreekinscriptionsfrom770750B.C.thatmatchedPhoenicianletter
formsofc.800750B.C.
Aneg.IstheDipyloninscriptionandtheCupofNestorbothfrom8thcenturyB.C.TheybelongedtoaprivatepersonandwerededicatedtoGod.
Z
Capitalandlowercaseletterswerenotdistinguishedinoldmanuscripts.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script
Thetextoftheinscriptionruns:
Literaltranslation:
Whoeverofallthesedancersnowplaysmostdelicately,tohimthis...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipylon_inscription
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Thisisaninscriptiononthispotteryvesseldatedtoca.740BC,isoneoftheoldestexampleoftheuseoftheGreekalphabet.
Itwasfoundin1871,intheancientDipyloncemetery,nearDipylonGate.TodaycanbefoundintheNationalArchaeologicalMuseumofAthens.
MoreaboutNestorsCup
ThisCupofNestorfromMycenaeisagoldengobletexcavatedbyHeinrichSchliemannin1876alongwithotherobjects,oneofgold.ItlooksliketheonefromTheIliadwhich
Homerdescribeditinthisway
Besidetheseshesetacup,
amagnificentworkNestorhadbroughtfromhome,
studdedwithgold.Therewerefourhandlesonit,aroundeachoneapairofgoldendoveswasfeeding,
belowweretwosupports.Whenthatcupwasfull,anothermancouldhardlyliftitfromthetable,
but,oldashewas,Nestorpickeditupwithease.
RomanInscriptions
BecauseGreekwasspokenintheeasternhalfoftheRomanempire,wehavelefttoday
almostthesamenumbersofRomaninscriptionsinGreekasinLatin.Oftentheofficialsputtedtheinscriptionsupinbothlanguages.SuchexamplesfoundinCyprusanditsonan
ex-slavewomanstombstone.HernamewasJuliaDonata.
The "Nestor's cup" from Mycenae
Theso-calledNestor'scupfromPithekoussai,
Ischia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestor's_Cup
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Thisfuneraryplaqueisunusualinthatithasinscriptions(CILIII,6731=IGRIII,983)inbothLatinandGreek,eachofwhichfollowsconventionsappropriatetotherespective
language.ItreadsinLatinabove:"JuliaDonata,thefreedwomanofOlympus,lieshere,"andinGreekbelow:"GoodIouliaDonata,thefreedwomanofOlympos,farewell."
Plaquewith
bilingualinscription,EarlyImperial,1st
centuryA.D.
Roman,Cypriot;saidtobefromLarnaca
(Kition),Cyprus,
Limestone
Statuetteofatemple
boy,3rdcenturyB.C.;
HellenisticCypriot;Saidtobefromthetempleof
ApolloHylatesatKourion
Terracotta
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Some300statuettesofseatedchildren,likethisone,havebeenfoundinsanctuariesonCyprus.Thegreatmajoritydepictsboysabouttwoyearsold,usuallyseatedwithoneleg
bent,andshownnudeorwearingashorttunicthatallowsthegenitaliatobeseen.Manyare
bedeckedwithearrings,fingerrings,andpendantamuletsacrossthechest.Thesignificanceoftheseseatedchildrenisnotknown,althoughtheyareconventionallyreferredtoas
"templeboys"inscholarlyliterature.Ithasbeensuggestedthattheyrepresentchildrenconsecratedasservantstoadivinity,acustomwellattestedinEasterncivilizations.More
likely,however,theywereplacedintemplestomarkariteofpassageinaboy'slifeandto
secureforhimdivineprotection.ThisterracottastatuetteissaidtobefromthetempleofApolloHylatesatKourion.Herakleswouldhavebeenaparticularlyaptprotectorforayoung
boy,havingfirstdisplayedhisgreatphysicalstrengthasaninfant,whenhestrangledtwo
serpentsinhiscradle.
TherewerefoundsomeinscriptionsinotherlanguagestooliketheonefoundongrovestoneinPalmyrene,whichisanancientformofAramaic.Oneofalltheselanguages
continuedtoflourishduringtheRomanEmpire.ThatoneistheHebrewlanguage.
Thesefragmentsofgoldglass,datingfromthefourthcentury,originallyformedthedecorativebaseofabowlorcup.Thebasewascreatedbyaffixingapatterningoldleafto
thebottomofthevesselandthencoveringthedecorationwithanotherlayerofglass.Theuseofthisgold-glasstechniqueflourishedinthethirdandfourthcenturiesinRome.This
fragmentedbaseisamongthefewsurvivingworksthatdepictJewishobjects;most
remnantsofsuchdrinkingvesselsaredecoratedwithChristianorsecularmotifs.Themajorityofthesurvivingexampleswerefoundintombs,especiallyinthecatacombsin
Rome.
