understand the definitions used in …...4) the hypothesis was that eating eggs did not increase...

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STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTINGTRADITIONAL METHOD

UNDERSTAND THE DEFINITIONS USED IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

• Every hypothesis-testing situation begins with the statement of a ____________.• A hypothesis is a tentative, testable ____________ to a scientific question.

• A hypothesis is supposition or proposed _______________ made on the basis of

limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

• A ______________ ________________ is a is a conjecture about a population parameter. This conjecture may or may not be true.

UNDERSTAND THE DEFINITIONS USED IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

• State a hypothesis for the following research questions.

• Who is the best point guard in the National Basketball Association (NBA)?

• What franchise sells the best chicken tenders?

• What factors influence habits of study in high school students?

1. STATE THE NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

• The _______________ hypothesis, symbolized by 𝐻" , is a statistical hypothesis that states that there is no difference between a parameter and a specific value, or that there

is no difference between two parameters.

• The _______________ hypothesis, symbolized by 𝐻# , is a statistical hypothesis that states the existence of a difference between a parameter and a specific value, or states

that there is a difference between two parameters.

• Sidenote: Although the definitions of null and alternative hypotheses given here use the word

parameter, these definitions can be extended to include other terms such as distributions and randomness.

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• A medical researcher is interested in finding out whether a new medication will have any undesirable side effects. The researcher is particularly concerned with the pulse rate of

the patients who take the medication. Will the pulse rate increase, decrease, or remain

unchanged after a patient takes the medication?

• Since the researcher knows that the mean pulse rate for the population under study is

82 beats per minute, the hypotheses for this situation are ______________ and ______________.

• The 𝐻" specifies that the mean will remain unchanged, and the 𝐻# states that it will be

different. This test is called a two-tailed test, since the possible side effects of the medicine could be to raise or lower the pulse rate.

SITUATION A


• A chemist invents an additive to increase the life of an automobile battery.

• If the mean lifetime of the automobile battery without the additive is 36 months, then her hypotheses are ______________ and ______________.

• In this situation, the chemist is interested only in increasing the lifetime of the batteries. That’s why the hypotheses are like that. This test is called right-tailed, since the interest is in an increase only.

SITUATION B


• A contractor wishes to lower heating bills by using a special type of insulation in houses.

• If the average of the monthly heating bills is $78, her hypotheses about heating costs with the use of insulation are______________ and ______________.

• This test is a left-tailed test, since the contractor is interested only in lowering heating costs.

SITUATION C

1. STATE THE NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESISSUMMARY

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1. STATE THE NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS TESTING COMMON PHRASES

1. STATE THE NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESISYOU DO SOME EXAMPLES

a) A researcher thinks that if expectant mothers use vitamin pills, the birth weight of the babies will increase. The average birth weight of the population is 8.6 pounds.

b) An engineer hypothesizes that the mean number of defects can be decreased in a manufacturing process of compact disks by using robots instead of humans for certain tasks. The mean number of defective disks per 1000 is 18.

c) A psychologist feels that playing soft music during a test will change the results of the test. The psychologist is not sure whether the grades will be higher or lower. In the past, the mean of the scores was 73.

2. DESIGN THE STUDYSELECT THE CORRECT STATISTICAL TEST

• A ____________ ___________ uses the data obtained from a sample to make a decision about whether the null hypothesis should be rejected.

• The numerical value obtained from a statistical test is called the _______ _________.

2. DESIGN THE STUDYPOSIBLE OUTCOMES OF HYPOTHESIS TEST

A ______ error occurs if you reject the null hypothesis when it is true.

A ______ error occurs if you do not reject the null hypothesis when it is false.

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2. DESIGN THE STUDYLEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE

• The only way to prove anything statistically is to use the entire population, which, in most cases, is not possible.

• The decision, then, is made on the basis of probabilities. That is, when there is a large difference between the mean obtained from the sample and the hypothesized mean, the null hypothesis is probably not true.

• The question is, How large a difference is necessary to• reject the null hypothesis?

