unit 1 ecology and ecosystem1 (1)
TRANSCRIPT
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Unit 1 Ecology and Ecosystem
Environment and its components
Environment- is derived from the french word Environner which means to encircle orsurround. Environment means our surroundings. All the biological and non-biological things
which surrounds an organism are included in environment.
According to Environment (Protection) Act 1986 environment is sum total of water air and
land inter-relationshi! among themselves and also with the human beings other living
organism and !ro!ert".
Types of Environment
#t is of two t"!es
1. Natural Environment- $he natural environmental s"stem o!erates through self
regulating mechanism called homeostatic environment mechanism i.e. an"
change in natural ecos"stem brought about b" natural !rocess is counter
balanced b" changes in other com!onent of the environment.
2. Anthropogenic or Man-made Environment- man is the most !owerful
environmental agent s!earheaded b" modern technologies ca!able of modif"ing
the environment according to his needs to a great e%tent. &an made environment
includes' technolog" trans!ortation industrial revolution dam- building.
Components of Environment
$here are two com!onents of environment
iotic component
A!iotic component
1. iotic com!onent (living com!onent)- the biotic com!onent of environment
consists of flora and fauna including human being as the im!ortant factor. $he
biotic environment includes the living com!onents of the bios!here. or an
organism the biotic factors constitute all the other organisms with which it comes
into regular contact.#f the relationshi! e%ists between organisms of the same s!ecies it is *nown as
intras!ecific relationshi! or intras!ecific association while if it ta*es !lace between
organisms of different s!ecies it is called interes!ecific relationshi! or inters!ecific
association.
+. Abiotic com!onent (non-living com!onent)- includes all non-living factors. $his
includes water air (atmos!here altitude !ressure wind air currents and
humidit") soil tem!erature light to!ogra!h" etc. ,ithos!here h"dros!here and
atmos!here comes under abiotic com!onent.
limatic factors- which include atmos!here light tem!erature humidit" etc.Eda!hic factors- which com!rise lithos!here or soil.
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Lithosphere
Biosphere
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
$o!ogra!hic factors- which consist of altitude direction of mountain chains !lains
la*es rivers sea level and valle"s etc."egments of Environment$here are four segments of atmos!here
1. Atmos!here+. ,ithos!here. /"dros!here0. ios!here
All four segments are interconnected to each other. Above schematic shows the
interrelationshi! between all the four segments of environment. $he circle re!resents the
s!here and arrows the flow !athwa"s of matter. &atter ma" flow from one segment to
another in both directions the matter ma" also flow within a given com!artment from
!h"sical location to another without leaving the s!here.
1. Atmosphere- the blan*et of air that surrounds earth is *nown as the
atmos!here. r
$he cover of air that envelo!es the earth is *nown as the atmos!here.
Atmos!here consists of man" gases. $he com!osition of earth2s atmos!here is shown in
following table
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3. 4o. 5as elative !ercentage
1 4itrogen 78.8
+ %"gen +.9
Argon .9
0 arbon :io%ide . 4eon .18
6 /elium .+
7 ðane .1
8 ;r"!ton .1
9 /"drogen .
1 4itrous o%ide .
11
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• $owards the u!!er levels of tro!os!here the tem!erature decreases u!to
-6. o.
• At the u!!er edge of the tro!os!here is a narrow transition =one *nown as
Tropopause.
2. "tratosphere- above the tro!os!here is the stratos!here.
$his la"er e%tends from an average altitude of 11 to *ilometers above the
earth2s surface.
$his stratos!here contains about 19.9> of the total mass found in the
atmos!here.
• #n the first 9 *ilometers of the stratos!here tem!erature remains constant
with height. A =one with constant tem!erature in the atmos!here is called an
isothermal layer .
• rom an altitude of + to *ms tem!erature increases with an increase in
altitude. $he higher tem!erature is found in this region because of a locali=ed
concentration of o=one gas molecules. $hese molecules absorb ultraviolet
radiations creating heat energ" that warms the stratos!here. $his la"er of
o=one is called o%one layer .
• =one is formed from o%"gen b" a !hotochemical reaction in which energ"
from the sun decom!oses the o%"gen molecule into reactive atomic o%"gen.