Thedecorationofthisbase,likethatofotherHebrewexamples,isdividedintotwosemicircularregisters.TheupperregisterdepictssymbolsofJewishculture.Inthecenteris
anopenTorahshrine.ThegableofthearkissupportedbytwocolumnswithCorinthian
capitals.Thedoorsoftheshrineareopen,revealingfourshelvesholdingsixscrolls.Seven-branchedmenorotsitoneithersideoftheark.Tothefarrightstandsashofar,orram's
horn,andtotheleftaroundobjectwhichmaybematzoh,theunleavenedbreadeatenattheJewishfestivalofPassover.Surroundingtheleftmenorahareascrollandtheremainsofan
BowlFragmentswith
Menorah,Shofar,and
TorahArk,4thcenturyRomanorByzantine
Glass,goldleaf
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etrogafruitusedintheharvestfestivalofSukkothwhichcanbeseenontheedgeofthefragment.Althoughlittleofthelowerregisterremains,itdepictsabanquethallwith
garlandsonthewallsandcushionssurroundingatableuponwhichrestsasmallerthree-
leggedtableholdingafish.SuchbanquetingscenesarealsoseeninChristianandpaganfuneraryart.Theyaresymbolicoftheagape,orfellowshipmeal,honoringthedeceased.
Boththeupperandlowerregistersaresurroundedbyaninscription,readingIBIBASCVMEVLOGIACOKP(ARARE)Drinkwithpraisetogether.Theinscription,thesymbolsinthe
upperregister,andthebanquetscenebelowsuggestthatthisfragmentofgoldglassmay
havebeenthebaseofadrinkingvesselusedduringthePassoverfestivalandburiedwithitsownertoblesshimintheafterlife.
Ayouthwiththeinscription"live"inLatinissurroundedbyimagesofmiracles.ChristappearswithawandbesidetheThreeHebrewsintheFieryFurnace,attheWedding
atCana,andCuringtheParalytic.Tobiaspullstheliverfromthelargefishtocurehisfather.
BowlBasewithOldand
NewTestamentScenes,
ca.350400
Byzantine,saidtohavebeenfoundin1715inthe
RomancatacombofSaintCallisto
Glass,goldleaf
LampwithJewishSymbols,
made350450
Byzantine;Terracotta
Thisisoneofthefewsurvivinglamps
decoratedwithJewishsymbols.It
displaysamenorahflankedbyanetrog(citron)andalulav(palm
branch),bothindistinct.
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BowlBasewithSaintsPeter
andPaulFlankingaColumn
withtheChristogramof
Christ,madelate300sByzantine,fromRome
Glass,goldleaf
SaintsPeterandPaul,
identifiedbytheinscriptionsinLatin,are
shownwiththeshort
curlyhairandpointed
beardtypicallyassociatedwitheachman.AccordingtoChristiantradition,they
werebothmartyredin
Rome.
HexagonalBottle,500629Byzantine;PossiblyfromSyria,Glass,mold-blown
Glassvesselssuchas
theseweremadeforJews
andChristians,possiblyas
tokensforpilgrimsvisitingtheholysitesin
Jerusalemorforuseinburialrites.Theyappear
tohavebeenmass-producedinasingle
workshop,sincethe
vesselsforthetworeligionscloselyresemble
eachotherinshapeandstyleanddifferonlyinthe
symbolsdecoratingthem.Thisvessel,intendedforaJewishpatron,showsa
menorah,ashofar,anda
lulavinrelief.RitualelementsusedinJewish
festivalsinsynagoguesweretypicallyusedto
representJudaisminthis
periodratherthanthe
StarofDavid,whichappearsmuchlater.
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PicturewithTheRomanRepublic
NotmanyinscriptionssurvivedfromtheRomanRepublic.Morewehavefrom
Imperialperiodthetimeofthe1stemperorAugustus(27B.C.14A.D.)untilthethirdcenturyA.D.
TheremustbehundredofthousandofRomaninscriptionsfoundbythe
archaeologists.TheyalltellusaboutthelifeintheRomanWorld.Theseinscriptionshadthreedifferentsizesandweremadeonvariousmediasuchas
stone,metal,pottery,mosaic,fresco,glass,wood,andpapyrus.
Thelargestonewerededicatedtothegodsoremperors,wereofficialdocumentssuchasimperiallettersanddecrees.
