U. Schwarz-Schampera P.M. Herzig Indium

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera Peter M. Herzig

Indium Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics

with 31 Figures and 54 Tables

Springer

DR. ULRICH SCHWARZ-SCHAMPERA

PROFESSOR DR. PETER M. HERZIG

Department of Economic Geology and Leibniz Laboratory for Applied Marine Research Institute of Mineralogy Freiberg University of Mining and Technology Brennhausgasse 14 09596 Freiberg Germany

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Schwarz-Schampera, Ulrich: Indium: geology, mineralogy, and economics I Ulrich Schwarz­Schampera ;Peter M. Herzig.

ISBN 978-3-642-07726-5 ISBN 978-3-662-05076-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-05076-7

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A contribution to

BGR2000

Raw Materials with Short Lifetime Reserves

BGR

Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources Hannover, Germany

Preface

The extraordinary growth of the computer and semiconductor industries and the increasing consumption of indium in these technologies in recent years have placed major constraints on current and future reserves of this metal. In the past, geoscientists have noticed the occurrence of indium in a large variety of ore de­posits and detailed geochemical and mineralogical work is available for a few ex­amples. However, despite the current technological interest, there is no compre­hensive textbook that deals with all aspects of indium mineralization and economics. The present study attempts to develop a general metallogenic concept for indium in identifying the essential enrichment processes and their economic significance.

The study 'Indium Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics' was commissioned and funded by the German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Re­sources (BGR Hannover) and is a contribution to the research program 'BGR 2000 - Raw Materials with Short Lifetime Reserves'. This program focuses on raw materials with known reserves confined to the next 20-25 years at static de­mand. The future availability of reserves is usually estimated by dividing the known reserves by the current annual consumption. In fact, lifetimes of reserves are inappropriate measures because they depend on many parameters and there­fore represent a "snapshot" of a dynamic system. In order to provide a sustainable use of raw materials with short lifetime reserves, a significantly higher amount of innovation is needed compared to raw materials with long lifetime reserves.

Specific aspects of this study are part of a Ph.D. thesis, completed by the first author, which was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).

The authors greatfully acknowledge the support of this study by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h. c. F.-W. Wellmer, Dr. Th. Oberthur, Dr. H.-0. Angermeier, and Dipl.-Min. U. K. Vetter, all BGR Hannover. We would also like to thank Dr. M. D. Han­nington and Dr. I. R. Jonasson (Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa), and Prof. R. W. Hutchinson (Colorado School of Mines, Golden, USA) for their critical and constructive comments. Prof. R. W. Hutchinson and Dr. A. Arribas Jr. (Placer Dome Ltd.) are furthermore thanked for providing various site specific informa­tion, references, and sample material.

Sincere thanks are due to our colleagues at the Department of Economic Geol­ogy for providing support, ideas, and information: Klaus-P. Becker, Bernd Buschmann, Peter Jonas, Thomas Kuhn, Thomas Mon­necke, Daniel Muller, Sven Petersen, and Thomas Seifert.

Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera, Freiberg Peter M. Herzig, Freiberg

Table of Contents

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ } 1.1 Historical Aspects ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 Geochemistry ............................................................................................... I 1.3 Analysis ....................................................................................................... 3 1.4 Production .................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Economics .................................................................................................... 5

2 Petrological and Mineralogical Framework ..................................................... 9 2.1 Magmatic Fractionation ............................................................................... 9 2.2 Indium Mineralogy .................................................................................... 13

2.2.1 Indium Substitution Processes ............................................................ 23 2.2.2 Experimental Data .............................................................................. 28 2.2.3 Natural Systems .................................................................................. 30

3 Indium Metallogeny ......................................................................................... 33 3.1 Vein-Stockwork Tin and Tungsten Deposits, Porphyry Tin Deposits ....... 33