• $his o=one la"er !rotects organisms at the earth2s atmos!here from
ultraviolet radiation. ?ithout the o=one la"er life could not e%ist on the earth2s
surface.
Above the stratos!here is a narrow transition =one called strato!ause.
. Mesosphere-
• $his la"er ranges between an altitude of to 8 *ilometers.
• Atmos!here reaches its coldest tem!erature (-9o) at a height of
a!!ro%imatel" 8 *ms from earth surface.
• #t is the la"er where most of the meteors burn u!.
• At the to! of mesos!here is another transition =one called &eso!ause.
&. Thermosphere or 'onosphere
• $his la"er of atmos!here ranges from 8 *ms to *ms above the earth
surface.
• $em!erature increases with height in thermos!here and reaches u!to 1+o.
• #onos!here contains electricall" charged !articles called ions. #t consists of
ioni=ed gaseous com!onents such as +@@ 4@.
• $hese !articles reflect radio waves bac* to the earth surface thus enables us
to have wireless communication.
(. E)osphere
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20
Altitude (Km
!emper"ture(o#
!roposphere
!ropop"use
$tr"tosphere
$tr"top"use
%esosphere
%esop"use
!hermosphere
• $his is the u!!ermost la"er. $his region is also called the outer s!ace.
• $his la"er is e%tended to an altitude of 16 *ms.
• #t contains /@ and /e@@ and has ver" high tem!eratures due to solar
radiations.
2. #ithosphere-
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.+ > as soil moisture.+.> as 3wam! and marshes..06> as ivers.++> iological water
.++> as atmos!heric water.
&. iosphere-
• $his term was first used b" Eduard 3uess.
• #t is com!osed of all living organisms. Plants animals and one celled organisms
are all !art of the bios!here.
• $he life is found from three meters below the ground to thirt" meters above it and in
the to! + meters of the oceans and seas.
• ,iving things form ecological communities based on the !h"sical surroundings of
an area. $hese communities are referred to as biomes. E%am!les of biomes aredeserts grasslands etc.
• #t occu!ies the least volume of all the s!heres but ma%imum flow of matter ta*es
!lace in this segment.
• $he bios!here is res!onsible for the grand scale rec"cling of energ" and matter on
earth.
• Ecos"stems o!erate in this !art of the earth.
Environmental Education
$he s"stematic stud" of environment and our interaction with it is *nown as environmental
science.
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Li&e $*ie*eB"si* $*i e*eeee*ee*e
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'*oomi*s$o*i"l issues
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Environmental science is multidisci!linar" in nature. #t deals with all as!ects of life that is
related to us in an" wa". #t is not a single subBect but it has the characteristics of various
disci!lines of life science (botan" =oolog" biochemistr" microbiolog" biotechnolog" and
genetics). #t also interacts with basic science (!h"sics chemistr" mathematics) and some
as!ects of life such as economics management religion laws and social issues.
Environmental science incor!orates information and ideas from multi!le disci!lines. "
combining as!ects of the natural sciences social sciences and the humanities the field of
environmental science can cover more conce!ts and also e%amine !roblems and to!ics from
man" different !oints of view.
Environmental education is the education through environment about the environment
and for the environment. Environmental education has long been defined to include three
critical com!onents' awareness leading to understanding which in turn creates the !otential
and ca!acit" for a!!ro!riate actions. Environmental education includes'
• :evelo!ing !ersonal awareness of the environment and one2s connections to
it.
• :evelo!ing an understanding of environmental conce!ts and *nowledge of
ecological scientific social !olitical and economic s"stems.
•
$he ca!acit" to act res!onsibl" u!on what a !erson feels and *nows in orderto im!lement the best solutions to environmental !roblems.
,!ectives of Environmental Education$he world2s first #nter-governmental onference on Environmental Education was
held in $bilisi 5eorgia. &ost environmental educators have since universall"
ado!ted these obBectives.
• Awareness and sensitivit" about the environment and environmental
challenges.
• ;nowledge and understanding about the environment and environmental
challenges.
• Attitude concern for the environment and hel! to maintain environmentalualit".