Themiddlesizeonesweredoneoncoinsandrepresentedthenames,titlesofrulers,theirportraits
sometimeswefoundthisinscriptionsonbronze
tablets.OnthestreetwallsatPompeiitherewere
foundatypeofcasualinscriptionscalledgraffiti.ThesmallsizeRomaninscriptionswereseen
onpapyrusletters.Itwasfoundoneinparticularthat
containashoppinglist.AnotherinterestingfactisthatRomansused
toliketowritedownalotofdetailsaboutaperson
whodied,suchastheirage,occupationandlifehistory.Thesethingswereinscribedonfunerary
monumentsandarecalledepitaphs.
AnexampleofthiskindofartcalledfuneraryartisthealtarmadeofmarbleofCominiaTyche.
MarblefuneraryaltarofCominiaTyche
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identifiedbytheLatininscriptionbelowher.Itreads:Tothespiritsofthedead.Lucius
AnniusFestus[setthisup]forthemostsaintlyCominiaTyche,hismostchasteandlovingwife,wholived27years,11months,and28days,andalsoforhimselfandforhis
descendants.Cominiawearsanelaboratehairstylethatreflectsthehighfashionadoptedby
ladiesoftheimperialcourtinthelateFlavianperiod(A.D.6996).Theinscription,ontheotherhand,emphasizesherpietyandchastity,virtuesthatRomanmatronswere
traditionallyexpectedtopossess.Thejugandpatera(shallowbowlwithhandle)onthe
monumentssidesalludetothecommonpracticeofpouringofferingstothedead.ThealtarisknowntohavebeeninahouseneartheForuminRomeinthesixteenthcenturyandto
haveenteredthecollectionofCardinalFrancescoBarberiniduringtheseventeenthcentury.(http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/130014064)
CarvingsTheRomanslettersderivedfrostonecarvings,areupright,withserifandvariation
ofthickandthinstrokes.
TheTimesNewRomanfontweusetodayisaRomantypefaceandhasalsolowercaselettersaddedtotheromanuppercaseletterswehaveinheritedfromourancestors.
http://courseweb.stthomas.edu/mjodonnell//cojo256/pdf/type1.pdf
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IIIndustrialandtechnologicaladvances
printingpress,linotype,moveabletype,fonts,hotmetalpress,desktoppublishing,
internet
Part of the series on theHistory ofprinting
Woodblock printing 200
Movable type 1040
Intaglio 1430s
Printing press 1454
Lithography 1796
Chromolithography 1837
Rotary press 1843
Flexography 1873Mimeograph 1876
Hot metal typesetting 1886
Offset press 1903
Screen-printing 1907Dye-sublimation 1957
Phototypesetting 1960s
Photocopier 1960s
Pad printing 1960s
Laser printer 1969
Dot matrix printer 1970
Thermal printer
Inkjet printer 1976
3D printing 1986
Stereolithography 1986Digital press 1993
Historyofprinting
Aprintingpressisamachineforprintingtextorpicturesonpaperorclothsby
applyingpressuretoaninkedsurface.Theinkistransferredintothatpaperorcloth.
Itisknownthatthisinventionisoneofthemostrevolutionizingonceofthesecondmillennium.
In1440,theGermanJohannesGutenberginventedtheprintingpress.Hisinventionwasbasedonscrewpressthatexistedbefore.Ascrewpressisatypeofmachinepressin
whichtheramisdrivenupanddownbyascrew.
ThescrewpresswasinventedbyromansinthefirstcenturyC.E.anditwasusedformakingthewineandoliveoil.
Ball-drivescrewpress
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_press
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ThepressinventedbyGutenbergin1436waswoodenanditwasthefirstformof
printingtousemovabletype.
In1440Gutenbergwasabletoprintslipsofpaper,whichweresoldbytheCatholicChurchtoremittemporalpunishmentinpurgatoryforsinscommittedinthislife.
Onlythewealthyclassofpeopleboughttheseindulgences.HereisabriefhistoryofJohannesGutenbergslifefromthislink:
http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/gutenberg.htm
Inventoroftheprintingpress,HenneGnsfleischzurLaden,commonlycalled
JohannesGutenberg,wasbornabout1400anddiedin1468atMainz,Germany.GutenbergwasthesonofFriele(Friedrich)GnsfleischandElseWyrich.Johanneslastnamewas
derivedfromthehouseinhabitedbyhisfatherandhispaternalancestors"zuLaden,zuGutenberg".
888TheDiamondSutra,aBuddhistscripture,wasthefirstdatedexampleofblockprinting.1041BiShenginChinainventedmovableclaytype
1400JohannesGutenbergborninMainz,Germany1423Europeansusexylography(artofengravingonwood,blockprinting)toproduce
books.