• Here is where the level of significance is used.

2. DESIGN THE STUDYLEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE

• The level of _____________ is the maximum probability of committing a type I error. This probability is symbolized by 𝛼 (greek letter, alpha).

• Statisticians generally agree on using three arbitrary significance levels: • _______• _______• _______

• That is, if the null hypothesis is rejected, the probability of a type I error will be 10%, 5%, or 1%, depending on which level of significance is used.

2. DESIGN THE STUDYCRITICAL VALUES

• The ____________ ____________ separates the critical region from the noncritical region. The symbol for critical value is C.V.

• The ____________ ____________ (also known as the rejection region) is the range of values of the test value that indicates that there is a significant difference and that the null hypothesis should be rejected.

• The ____________ ____________ (also known as the nonrejectionregion) is the range of values of the test value that indicates that the difference was probably due to chance and that the null hypothesis should not be rejected.

2. DESIGN THE STUDYCRITICAL VALUES

• The critical value can be on the right side of the mean or on the left side of the mean for a one-tailed test. Its location depends on the inequality sign of the alternative hypothesis.• For example, in situation B, where the chemist is interested in increasing

the average lifetime of automobile batteries, 𝐻": 𝜇 = 36 and 𝐻#: 𝜇 > 36. The null hypothesis will be rejected only when the sample mean is significantly greater than 36. • Hence, the critical value must be on the right side of the mean.

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2. DESIGN THE STUDYFIND THE CRITICAL VALUES FOR Z TESTS

SITUATION B


SITUATION B


SITUATION C


SITUATION A

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2. DESIGN THE STUDYCHEAT SHEET: FIND THE CRITICAL VALUES FOR Z TESTS

FOR THE COMMON LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANCES

2. DESIGN THE STUDYPRACTICE FINDING CRITICAL VALUES

• Using Table E Appendix C, find the critical value(s) for each situation and draw the appropriate figure, showing the critical region.

a) A left-tailed test with 𝛼 = 0.10

b) A two-tailed test with 𝛼 = 0.02

c) A right-tailed test with 𝛼 = 0.005

THE NEXT THREE STEPS

1) State the hypotheses. Be sure to state both the null and the alternative hypotheses.

2) Design the study. This step includes selecting the correct statistical test, choosing a level of significance, and formulating a plan to carry out the study. The plan should

include information such as the definition of the population, the way the sample will be

selected, and the methods that will be used to collect the data.

3) Conduct the study and collect the data.

4) Evaluate the data. The data should be tabulated in this step, and the statistical test

should be conducted. Finally, decide whether to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.

5) Summarize the results.

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LESSON SUMMARY LET’S PRACTICE ONE MORE TIME

• The Incredible Edible Egg company recently found that eating eggs does not increase a person’s blood serum cholesterol. Five hundred subjects participated in a study that lasted for 2 years. The participants were randomly assigned to either a no-egg group or a moderate-egg group. The blood serum cholesterol levels were checked at the beginning and at the end of the study. Overall, the groups’ levels were not significantly different. The company reminds us that eating eggs is healthy if done in moderation. Many of the previous studies relating eggs and high blood serum cholesterol jumped to improper conclusions.

LET’S PRACTICE ONE MORE TIME

1) The study was prompted by claims that linked foods high in cholesterol to high blood serum cholesterol.

2) The population under study is people in general.

3) A sample of 500 subjects was collected.

4) The hypothesis was that eating eggs did not increase blood serum cholesterol.

5) Blood serum cholesterol levels were collected.

6) Most likely but we are not told which test.

7) The conclusion was that eating a moderate amount of eggs will not significantly increase blood serum cholesterol level.

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Z TEST FOR A MEANTEST MEANS WHEN 𝜎 IS KNOWN, USING THE Z TEST

REMEMBER ME?

• The __________ _____________is the statistic (such as the mean) that is computed from the sample data. T

• The __________ _____________ is the parameter (such as the mean) that you would expect to obtain if the null hypothesis were true—in other words, the hypothesized value.