')iromet"l
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• 3*ills to mitigate the environmental !roblems.
• Partici!ation for e%ercising e%isting *nowledge and environmental related
!rograms.
'mportance of Environmental Education
Environmental education hel!s in econom" and welfare of human societ".
• #t hel!s us in solving the different issues li*e !ollution measures over
e%!loitation of natural resources food !roblems and sustainable
develo!ment.
• Environmental education hel! hel!s us in finding wa"s to maintain ecological
balance.
• As the industriali=ation is increasing and new technologies are growing to
conserve and !rotect the environment we need ecofriendl" !roduct and
methods it can be achieved onl" through !ro!er *nowledge of environment.
• Environmental education trains us to conserve our fast de!leting natural
resources.
• #t hel!s to understand different food chains and the ecological balance in
nature.
• #t hel!s in encouraging environmental !rotection inculcating attitude and
values and understanding of inter-de!endence of nature and man.
"cope of Environmental Education
• 4atural esources- their conservation and management
•
Ecolog"• iodiversit" and its conservation
• Environmental !ollution and control
• 4atural disasters
• :evelo!ment
• 3ocial issues in relation to develo!ment and environment
• /uman !o!ulation and environment
Ecology and Ecosystem
Ecology- deals with the stud" of relationshi! between organisms and between the organism
and the environment is *nown as ecolog".
Ecosystem- $he term ecos"stem was !ro!osed b" A.5. $ansle" in 19.
#t includes a grou! of biotic communities of s!ecies interacting with one another in an area
and their surroundings in which the" interact with each other and e%change energ" and
matter.
or
Ecos"stem is a d"namic entit" com!osed of a biological communit" and its associated
abiotic environment.
$he !art of the earth where these ecos"stems o!erate is called the iosphere.
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Autotroph Her.i)ore #"ri)ore !op #"ri)ore /e*omposers
"tructure of an ecosystem
Ecos"stem
Abiotic om!onent iotic om!onent
limatic Eda!hic Producers onsumers :ecom!osers
Primar"
3econdar"
$ertiar"
$he functional unit of the ecos"stem consists of two distinct structural com!onents or factors
namel" biotic and abiotic com!onents.
Abiotic com!onents or non-living environmental factors are
limatic factors- it is the weather characteristic of a given !lace which de!ends on
various factors li*e tem!erature light humidit" wind velocit" and atmos!heric gases
etc.
Eda!hic factors- it includes chemical and !h"sical characteristics of the soil.
$he !iotic component of an ecos"stem consists of all living com!onents of the environment
such as !lants animals human beings and microbes. All living organisms of our
environment can be further categori=ed de!ending on their self- food !roducing ca!abilit".
$he" can be categori=ed as autotro!hic com!onent or !roducers and heterotro!hic
com!onent or consumers.
Producer Primar" consumer 3econdar" consumer $ertiar" consumer
Autotro!hic com!onent or Producer- includes all those organisms li*e green !lants
bacteria and algae which contain chloro!h"ll and are ca!able of converting solar
energ" into chemical energ" and storing foodstuff in the !resence of + and /+.6+@ 6/+ 6/1+6@6+
/eterotro!hic com!onent or consumer- organisms which cannot convert solar
energ" into food and de!end on autotro!hs to obtain their energ" for survival are
called consumers or heterotro!hs. /eterotro!hs utili=e rearrange and decom!ose
the com!le% material !roduced b" autotro!hs. :e!ending u!on their feeding habits
the heterotro!hs are classified as follows'
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Primar" consumers- organisms or animals which feed on green !lants to obtain
energ" for survival are called !rimar" consumers or herbivores. E%am!le cows goat.
3econdar" consumers- animals which feed on herbivores are *nown as secondar"
consumers. E%am!le frog li=ards.
$ertiar" consumers- are those that eat the flesh of secondar" consumers. E%am!le
tiger lion vultures. 3ince the" are not *illed and eaten b" other animals the" are
*nown as to! carnivores.
:ecom!osers or sa!ro!h"tes- Plants and animals su!!l" organic matter to the soil
s"stem though shed tissues and death. onsumer organisms that feed on this
organic matter are *nown as decom!osers. :ecom!osers !la" the vital role of
releasing essential materials from the dead organic matter or the !lant therb"
maintaining a continuous c"cle of materials.