1430GutenbergmovedfromhisnativetownofMainztoStrasburg1436Gutenbergbeginsworkonhisprintingpress.
1437Gutenbergwassuedfor"breachofpromiseofmarriage"byayoungladyofStrasburg
1440Gutenbergcompletedhiswoodenpresswhichusedmovablemetaltype.1440LaurensJanszoonKoster(Coster)iscredited,bysome,withinventingmovablemetal
type1444GutenbergreturnstoMainzandsetsupaprintingshop
1446Gutenbergprintsthe"PoemoftheLastJudgment"
1448Gutenbergprintsthe"Calendarfor1448"1450Gutenberg'formedapartnershipwiththewealthyJohannFust
1450GutenbergbeginsworkonaBible,thefirstis40linesperpage.
1452Gutenbergbeginsprintingthe42-lineBibleintwovolumes.1454Gutenbergprintsindulgences(notessoldtoChristiansbythePope,pardoningtheir
sins)1455Firstblock-printedBible,theBibliaPauperum,publishedinGermany.
1455Gutenbergcompletedworkonwhatisestimatedtobe200copiesoftheBible
1455Gutenbergwaseffectivelybankrupt.InvestorJohannFaustgainscontrolofprintbusiness
1457Firstknowncolorprinting,aPsalter(acollectionofPsalmsfordevotionaluse)byFaust.
1460GutenbergreestablishedhimselfintheprintingbusinesswiththeaidofConrad
Humery1461AlbrechtPfisterprintedthefirstillustratedbookEdelsteinwhichfeaturedanumberof
woodcuts.
1465GutenbergisappointedtothecourtofArchbishopAdolfofNassau1458JohannesGutenbergdiedFebruary3,inMainz,German
1499Printinghadbecomeestablishedinmorethan2500citiesaroundEurope.
1499Anestimated15millionbookshavebeenpressprinted,representingthirtythousandbooktitles
CAPs:JohannesGutenberg,JohannGutenberg,BiSheng,LaurensJanszoonKoster,JohannFaust,PeterSchoffer,AlbrechtPfister,ConradHumery,ArchbishopAdolfofNassau,William
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Caxton,GutenbergBible,42-lineBible,MazarinBible,DiamondSutra,PoemoftheLast
Judgment,Calendarfor1448,Psalter,Aesop'sFables
(Moreinfoat:www.gutenberg.de/english/erfinder.htm)
Lynotypeisamachineusedinprinting.Itwasalsocalledalinecastingmachine.Thismachinemakesonelineatatime.
LinotypemachineModel6,builtin1965(DeutschesMuseum),with
majorcomponentslabeled.
Typeslug-Printside
Typeslug,sideview
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www.brtitanica.com-ausefulsiteforlinotypeetc watchedavideoonvimeo
http://vimeo.com/43462615
Linotypefilm.com
Watchedavideoaboutlinotypeathttp://archive.org/details/typesett1960
Morevideowww.linotypefilm.com/resources.htmlAddtheposterfromTheMuseumofprinting,NorthAndover
www.museumofprinting.org/MOP_poster.pdf
(Ihaveprinted3pageposter)
IvewatchedonYoutubemorevideosaboutmanualtypesettingwww.youtube.com/watch?v=5LCESWE1jw0
Thelinotypemachineismadeoffourmajorsections:
1. magazine2. keyboard3. castingmechanism4. distributionmechanism
Letsdescribethesecomponentsnow:
Thekeyboardhas10characters,hasntgotashiftkeyanduppercaselettersareseparatedfromlowercaseletters.Thelower-caselettersareontheleftandarein
black;theupper-caselettersarelocatedontherightandareinwhite.Betweenthem
therearethebluekeysforpunctuationanddigits.
MatricesAnotherimportantcomponentsofthismachinearethematrices.Theyaremoldsfor
theletterforms,inaline.Eachmatrixcorrespondstooneletterformforaparticularcharacterofafontoftype,whichisengravedintoonesideofthematrix.Thecharacterssizecanbeupto14pointsoreven16to24points.Thematrixhas
twoletterformsonitandtheyaretwopositionsinwhichtheycanbeplaced:
normalorauxiliarypositions(theslantedformofthecharacterknownasItalic)(theuprightformofacharacterknownsRoman)
Onceallthematricesareassembledtogethertoformaline,thenthelineiscastedasasinglepiece,calledaslug.Aslugisapieceofmetal.Thisprocessisknownashot
metaltypesetting.
Magazinethisistheplacewhenthematricesarekeptwhennotinuse.Oncetheoperatorspressacertainkeyonthekeyboard,itscorrespondingmatriceisrelated.