• The denominator is the __________ _____________ of the statistic being tested (in this case, the standard error of the mean).

Z TEST DON’T FORGET THE FIVE STEPS

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LEARNING BY DOING

• A researcher reports that the average salary of assistant professors is more than $42,000. A sample of 30 assistant professors has a mean salary of $43,260. At 𝛼 = 0.05,

test the claim that assistant professors earn more than $42,000 per year. The standard

deviation of the population is $5230.

LEARNING BY DOING




LEARNING BY DOING




LEARNING BY DOING




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LEARNING BY DOING




LEARNING BY DOING

LEARNING BY DOING




LEARNING BY DOING: ONE MORE

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LEARNING BY DOING: ONE MORECOSTS OF MEN’S ATHLETIC SHOES

• 𝐻(: 𝜇 = $80 and 𝐻-: 𝜇 < $80

• Since, 𝛼 = 0.10 and the test is a left-tailed test, the critical value is 1.28.

• Compute the test value. Since the exercise gives raw data, it is necessary to find the

mean of the data. Using your graphic calculator or excel, the mean is 75.0 and the standard deviation is 19.2.

LEARNING BY DOING: ONE MORECOSTS OF MEN’S ATHLETIC SHOES

• Make the decision. Since the test value, 1.56, falls in the critical region, the decision is to reject the null

hypothesis.

There is enough evidence to support the claim that theaverage cost of men’s athletic shoes is less than $80.

YOU DO NOW!

• The Medical Rehabilitation Education Foundation reports that the average cost of rehabilitation for stroke victims is $24,672. To see if the average cost of rehabilitation is different at a particular hospital, a researcher selects a random sample of 35 stroke victims at the hospital and finds that the average cost of their rehabilitation is $25,226. The standard deviation of the population is $3251. At , 𝛼 = 0.01 , can it be concluded that the

average cost of stroke rehabilitation at a particular hospital is different from $24,672?

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USING THE P-VALUE METHOD

The P-value (or probability value) is the probability of getting a sample statistic (such as the mean) or a more extreme sample statistic in the direction of the alternative hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true.

When you find the z-score and look in the table, the probability you find, that’s the P-value!

Reject the null hypothesis if the value is under the level of significance.

REMEMBER THE Z-SCORE EXERCISES FROM UNIT 3!!!

LET’S EXPLORE AN EXERCISE

• A researcher wishes to test the claim that the average cost of tuition and fees at a four-year public college is greater than $5700. She selects a random sample of 36 four-year

public colleges and finds the mean to be $5950. The population standard deviation is

$659. Is there evidence to support the claim at 𝛼 = 0.05? Use the P-value method.









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YOU TRY ONE MORE!

• A researcher claims that the average wind speed in a certain city is 8 miles per hour. A sample of 32 days has an average wind speed of 8.2 miles per hour. The standard deviation of the population is 0.6 mile per hour. At 𝛼 = 0.05, is there enough evidence to reject the claim? Use the P-value method.

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P-VALUE DECISION MAKING CHEAT SHEET

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𝑡TEST FOR A MEANTEST MEANS WHEN 𝜎 IS UNKNOWN, USING THE 𝑡TEST

REMEMBER ME?

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USI

NG

TH

E 𝑡T

ABL

E

USING THE 𝑡TABLE

YOU TRY IT!

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USING THE 𝑡TABLE

YOU TRY IT!

DON’T FORGET THE FIVE STEPS

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LEARNING BY DOING

• A medical investigation claims that the average number of infections per week at a hospital in southwestern Pennsylvania is 16.3. A random sample of 10 weeks had a mean number of 17.7 infections. The sample standard deviation is 1.8. Is there enough evidence to reject the investigator’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.05?

SCENARIO A

LEARNING BY DOING

• A medical investigation claims that the average number of infections per week at a hospital in southwestern Pennsylvania is 16.3. A random sample of 10 weeks had a mean

number of 17.7 infections. The sample standard deviation is 1.8. Is there enough evidence to reject the investigator’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.05?