3.1.1 Mount Pleasant, New Brunswick, Canada ......................................... 33 3.1.2 Mangabeira, Goias, Brazil .................................................................. 39 3.1.3 Baal Gammon, Northern Queensland, Australia ............................... .40 3.1.4 Vaulry, Haute Vienne, France ............................................................ 41 3 .1.5 Charrier, Allier, France ..................................................................... .42 3.1.6 Pirquitas, Jujuy Province, Argentina .................................................. 42 3.1.7 Cfnovec, Krusne Hory Mountains, Czech Republic .......................... .43 3.1.8 Synthesis ............................................................................................. 44

3.2 Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide (VMS) Deposits ................................... 45 3.2.1 Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada ............................................................ .45 3.2.2 Neves-Corvo, Castro Verde, Southern Portugal.. ............................... 49 3.2.3 Brunswick No. 12, Bathurst Mining Camp,

New Brunswick, Canada .................................................................... 55 3.2.4 Heath Steele, Brunswick Mining Camp, New Brunswick, Canada .... 56 3.2.5 Kuroko, Hokuroku basin, Northeastern Honshu, Japan ..................... 58 3.2.6 Laochang, Changning-Menglian belt, Sanjiang,

SW-Yunnan, China ............................................................................ 58 3.2.7 Maranda J, Murchison belt, Northern Province, South Africa ........... 59

VIII Table of Contents

3.2.8 Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide Deposits of the Southern Urals, Russia ............................................................ 62

3 .2.8.1 Letneye, Dombarovsk District .................................................... 62 3.2.8.2 Komsomolskoye, Mednogorsk District ...................................... 64 3.2.8.3 Podolskoye .................................................................................. 64 3.2.8.4 Sibaiskoye ................................................................................... 65 3.2.8.5 Gaiskoye ..................................................................................... 65 3.2.8.6 Bakr-Tau, Baimak District, Bashkirian Republic ....................... 66

3.2.9 Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide Deposits in Queensland and Tasmania, Eastern Australia ....................................................... 67

3.2.9.1 Mount Chalmers, Central Queensland ........................................ 68 3.2.9.2 Waterloo and Agincourt, Northern Queensland .......................... 68 3.2.9.3 Dry River South and Balcooma, North Queensland ................... 69 3.2.9.4 Rosebery, Western Tasmania ...................................................... 69

3.2.10 Active Seafloor Hydrothermal Vent Fields ...................................... 69 3.2.10.1 Southern Lau Back-Arc Basin, Southwest-Pacific ................... 70

3.2.11 Synthesis .......................................................................................... 73 3.3 Sediment-Hosted Exhalative Massive Sulfide (SHMS) Deposits .............. 74

3.3.1 Rammelsberg, Germany ..................................................................... 75 3.3.2 Ungban, Bergslagen District, Sweden ............................................... 76

3.4 Polymetallic Vein-Tpe Deposits ................................................................ 77 3.4.1 Tosham, Bhiwani District, Haryana, India ......................................... 78 3.4.2 Akenobe, Hyogo Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan .................... 79 3.4.3 Fukoku, Kyoto Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ....................... 82 3.4.4 lkuno, Hyogo Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ......................... 82 3.4.5 Goka, Naegi District, Gifu Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ..... 83 3.4.6 Omodani, Fukui Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ..................... 84 3.4.7 West Shropshire Orefield, England .................................................... 84 3.4.8 Les Clochettes, Lautaret, Hautes Alpes, France ................................. 86 3.4.9 Saint-Martin-la-Sauvete District, Loire, France ................................. 86 3.4.10 Kutna Hora, Czech Republic ............................................................ 87 3.4.11 Pohled, HavlickUv Brod, Czech Republic ........................................ 88 3.4.12 Carguaicollu, Oruro, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............................ 89 3.4.13 Bolivar, Cerro Bonete Area, Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia ............ 89 3.4.14 Huari-Huari, Potosi, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............................. 91 3.4.15 San Luis, Berenguela District, Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia ......... 91 3.4.16 San Vicente, Uyuni, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............................. 91 3 .4.17 Colquiri, Cochabamba Area, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............... 92 3.4.18 Colquechaca, Aiquile Area, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ................. 92 3.4.19 Pulacayo, Uyuni, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ................................. 93 3.4.20 Morococha, Junin, Peru .................................................................... 93 3.4.21 Synthesis .......................................................................................... 93