TheyaremanymagazinesforoneLinotypemachinebecausesomehaslargerfontsandothernormalfonts.
Themagazineisaflatboxwithverticalseparatorsthatformchannels.Eachchanel
correspondtoasinglecharacterofafonttype.Ingeneral,themagazinehasgot90channelsbuttheyaresomewith28channelsalso.
[ExtractfromWikipedia]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/linotype_machine
MovabletypeMovabletypeisasystemusedinprintingandtypography.Itusesmovable
componentstorecreatelettersorpunctuationofadocument.Around1040ADinChina,duringtheSongDynasty,BiSheng(990-1051)createdthe
firstmovable-typesystemintheworld.
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typesystemforprinting.
In1377wasprintedJikjiabookusingthesamemovabletypesystem,just78yearspriorto
JohannesGutenbergs42timeBible(1452-1455).ThisbookisaKoreanBuddhistdocumentanditstitlemeansAnthologyofGreatBuddhistPriestsZenTeachings.In
September2001UNESCOconfirmedJikjiasbeingtheworldsoldestmetalloidtypeandincludeditintheMemoryoftheWorldProgramme.
Thesemovable-typesystemswasveryexpensivebecausethethousandofceramicormetal
tabletsneededforthescriptswerehardtocarry,especiallyinthecaseofChinesewritingsystemthathasthousandsofcharacters.
ThegreatinventionofJohannesGutenbergaround1450oftheprintedpresswasagreat
help.AfterthatthemovabletypesystemspreadinwholeEuropeandinmanycountriesthetypewascastedbasedonamatrixandhandmould.Gutenbergwasthefirsttocreatehis
typepiecesfromanalloyoflead,tinandantimony.
Lead(asoft,malleablepoormetal,Pb,plumbum,aheavymetalusedinbuildingconstructions)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lead
Tin(Sn,stannum,silvery,malleablepost-transitionmetal,noteasilyoxidizedinair,usedtocoatothermetalstopreventcorrosion)
Galena,lead
Metallic, gray, lead
Asampleofrecentlysolidifiedlead(fromamoltenstate)
Silvery (left, beta) or gray (right, alpha) Dropletofsolidifiedmoltentin
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Antimony(stibium,Sb,atoxicchemicalelement,alustrousgraymetalloid;inancienttimeswasusedforcosmetics)
Woodblockprintingwasaslowprocessespeciallyforalphabeticscriptswhereasmovable-
typeprocesswasquicker,moredurableandtheletteringwasmoreuniform,leadingto
typographyandfonts.IfwethinkofthelowpriceoftheGutenbergBibleandofitshighquality,wewillunderstandwhythemovabletypeandprintingpressspreadsoeasilyinEurope.
Sampleofcassiterite,themainoreoftin.
A21stcentury
reproductionbarnlanternmadeof
punchedtin.
Antimony,silvery,lustrous,gray Nativeantimonywithoxidationproducts
Stibnite
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TheHotmetaltypesettingInthe19thcenturyanewinventioncalledthehotmetaltypesettingmademovableto
decline.
Hotmetaltypesetting(1886)Thismethodinjectsmoltentypemetalintoamoldthathastheshapeofoneormoreglyphs.
Theresultingsortsandslugsarelaterusedtopressinkontopaper.
Inthe19th
centurytheyweretwodifferentsystemsoftype-settings:- monotypecompositioncastersystem- super-caster
Monotypecompositioncastersystemmeansthatthelinesoftextsarecastedanddelivered
withtheaidofperforatedpaper-ribbonsproducedonthekeyboardandallcharactersarecastseparate.Thetextsproducedcouldbeupto36pointsinlarge-composition.
TheSuper-caster,anothermachineproducedbyMonotype,wassimilarinfunctiontothe
Thompson,bath,pivotalandotherscastersbutdesignedtoproducesingletype(includingevenlargersizes)forhandsetting.
Anotherwayofprintingthetextswastocastawholelineasoneslug.Thissystemwasused
byatleastfiveenterprises:
- Linotype- IntertypeCorporation- theTypograph,producedinGermania- TheMonoline,averybasicmachine
DesktoppublishingTheabbreviationofDesktoppublishingisDTP.In1983,JamesBessendevelopedaprogramcalledTypeProcessorOne,thatrunonaPC
usingaGraphiccardforWYSIWYGdisplay.In1984thisprogramwassoldonthemarketbyBestinfo.