$"!es of ecos"stem
Natural EcosystemMarine ecosystem- all the saline water reservoirs on earth such as the seas
oceans and estuaries with their characteristic biome form the marine ecos"stem.resh/ater ecosystem- !onds strems rives and la*es along with their flora and
fauna form the freshwater ecos"stem.Terrestrial ecosystem- it includes desert ecos"stem grassland ecos"stem tree
ecos"stem cro! fields forest ecos"stem and so on.
Man- engineered Ecosystem-
Agriculture and auaculture s"stems are man-engineered ecos"stems. $hese ecos"stems
have all the essential com!onents such as !roducers consumers decom!osers and abiotic
materials. $his is a monoculture s"stem as a single cro! is grown.
4atural ecos"stems are !ol"cultural s"stems and therefore the" are more stable com!ared
to man-made ecos"stems which are fragile and highl" !roductive and generate lots of
!ollutants.
ood chain Cis the seuence of who eats whom in a biological communit" to obtain
nutrients.
or
$he seuential inter-lin*ing of organisms involving the transfer of food energ" from the
!roducers through a series of organisms with re!eated eating and being eaten is referred to
as the food chain. A food chain is alwa"s straight and !roceeds in a !rogressive straight line.
$"!es of food chain
1. 0ra%ing food chain- it starts from green !lants and goes from herbivores to
carnivores and so on. E%am!le
5rass #nsects rog 3na*e Eagle
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2. etritus food chain- the dead organic matter of !lant and animal is called
detritus. &an" animals such as !roto=oas nematodes insects etc. eat detritus
hence the" are called deterivores. $he chain !roceeds to :etritus :eterivores
arnivores and $o! arnivores.
:etritus :eterivores arnivores $o! arnivores
*. arasitic food chain- the" also start from green !lants and then herbivores then
!roceeds to !arasites and finall" h"!er!arasites. $he" !rocess from larger to
smaller organisms.5reen Plants /erbivores Parasites /"!er!arasites
ood 3e!- is a networ* of food chains which become interconnected at various tro!hiclevels so as to form a number of feeding connections amongst different organisms of a biotic
communit". $hese are never straight.
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Energ" and nutrient flow in an ecos"stem
oth energ" and nutrients are !assed along a food chain. ?hile energ" is eventuall" lost to
heat nutrients are constantl" being rec"cled.
3unlight is converted into energ" as glucose b" a !rocess called !hotos"nthesis and stored
in !lants. As first level consumers eat !lants this stored energ" is transferred through
carbon-carbon bonds which release energ" when the" are bro*en. :uring res!iration the
bonds are bro*en and carbon combines with o%"gen to form carbon dio%ide. $he energ" that
is released is used b" the organism or is lost as heat. Dltimatel" all energ" in a food chain
returns to the s"stem as heat. n an average about 1> of net energ" !roduction at one
tro!hic level is !assed on to the ne%t level. Processes that reduce the energ" transferred
between tro!hic levels include res!iration growth and re!roduction defection and non-
!redator" death.
!lant -- eaten b" animal -- carboh"drates digested into glucose -- res!iration -- energ"
for cell !rocesses
3ome of the carboh"drates digested into glucose will be converted into other substances
such as fats.
$he other com!onent that travels through a food chain is inorganic nutrients which do not
contain carbon-carbon bonding. $hese include !hos!horous cellular membranes nitrogen
and iron. $he movement of these substances comes from an inorganic nutrient !ool usuall"
the soil or water surrounding !lants or algae. $he" are absorbed b" the !lants and !assed
from organism to organism as the" are consumed. ?hen the organism dies the nutrientsare rec"cled as the" are decom!osed and become available for !lants as the c"cle
continues.
Energ" flow is unidirectional whereas nutrient flow is c"clic.