3.5 Epithermal Deposits ................................................................................... 94 3.5.1 Toyoha, Southwest Hokkaido, Japan ................................................. 94 3.5.2 Nagyborzsony, Borzsony, Hungary ................................................. 100 3.5.3 Kirki (St. Phillippe) Mine, Thrace, Greece ...................................... 100

Table of Contents IX

3.5.4 McLaughlin Gold Deposit, California, USA .................................... 102 3.5.5 Prasolov, Kunashir Island, Kuril Island Arc, Russia ........................ l 03 3.5.6 Mutnovsky Area, Kamchatka, Russia .............................................. 103 3.5.7 Julio Cesar, La Union District, Cartagena, Southwest Spain ........... 104 3.5.8 Synthesis ........................................................................................... 105

3.6 Active Magmatic Systems ....................................................................... 106 3.6.1 Kudryavyi Volcano, Iturup Island, Kuril Island Arc, Russia ........... 106 3.6.2 Merapi Volcano, Central Java, Indonesia ......................................... 107

3.7 Porphyry Copper Deposits ....................................................................... 108 3.7.1 Central Sredna Gora District, Bulgaria ............................................. 109 3. 7.2 Central District, Southwest New Mexico, USA ............................... 110 3.7.3 Bingham District, Utah, USA ........................................................... 113 3.7.4 Synthesis ........................................................................................... ll3

3.8 Skarn deposits .......................................................................................... 115 3.8.1 Dachang Ore Field, Gejiu, Guangxi, China ...................................... 115 3.8.2 Ulsan, Ulju Gun, Gyeongsangnam Do Province,

Republic of Korea ............................................................................ 119 3.8.3 Kitel, Northern Ladoga, Karelia, Russia .......................................... 120 3.8.4 Gasborn Area, Bergslagen District, Sweden .................................... 121 3.8.5 Oelsnitz, Southwestern Vogtland, Saxony, Germany ....................... l22 3.8.6 Plavno, Krusne Hory Mountains, Czech Republic ........................... 122 3.8.7 Synthesis ........................................................................................... 123

4 Miscellaneous Indium Occurrences .............................................................. 125 4.1 Japan ........................................................................................................ l25

4.1.1 Hokkaido .......................................................................................... 125 4.1.2 Honshu ............................................................................................. 125 4.1.3 Kyushu ............................................................................................. 126

4.2 Czech Republic ........................................................................................ 127 4.3 Commonwealth oflndependant States ..................................................... 127 4.4 China ........................................................................................................ 132

4.4.1 Qibaoshan, Hunan Province ............................................................. 132 4.4.2 Gejiu District, Yunnan ..................................................................... 133

4.5 Peru, Bolivia ............................................................................................ 133 4.5.1 Cerro de Pasco, Peru ........................................................................ 133

4.6 Asia .......................................................................................................... 134 4.7 India ......................................................................................................... l34 4.8 Austria ...................................................................................................... 135

5 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Indium-Bearing Ore Deposits ....... 141

6 Model of Indium Ore Formation .................................................................. 147 6.1 Tectonic Constraints ................................................................................ 147 6.2 Petrological Constraints ........................................................................... 148 6.3 Mineralogical Constraints ........................................................................ 149 6.4 Precipitation Processes ............................................................................. 150

X Table of Contents

7 Historical and Actual Production of Indium ................................................ I 53 7.1 Indium Production at Toyoha, Hokkaido, Japan ...................................... 156 7.2 Indium Potential in the Bathurst District, New Brunswick, Canada ........ 156 7.3 Indium Potential in Russia ....................................................................... 157