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LEARNING BY DOING


LEARNING BY DOING



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LEARNING BY DOING


LEARNING BY DOING



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LEARNING BY DOING

• An educator claims that the average salary of substitute teachers in school districts in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, is less than $60 per day. A random sample of eight

school districts is selected, and the daily salaries (in dollars) are considered. Is there enough evidence to support the educator’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.10? The sample mean is $58.88 and the sample standard deviation is 5.08.

SCENARIO B

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LEARNING BY DOING

• An educator claims that the average salary of substitute teachers in school districts in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, is less than $60 per day. A random sample of eight school districts is selected, and the daily salaries (in dollars) are considered. Is there enough evidence to support the educator’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.10? The sample mean is $58.88 and the sample standard deviation is 5.08.

SCENARIO B

LEARNING BY DOING

• An educator claims that the average salary of substitute teachers in school districts in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, is less than $60 per day. A random sample of eight

school districts is selected, and the daily salaries (in dollars) are considered. Is there enough evidence to support the educator’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.10? The sample mean is $58.88 and the sample standard deviation is 5.08.

SCENARIO B

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THE FREAKING P-VALUES

• The P-values for the t test can be found by using your t-table; however, specific P-values for t tests cannot be obtained from the table since only selected values of a (for example,

0.01, 0.05) are given.

• To find specific P-values for t tests, you would need another table, which is a pain in the… neck!

• Since this is not practical, only intervals can be found for P-values. The following examples show how to use your t-table to determine intervals for P-values for the t test.

YES, I KNOW! J

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EXAMPLES FOR OTHER P-VALUES

Example #1


Example #1

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Figure 8-24


Example #2

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Example #2

LEARNING BY DOING

• A physician claims that joggers’ maximal volume oxygen uptake is greater than the average of all adults. A sample of 15 joggers has a mean of 40.6 milliliters per kilogram

(ml/kg) and a standard deviation of 6 ml/kg. If the average of all adults is 36.7 ml/kg, is there enough evidence to support the physician’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.05?

SCENARIO C

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LEARNING BY DOING

• A physician claims that joggers’ maximal volume oxygen uptake is greater than the average of all adults. A sample of 15 joggers has a mean of 40.6 milliliters per kilogram (ml/kg) and a standard deviation of 6 ml/kg. If the average of all adults is 36.7 ml/kg, is there enough evidence to support the physician’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.05?

SCENARIO C

LEARNING BY DOING



SCENARIO C

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LEARNING BY DOING


SCENARIO C

LEARNING BY DOING



SCENARIO C

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Students sometimes have difficulty deciding whether to use the z test or t test. The rules are the same as those pertaining to confidence intervals.

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DO NOW

• Find your number in the lists posted in the bulletin boards (back wall and main entrance). That’s the number of your seat.

• SILENCE YOUR PHONE and put it in the pocket that has your number in the bulletin board (back wall).

• NO EXCEPTIONS and NO PHONES in backpack. You can assume the risk, but if I see your phone, I will take it and your parents/guardians need to pick it up in the main office.

• No food or drinks (except water) allowed in my room. Finish your food outside before you enter my classroom.

• On your desks you will find a copy of an updated syllabus.

• Fill out this survey: http://bit.ly/2ARzQGe

USING 𝑝-VALUE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTINGP-VALUES USING THE 𝑧- AND 𝑡-TEST

Students sometimes have difficulty deciding whether to use the z test or t test. The rules are the same as those pertaining to confidence intervals.

USING THE P-VALUE METHOD

The 𝑷-value (or probability value) is the probability of getting a sample statistic (such as the mean) or a more extreme sample statistic in the direction of the alternative hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true.

When you find the 𝑧- or 𝑡-score and look in the table, the probability you find, that’s the 𝑃-value! However, specific 𝑃-value for𝑡tests cannot be obtained from the table since only selected values of a (for example, 0.01, 0.05) are given.

To find 𝑃-values for 𝑡 tests, only intervals can be found.