Ecological pyramid- an ecological !"ramid ma" be defined as gra!hical re!resentation of
tro!hic structure and function of an ecos"stem i.e. these are the gra!hical re!resentation of
the numbers or biomass or status of accumulated energ" at different tro!hic levels in a food
chain in an ecos"stem. Ecological !"ramids begin with !roducers on the bottom (such as
!lants) and !roceed through the various tro!hic levels (such as herbivores that eat !lants
then carnivores that eat herbivores then carnivores that eat those carnivores and so on).$he" can be u!right and inverted.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autograph
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Lio
!ree
Hyperp"r"sites
"r"sites
Birds
$hese are of three t"!es-
1. P"ramid of number- is a gra!hical re!resentation showing the arrangement of
number of individuals !er unit area at different tro!hic level of a food chain in an
ecos"stem. #t can be u!right or inverted. An auatic ecos"stem is an e%am!le of
u!right !"ramid where the number of organisms becomes fewer and fewer higher u!
in the !"ramid. An inverted !"ramid of numbers is one where the number of
organisms de!ending on the lower levels grows closer toward the a!e%. A !arasitic
food chain is an e%am!le.
D!right !"ramid of number E%am!le- grassland ecos"stem
#nverted !"ramid of number E%am!le- $ree ecos"stem
2. P"ramid of biomass- is a gra!hical re!resentation of biomass (total amount of living
or organic matter in an ecos"stem at an" time) !resent !er unit area in different
tro!hic levels. #t can be u!right or inverted. An u!right !"ramid is one where the
combined weight of !roducers is larger than the combined weight of consumers. Ane%am!le is a forest ecos"stem. An inverted !"ramid is one where the combined
abbit
o%
5rass
Birds
"r"sites
Hyperp"r"sitesHyperp"r"sites
"r"sites
Birds
!ree
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Lio
hytopl"tos
Bi+ sh
$m"ll shes
oopl"tos
Lio
weight of !roducers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers. An e%am!le
is an auatic ecos"stem.
D!right !"ramid of biomass
E%am!le- orest ecos"stem
#nverted !"ramid of biomassE%am!le- Pond ecos"stem
*. P"ramid of energ"- is a gra!hical re!resentation of amount of energ" !er unit area
!er unit time at different tro!hic levels of a food chain. $his !"ramid is alwa"s u!right
as there is gradual decrease in energ" at successive tro!hic levels.
P"ramid of energ"E%am!le- orest ecos"stem
iogeochemical cycle- the circulation of chemical nutrients li*e carbon o%"gen nitrogen
!hos!horus calcium and water etc. through the biological and !h"sical world are *nown as
biogeochemical c"cles. #n effect the element is rec"cled although in some c"cles there ma"
be !laces (calledreservoirs
) where the element is accumulated or held for a long !eriod oftime.
r
#t is a !athwa" b" which a chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic
(bios!here) and abiotic (lithos!here atmos!here and h"dros!here) com!artments of earth.
A c"cle is a series of change which comes bac* to the starting !oint and which can be
re!eated.
$he term FbiogeochemicalG tells us that biological geological and chemical factors are all
involved.
:eer
o%
$rees herbs shrubs
Birds
"r"sites
Hyperp"r"sitesHyperp"r"sites
:eer
o%
$rees herbs shrubs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
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1. Car!on Cycle
arbon is an element. #t is !art of oceansair roc*s soil and all living things. arbon doesn2tsta" in one !lace.
• Car!on moves from the atmosphere to plants.
#n the atmos!here carbon is attached to o%"gen in a gas called carbondio%ide (+). ?ith the hel! of the 3un through the !rocess of !hotos"nthesiscarbon dio%ide is !ulled from the air to ma*e !lant food from carbon.
• Car!on moves from plants to animals.
$hrough food chains the carbon that is in !lants moves to the animals that eat them. Animals that eat other animals get the carbon from their food too.
• Car!on moves from plants and animals to the ground.
?hen !lants and animals die their bodies wood and leaves deca" bringing thecarbon into the ground. 3ome become buried miles underground and will becomefossil fuels in millions and millions of "ears.