In1985ApplecreatedtheLaserWriterprinterwhomadeDTPflourishevenmore.SoonAldusintroducedPageMakersoftware,whichbecametheDTPindustrystandardsoftware.BeforeDTPappear,weknowthatpeoplecouldproducetypeddocumentsonlywitha
typewriterwhichwaslimitedintermsofthesizeandtypeoffontthatcouldbeused.Astep
aheadwasmadewhenwiththehelpofdesktoppublishing;peoplecouldprintpageswithtextandgraphicelementsat300dpiresolution.Thiswasarevolutionforboththe
typesettingindustryandthepersonalcomputerindustry.In1980mostnewspapersandprintcompaniesstopusingsystemslikeAtexandstart
workingwithDTPbasedprograms.
TheuseofthePageMakerLaserWriter-Macintosh512ksystemwasatatimeanimportantdiscoverybutithadalsoitsfaultslike:sufferedmanycrashes,thedisplayonthe
Macstiny512x3421-bitmonochromescreenwasntgood,couldntcontrolwelltheletterspacing,kerning(thespacebetweencharactersinproportionalfont).TheAmericanmultinationalcomputersoftwarecompanyfoundedin1982,havingits
headquartersinSanJose,California,USwasstartedtodevelopreallygoodtechnologiesthattookDTPevenfurther.NowAdobemadescalablePostScripts-fontswhichweresavedinto
ROMmemoryoftheLaserWriterandLaserWriterPlusprinters.BecauseofthesePostScripts
thedesignercouldtesttheirfilesonalocalprinterandthengotoaDTPservicebureautoprintthematahigherresolution(opticalresolution)600+dpionprinterslikethosefrom
Linotronic.Linotronicarehigh-qualityprintersthatpermittedtoprintfilesatupto2540dotsperinch(dpi).InthiswaythequalityofthefilesprintedonLinotronicexceededthe
qualityofthemajorityofphototypesettingsystems.TheLinotronicprintingwastoo
expensivetobeusedathomeoratofficesbutwereabletofulfillthedreamsofmanydesignerintermofprintingverygoodwork.
ThetechnologyadvancedevenmorewhentheMacintoshIIwasreleased.Thiswasthe1st
personalcomputeroftheMacintoshIIseriesintheAppleMacintoshlineandofferedcolour
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display.ItwasdesignedbyhardwareengineerMichaelDhuey(computer)andBrianBerkeley(monitor).ItsSCSI(SmallComputerSystemInterface)allowedtheusersto
attachedhighcapacityharddrivestoit.
Macintoshbasedsystemcontinuedtobethemostusedcomputeronthemarket.However,inthistime,appearedanewDTPsoftwarecalledVenturaPublisherforIBMPCcompatible
computersrunningtheGEMextensiontotheDOSoperatingsystem.Thishappenin1986.ThelastversionofVenturaSoftwareInc.was4.1.1.andappearedin1993.
VenturawassuperiortothePageMakerbecauseofferedthedesignerthepossibilitytouse
tags/stylesheets,generatedinchessowasusedmainlyforlongformatdocuments.DesktopPublishingmovedintothehomemarketin1986withProfesionalPageforthe
Amiga,PublishingPartner(nowPageStream)fortheAtariST,GSTsTimeworksPublisheron
theOCandAtariSTandCalamusfortheAtariTT030,evenfor8-bitcomputersliketheAppleIIandCommodore64softwarewaspublished:HomePublisher,theNewsroomand
geoPublish.Thoughinthebeginningdesktoppublishinghadabadreputationbecausethedesignerwere
professionallytrainedandcreatedbadlayouts.ThesamehappenwithearlyWeb-Publishers.
But,slowlyDesktopPublishingbecameacarrierandpeoplewhowantedtobecomeacarrierandpeoplewhowantedtobecomeadesktoppublisherhadtolearnthetechnicalskillsand
thecreativeskillstoo.DTPisalsoasecondaryskilltoartdirectors,graphicdesigners,multimediadevelopersandmarketingcommunicators.
Pagelayoutmeansthewayinwhichthetext,theimagesaredisplayedonthepage.
Sometimesimagescanonlybemodifiedasanexternalsource.Embeddedimagescanbemodifiedwiththelayoutapplicationsoftware.Thetextalsocanbelinkedtoanexternal
sourceoftext.Inthiswaymorethanoneeditorcanchangeitinthesametime.
Graphicdesignstylessuchascolour,transparencyandfiltersmayalsobeappliedtolayoutelements.
Typographystylesmaybeappliedtothetextautomaticallywithstylesheets.Theyarealsostylesheetsforimages,notonlyfortext.Theycanreflecttothebordershape,colour,
transparency,filtersandparameterdesignatingthewaytextflowsaroundtheobjectcalled
wraparoundorrunaround.ThewordprocessorsweusetodayoffersusmorethenDTPsoftwareusedinthepastin
termsoflayout,marginsandlinespacing,indexing,spellchecking.