Reject the null hypothesis if the value is under the level of significance.

Switch steps 2 and 3 from the 5-step process for hypothesis testing.

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• A researcher wishes to test the claim that the average cost of tuition and fees at a four-year public college is greater than $5700. She selects a random sample of 36 four-year public colleges and finds the mean to be $5950. The population standard deviation is $659. Is there evidence to support the claim at 𝛼 = 0.05? Use the P-value method.

• Given: Population or Sample Standard Deviation?







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YOU TRY ONE!

• A researcher claims that the average wind speed in a certain city is 8 miles per hour. A sample of 32 days has an average wind speed of 8.2 miles per hour. The standard deviation of the population is 0.6 mile per hour. At 𝛼 = 0.05, is there enough evidence to reject the claim? Use the P-value method.

P-VALUE DECISION MAKING CHEAT SHEET

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LET’S EXPLORE ANOTHER EXERCISE

… BUT FIRST, LET’S SEE HOW TO FIND P-VALUES IN T-TABLES! Figure 8-24


… BUT FIRST, LET’S SEE HOW TO FIND P-VALUES IN T-TABLES!

NOW, LET’S TRY IT

• A physician claims that joggers’ maximal volume oxygen uptake is greater than the average of all adults. A sample of 15 joggers has a mean of 40.6 milliliters per kilogram (ml/kg) and a standard deviation of 6 ml/kg. If the average of all adults is 36.7 ml/kg, is there enough evidence to support the physician’s claim at 𝛼 = 0.05? Use the P-value method.

• Given: Population or Sample Standard Deviation?

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NOW, LET’S TRY IT


NOW, LET’S TRY IT


NOW, LET’S TRY IT


NOW, LET’S TRY IT

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YOU TRY ONE YOU TRY ONE

DO NOW





𝑧 TEST FOR A PROPORTIONTEST PROPORTIONS, USING THE Z TEST

Remember this!

INTRO

• Many hypothesis-testing situations involve proportions.

• These data were obtained from The Book of Odds by Michael D. Shook and Robert L. Shook (New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc.):

• 51% of Americans buy generic products.

• 35% of Americans go out for dinner once a week.

• A hypothesis test involving a population proportion can be considered as a binomial (�̂�and 𝑞&) experiment when there are only two outcomes and the probability of a success does not change from trial to trial.

LEARNING BY DOINGExercise #1

LEARNING BY DOINGExercise #2

TEST YOURSELF!Exercise #3

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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE VS PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCEA QUICK LESSON FOR RELEVANT PURPOSES

TAKE NOTES

https://goo.gl/CE1HTw

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

• Participation in this review counts as a grade. • In order to get credit for this activity, each student must turn in their worksheet completed.

• Team A vs Team B. Each team has a captain.

• The winner team will participate in a drawing for 3 gift cards.

• Get your materials ready!• Pencil

• Calculator• Tables

• Seven exercises will show up in the screen. You do nothing until I ask the questions related to these questions.

• I will be calling one member of each team to go to the board and answer my questions. • If the student does not answer correctly, the other team has a chance to steal the point.

Putting it all together in a Lucky 7 Rumble

PROBLEM #1

• An e-commerce research company claims that 60% or more graduate students have bought merchandise on-line. A consumer group is suspicious of the claim and thinks that the proportion is lower than 60%. A random sample of 80 graduate students show that only 34 students have ever done so. Is there enough evidence to show that the true proportion is lower than 60%?

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PROBLEM #2

• The administrator at your local hospital states that on weekends the average wait time for emergency room visits is 10 minutes. Your family and friends have complained on how long they waited to be seen in the ER over a weekend, so you dispute the administrator's claim. You decide to test you hypothesis. Over the course of a few weekends you record the wait time for 40 randomly selected patients. The average wait time for

these 40 patients is 11 minutes with a standard deviation of 3 minutes. Do you have enough evidence to support your hypothesis that the average ER wait time exceeds 10 minutes? You opt to conduct the test at 𝛼 = 0.05.