8 Stockpile Situation in Relation to Different Types of Ore Deposits ........... 161

9 Technological Applications and Consumption of Indium by lndustries .................................................................................................... 167

9.1 Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) ......................................................................... 167 9.2 Indium Plating ......................................................................................... 170 9.3 Indium Alloys .......................................................................................... 171 9.4 Indium Compounds .................................................................................. 171 9.5 Indium Recycling and Substitution .......................................................... 172

10 Characteristics of Indium Deposits ............................................................. 175 10.1 Tables ofDeposit Characteristics .......................................................... 175

1 0.1.1 Akenobe, Japan .............................................................................. 175 1 0.1.2 Axial Seamount, Northeast Pacific ................................................. 176 1 0.1.3 Baal Gammon, Australia ................................................................ 176 10.1.4 Bakr-Tau, Bashkirian Republic ...................................................... 176 1 0.1.5 Balcooma, Australia ....................................................................... 177 1 0.1.6 Bingham, USA ............................................................................... 177 10.1.7 Bleiberg-Kreuth, Austria ................................................................ 178 1 0.1.8 Bolivar, Bolivia .............................................................................. 178 1 0.1.9 Broken Hill, Australia .................................................................... 178 1 0.1.1 0 Broken Spur, Mid-Atlantic Ridge ................................................ 179 10.1.11 Brunswick No. 12, Canada ........................................................... l79 10.1.12 Carguaicollu, Bolivia .................................................................... 180 10.1.13 Central District, USA ................................................................... 180 1 0 .1.14 Central Sredna Gora, Bulgaria ..................................................... 181 10.1.15 Cerro de Pasco, Peru .................................................................... 181 10.1.16 Charrier, France ............................................................................ l81 10.1.17 Chorolque, Bolivia ....................................................................... 182 10.1.18 Cinovec, Czech Republic ............................................................. 182 10.1.19 Co Iquiri, Bolivia ........................................................................... 183 10.1.20 Colquechaca, Bolivia ................................................................... 183 10.1.21 Dachang District, China ............................................................... 183 10.1.22 Deputaskoe, Russia ...................................................................... 184 10.1.23 Dlouha Yes, Abertamy, Czech Republic ...................................... 184 10.1.24 Dry River South, Australia ........................................................... 185 10.1.25 East Pacific Rise l2°58'N, Pacific Ocean ..................................... 185 10.1.26 East Pacific Rise, 21 °N, Pacific Ocean ........................................ 185