TherearesomecommonaspectsbetweentheDTPpublishingandHypermediapublishing(i.e.Webdesign,Kiosk,CD-ROM).Thelayoutengineusedbysomeofthewebdesignerswho
usedWYSIWYGeditors(likethoseinDreamweaverorMicrosoftFrontpage)aresimilartoaDTPprogram.
Still,theprofessionalweb-designerswillprefertowriteHTMLcodebyhandbecauseifthey
useWYSIWYGeditors,theycanexperiencecodebloat.(long,slowcodewithcompilationerrors)
FontsIalsolookedatthewebsite:www.namethatfont.netwheretheyareacoupleoflogosthat
belongtofamouscompaniesonthemarketandIhavetoguesswhattypeoffonttheyareusing.
Eg.Whattypeoffontisusedinthegooglelogotype?ThefontusedinwritingthewordgoogleisCatullanditsacommercialfontandcanbe
boughtfromthiswebsite:
www.myfonts.com/search/catull/fonts
Afontiscomposedbyasetofcharactersofasinglesizeandstyleofaparticulartypeface.
Thetypefaceisasetofcharactersthatsharecommondesignfeatures.Theyaredesignedbytypefacedesigners.
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AnimportantlinkfromwhereIalsodidmyresearchis:www.planet-typography.com/news/typeface/anselm.htmlhttp://abc.planet-typography.com/20th/index.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface
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Startingwith1980,computersfontsbroadenedthedefinitionforthetermfont.Thesefontsweremadeofvectorshapesthatcouldbescaledfreelysodifferentsizesthatcouldbe
scaledfreelysodifferentsizesofasinglestyleweregenerated.Anexampleisthetypeface
BulmerthathadfontslikeBulmerroman,Bulmeritalic,BulmerboldandBulmerextended.Thistypefontwasdesignedin1792andwasnamedaftertheprinterwhoused
themsowellinhisShakespearePresseditions.ItsdesignerwasWilliamMartinwhowantedtocreatetheEnglishanswertothesharp,fineletterformsofItalysBodoniandFrances
Didottypefoundries.
Becausetypedidmorethanimitatethestarknessofthemodern-styleDidot-Bodonitypes.Bycondensingtheletterforms,givingthestrokeshighercontrastandbracketingtheserif
slightly
EtymologyThefontcomesfromtheFrenchwordfontewhichmeanssomethingthathasbeenmelted.Thisisbecauseoftheoldwaythetypewasproduced:castingmoltenmetalat
atypefoundry..MetaltypeLetterpresswasaformofprintingthatstartingwiththefirstinventionof
JohannesGutenberginthemid.15thcenturyandcontinuedtillthe19thcentury.
IwatchedthevideoLetterpressprintingprocesswithaHeidelbergWindmillfromYoutubeaccountofajalonprinting.
Anothervideoabutletterpressis:UniquetipsfortheWeidelbergWindmillfromtheYoutubeaccountofboxcarpress
metaltypewasusedintraditionalmanualprintingtotypesetanentirepage.Linespacing
calledleadingbecausethestripsforthelinespacingweremadeofleadratherthantheharderalloyusedforotherpieces.
In1880s90s,hotleadtypesettingwasinvented.Thismeantthatthetypewascastasit
wasset,eitherpiecebypiece(asinMonotypetechnology)orinentirelinesoftypeatonetime(asinLinotypetechnology).
TheMonotypetechnologywasinventedbyGiovanniBenedettoCastiglione(1609-1664).HewasanItalianpainterandetcher,theonlyItaliantohaveinventedaprintmakingtechnique.
Whenhestarttomakethemonotype,henormallyworkedfromblacktowhite.
FontWightWhenwearetalkingaboutafontweightwearereferringtothethicknessofthecharacter
outlinesrelativetotheirheight.Whenadesignercreatesatypefacehecanproducedifferentweightsforthatfont:ultra-
light,extra-bold,normal,bold.
Thefontsdesignedtobeusedinposterwereoftenquitebold;thoseforwritingthetextwerelight.
Othertermstodescribetheweightofafontare:
- hairline- Thin- Ultra-light- Extra-light- Light- Book- Normal/regular/roman/plain- Medium
- Demi-bold/semi-bold- Bold- Extra-bold/extra- Heavy- Black- Extra-black- Ultra-black/ultra
Afontsslopeistheangletowhichthefontwasslanted.Regularfontsareuprightbutifthey
areslantedtotheright,theybecomemorecursiveinstyle,inthiscasetheyarecalleditalic
fonts.(www.typesoffonts.com/font-characteristics.html)
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Whenafontisitalic,theedgesofcharactersbecomesoclosedthattheytouchotherandthereforeligaturesmayappear.TheUpper-caseitaliclettersmayhaveextraswashes.