PROBLEM #3

• The high school athletic director is asked if football players are doing as well academically as the other student athletes. We know from a previous study that the average GPA for the student athletes is 3.10. After an initiative to help improve the GPA of student athletes, the athletic director randomly samples 20 football players and finds that the average GPA of the sample is 3.18 with a sample standard deviation of 0.54. Is there a significant improvement? Use a 0.05 significance level.

PROBLEM #4

• A farmer is trying out a planting technique that he hopes will increase the yield on his pea plants. The average number of pods on one of his pea plants is 145 pods with a standard deviation of 100 pods. This year, after trying his new planting technique, he takes a random sample of his plants and finds the average number of pods to be 147. He wonders whether or not this is a statistically significant increase. Design a study to help the farmer in his wondering.

PROBLEM #5

• It has been reported that the average credit card debt for college seniors is $3262. The student senate at a large university feels that their seniors do not have such a high debt, so it conducts a study of 50 randomly selected seniors and finds that the average debt is $2995, and the population standard deviation is $1100. Can we support the student senate’s claim using the data collected?

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PROBLEM #6

• The medical Rehabilitation Education Foundation reports that the average cost of rehabilitation for stroke victims is $24,672. To see if the average cost of rehab is different at a particular hospital, a researcher selects a random sample of 35 stroke victims at the hospital

and finds the average cost of their rehab is $25,250. The standard deviation of the population is $3251. Can it be concluded that the

average cost of stroke rehabilitation at a particular hospital is different from $24,672? Use the p-value method and let the audience decide on

the level of significance.

PROBLEM #7

• A certain company would like to determine the amount of time employees waste at work each day. A random sample of 10 of its employees shows a mean time of 121.80 minutes wasted per day with a standard deviation of 9.45 minutes per day. Does the data provide evidence that the mean amount of time wasted by employees each day is more than 120 minutes? Assume the population is at least approximately normally distributed. Use the p-value method and let the audience decide on an alpha.

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DO NOW





TYPE 1 AND II ERRORSHOW TO INTERPRET THEM

ERRORSPOSIBLE OUTCOMES OF HYPOTHESIS TEST

A type I error occurs if you reject the null hypothesis when it is true.

A type II error occurs if you do not reject the null hypothesis when it is false.

LET’S INTERPRET ERRORSSCENARIO #1

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Explain the impact of a Type I error.

Explain the impact of a Type II error.

LET’S INTERPRET ERRORSSCENARIO #2: COST OF SHOES

LET’S INTERPRET ERRORSSCENARIO #2: COST OF SHOES




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LET’S INTERPRET ERRORSSCENARIO #4:

AVERAGE SALARY FOR SUBSTITUTE TEACHERS IS LESS THAN $60 PER DAY

LET’S INTERPRET ERRORSSCENARIO #4:

AVERAGE SALARY FOR SUBSTITUTE TEACHERS IS LESS THAN $60 PER DAY

We cannot reject H0. There is not enough evidence in the sample to conclude the mean salary is less than $60.




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PERFORMANCE TASK

• Go to https://goo.gl/4w2QkZ

• Add a worksheet and put your initials. Then, copy the original worksheet into yours.

• Play with the data based on the topic/claim that you were assigned to.

• Perform a hypothesis testing to the claim.

• Write your findings in https://goo.gl/Uzg32Y

DO NOW

• 1-2: Cholesterol is less that 200.• 3-4: Systolic is under 125.• 5-6: IQ is over 108.• 7-8: Sodium is under 139.• 9-10: Men are smarter.• 11-12: Women are smarter.• 13-14: Men are healthier.• 15-16: Women are healthier.• 17-18: Exercise make you healthier.• 19-20: Exercise make you smarter.• 21-22: Higher ed, higher IQ• 23-24: No smoking make you healthier.• 25-26: Married people has higher sodium.• 27-28: Divorced people has higher cholesterol.

understand the definitions used in …...4) the hypothesis was that eating eggs did not increase...

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