Table of Contents XI

10.1.27 Equity Silver, Canada ................................................................... 186 10.1.28 Forolach, Austria .......................................................................... 186 10.1.29 Freiberg, Germany ........................................................................ l87 10.1.30 Fukoku, Japan ............................................................................... l87 10.1.31 Gaiskoye, Russia .......................................................................... 187 10.1.32 Gasborn, Sweden .......................................................................... l88 10.1.33 Geco, Canada ............................................................................... 188 10.1.34 Gejiu, China ................................................................................. 188 10.1.35 Goka, Japan .................................................................................. 189 10.1.36 Heath Steele, Canada .................................................................... 189 1 0.1.3 7 Huari-Huari, Bolivia ..................................................................... 190 10.1.38 Ikuno, Japan ................................................................................. 190 10.1.39 Julio Cesar, Spain ......................................................................... 190 10.1.40 Kansay, Kazakhstan ..................................................................... 191 10.1.41 Karamazar, Uzbek and Tadzhik Republics .................................. 191 10.1.42 Katsutoyo, Japan .......................................................................... 192 10.1.43 Kidd Creek, Canada ..................................................................... 192 10.1.44 Kirki (St. Philippe), Greece .......................................................... 192 10.1.45 Kite!', Russia ................................................................................. l93 10.1.46 Komsomolskoye, Russia .............................................................. 193 1 0.1.4 7 Kudryavy Volcano, Kuriles, Russia ............................................. 194 10.1.48 Kuroko, Japan ............................................................................... 194 10.1.49 Kyzyl Espe, Batystau, Akchagyl, Karagayly, Kazakhstan ........... 194 10.1.50 Langban, Sweden ......................................................................... 195 10.1.51 Laochang, China ........................................................................... 195 10.1.52 La Telhaie, France ........................................................................ l96 10.1.53 Southern Lau Basin, Southwest Pacific ........................................ 196 10.1.54 Les Clochettes, France .................................................................. 196 10.1.55 Letneye, Russia ............................................................................ 197 10.1.56 Lifudsin, Russia ............................................................................ 197 10.1.57 Mangabeira, Brazil ....................................................................... 198 10.1.58 Eastern Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea ................................... 198 10.1.59 Maranda J, South Africa ............................................................... 198 10.1.60 Marienberg, Germany ................................................................... 199 10.1.61 McLaughlin, USA ........................................................................ 199 10.1.62 Merapi Volcano, Indonesia .......................................................... 200 10.1.63 Morococha, Peru .......................................................................... 200 10.1.64 Mount Chalmers, Australia .......................................................... 200 10.1.65 Mount Pleasant, Canada ............................................................... 201 10.1.66 Mutnovsky, Russia ....................................................................... 201 10.1.67 Nagyb6rzs6ny, Hungary ............................................................... 202 10.1.68 Neves-Corvo, Portugal ................................................................. 202 10.1.69 Oelsnitz, Germany ........................................................................ 203 10.1.70 Omodani, Japan ............................................................................ 203 10.1. 71 Palinuro Seamount, Italy .............................................................. 203 10.1.72 Panagjuriste, Bulgaria .................................................................. 204

XII Table of Contents

10.1.73 Pirquitas, Argentina ...................................................................... 204 10.1.74 Plavno Zone, Czech Republic ...................................................... 205 10.1.75 Podolskoye, Russia ....................................................................... 205 10.1.76 Pohled, Czech Republic ............................................................... 205 10.1.77 Prasolov, Russia ........................................................................... 206 1 0.1. 78 Pravourmiiskoe, Russia ................................................................ 206 10.1.79 Pribram, Czech Republic .............................................................. 206 10.1.80 Pulacayo, Bolivia ......................................................................... 207 10.1.81 Qibaoshan, China ......................................................................... 207 10.1.82 Rammelsberg, Germany ............................................................... 208 10.1.83 Rosebery, Australia ...................................................................... 208 10.1.84 Saint-Martin-la-Sauvete District, France ...................................... 208 10.1.85 San Luis, Bolivia .......................................................................... 209 10.1.86 San Vicente, Bolivia ..................................................................... 209 10.1.87 Sarykan, Kumyschkan, Kurgashinkan, Kazakhstan ..................... 210 10.1.88 Seto, Japan .................................................................................... 210 10.1.89 Sibaiskoye, Russia ........................................................................ 210 10.1.90 Silver Queen, Canada ................................................................... 211 10.1.91 Snake Pit, Mid-Atlantic Ridge ..................................................... 211 10.1.92 Eastern-Central Sredna Gora, Bulgaria ........................................ 211 10.1.93 St. Agnes, England ....................................................................... 212 10.1.94 St. George, England ..................................................................... 212 10.1.95 Sullivan, Canada ........................................................................... 213 10.1.96 TAG, Mid-Atlantic Ridge ............................................................ 213 10.1.97 Tosham, India ............................................................................... 213 10.1.98 Toyoha, Japan ............................................................................... 214 10.1.99 Turkank, Czech Republic ............................................................. 214 1 0.1.1 00 Ulsan, Korea ............................................................................... 215 10.1.101 Vaulry, France ............................................................................ 215 1 0.1.1 02 Waterloo/ Agincourt, Australia ................................................... 215 10.1.1 03 West Shropshire Orefield, England ............................................ 216 1 0.1.1 04 Zulova, Czech Republic ............................................................. 216

References ......•..........................•..........................................•............................. 219

Subject Index ..................................................................................................... 237