Aswashisatypographicalflourishonaglyph,likeanexaggeratedserif.
FontWidthMosttypefaceshaveproportionalcharacterwidthsoraremonospaced.Thewidthofafontdescribeshowmucheachcharacterhasbeenstretchedorcompressed.
Whenwenameafontfromitswidthperspective,wecansaythattheyare:compressed,condensed,ultra-condensed,narrow,wide,extendedorexpended.
FrontMetricsWhenwetalkaboutthefontmetricswegivedetailsaboutthex-height,capheight,ascender
height,descenderheight,boundingboxoftheoverallfont.Thesebasicallyarethevaluesfor
thesizeandthespaceofthatfont.
OpticalfontSizeThefontisdesignedtomeetdifferentpurposes:eitherforawritingabookoraposter.Wecansayeitherforreadingordisplay.
Thereforethefontsizescanbeclassifiedas:-Poster(largerthan72point)
-Display(1918points)
-Subhead(1418pints)-Regular(1013points)
-Smalltext(810points)-Caption(68points)
Serif
Sometimessans-seriftypefacesarecalledGrotesque(InGermangrotesk)orGothicandseriftypefacesarecalledRoman.
(Theyarethreelatin-scripttypefaces:roman,blackletteranditalic).
Verywellknownromantypefacesare:Bembo,Baskerville,Caslon,Bodoni,TimesRomanandGaramond.
Itissaidthatlowscreenresolutionmakesseriffontsveryhardtoreadbutthesetypeoffontsareusedintraditionalprintedmaterials(books,newspapers).Someofthemagazines
usesansseriftypefacesstatingthattheyarecleanerbecauseofthelackofserifs.
Swashesmarkedwithredcolor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serif_font
Serifsarethedetailsontheendofsomeofthestrokesthatmakeuplettersand
symbols.
Atypefacewithserifsiscalledseriftypeface.
Atypefacewithoutserifiscalledsans-seriftypeface.Sanscomesfromthe
Frenchwordsansthatmeans
without.
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LegibilityandreadabilityLegibilityreferstoperceptionandreadabilityreferstocomprehension.Agood
typographeraimstoachieveexcellenceinboth.Thetypefacechosenshouldbelegible.Thatis,itshouldbereadwithouteffort.Sometimes
legibilityissimplyamatteroftypesize.Moreoftenhowever,itisamatteroftypeface
design.Ingeneraltypefacesthataretruetothebasicletterformsaremorelegiblethantypefacesthathavebeencondensed,expanded,embellishedorabstracted.
However,evenalegibletypefacecanbecomeunreadablethroughpoorsettingandplacement,justasalesslegibletypefacecanbemademorereadablethroughgooddesign.
Inourdayswereadmorefromthecomputerormobilescreen,fromourKindle,Nooks,or
tablets.Goodtypographycannotbehandcraftedanymorethereforweneedtodaybetterskilled
typesettersanddesignerswhocanadoptthethousandsoftypefontsfortheweb.
Atypographerordigitaldesignerdesignsfortheweb,hastotakeintoconsiderationthetypeofbrowserthatwillbeusedfordisplayingthepageswiththefontsthathecreated.
In1996,MicrosoftreleasedtheCorefontsfortheWebprograms:Arial,Georgiaand
Verdana.IwouldliketoendmyessayontypographyingraphicdesignwithacollectionofquotesI
foundonthewebthisweekend:
Asthesayinggoes,typeisabeautifulgroupofletters,notagroupofbeautifulletters.MatthewCarter
Typographyhasoneplaindutybeforeitandthatistoconveyinformationinwriting.Noargumentorconsiderationcanabsolvetypographyfromthisduty.EmilRuder
Facesoftypearelikemensfaces.Theyhavetheirownexpression;theircomplexionandpeculiartwistsandturnsoflineidentifythemimmediatelytofriends,towhomeachisfullof
identity.J.L.Frazier
Wouldn'titbeinterestingiftherewereonlyonetypefaceintheworld?Designerswould
reallyhavetothinkabouttheideabehindtheirdesignsinsteadofcoveringirupwithfancytypefaces.One,universaltypefacewouldreallystripawayalltheflashyemptinessindesign.
And,ofcourse,thatonetypefacewouldhavetobeHelvetica.ErikKessels
Anyonewhowouldletterspaceblackletterwouldstealsheep.FrederickGoudy