+. Nitrogen cycle
http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/periodic_table.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/periodic_table.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/ocean.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/overview.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/overview.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/rocks_intro.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/rocks_intro.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/life.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/life.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/chemistry/carbon_dioxide.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/chemistry/carbon_dioxide.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/plantae.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/animalia.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/periodic_table.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/ocean.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/overview.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/rocks_intro.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/life.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/chemistry/carbon_dioxide.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/chemistry/carbon_dioxide.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/plantae.htmlhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/animalia.html
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$he nitrogen c"cle is the !rocess b" which nitrogen is converted between its various
chemical forms. $his transformation can be carried out through both biological and !h"sical
!rocesses.
#m!ortant !rocesses in the nitrogen c"cle include fi%ation ammonification nitrification and denitrification.
• 4itrogen is inert and cannot be directl" utili=ed b" most of the living organisms. $he
conversion of nitrogen (4+) from the atmos!here into a form readil" available to
!lants and hence to animals is an im!ortant ste! in the nitrogen c"cle which
distributes the su!!l" of this essential nutrient.
• $he elemental nitrogen is converted into usable forms b" the !rocess of nitrogen
fi%ation and added to the soil.
• 4itrogen fi%ation is !ossible b" the activit" of lightening and nitrogen fi%ing bacteria.
• Plants obtain their nitrogen su!!l" from the soil and convert them into essential
biomolecules. Animals obtain their nitrogen reuirements from !lants.
• After the death of !lants and animals nitrogen com!ounds again reach to the soil.
• $he nitrogenous organic com!ounds in the soil undergo microbial decom!osition b"
the !rocess of ammonification and nitrification.
• $he com!ounds are again absorbed b" the !lant root or get converted into free
nitrogen through denitrification !rocess.
• $he conversion of ammonia to nitrites is !erformed b" nitrosomonas bacteria. ?hile
other bacterial s!ecies such as nitrobacter are res!onsible for the o%idation of
nitrites into nitrates.
• 4itrates are reduced bac* to nitrogen gas b" the !rocess of denitrification. $his
!rocess is !erformed b" bacterial s!ecies such as !seudomonas.
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3ater cycle
• ?ater from the trans!iring !lants oceans rivers and la*es eva!orates into theatmos!here.
• $hese water va!ours cool and condense to form clouds and water.
• ?ater !reci!itates bac* as rain and snow to the earth.
,)ygen cycle
• $he o%"gen c"cle is the c"cle that hel!s move o%"gen through the three main regions
of the Earth the Atmos!here the ios!here and the ,ithos!here.
• $he Atmos!here is the region of gases that lies above the Earth2s surface and it is
one of the largest reservoirs of free o%"gen on earth.
• $he ios!here is the sum of all the Earth2s ecos"stems. $his also has some free
o%"gen !roduced from !hotos"nthesis and other life !rocesses.
• #n the bios!here the main c"cles are res!iration and !hotos"nthesis. es!iration is
when animals and humans breathe consuming o%"gen to be used in metabolic
!rocess and e%haling carbon dio%ide. Photos"nthesis is the reverse of this !rocess
and is mainl" done b" !lants and !lan*ton.
• $he largest reservoir of o%"gen is the lithos!here. &ost of this o%"gen is not on its
own or free moving but !art of chemical com!ounds such as silicates and o%ides.
&ost of the time the !rocess is automatic all it ta*es is a !ure form of an element
coming in contact with o%"gen such as what ha!!ens when iron rusts. A !ortion of
o%"gen is freed b" chemical weathering. ?hen a o%"gen bearing mineral is e%!osed
to the elements a chemical reaction occurs that wears it down and in the !rocess
!roduces free o%"gen.
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UNCE 4$he United Nations Conference on Environment and evelopment 15627-
$he 197+ D4 3toc*holm onference focused international attention on environmental
issues es!eciall" those relating to environmental degradation and Htransboundar" !ollution.H
$he last conce!t was !articularl" im!ortant as it highlighted the fact that !ollution does not
recogni=e !olitical or geogra!hical boundaries but affects countries regions and !eo!le
be"ond its !oint of origin. ver the decades following 3toc*holm this conce!t was
broadened to encom!ass environmental issues that are trul" transnational in sco!e
reuiring concerted action b" all countries and all regions of the world in a universal manner
in order to deal with them effectivel". 3uch im!ortant global environmental !roblems includefor e%am!le all *inds of !ollution climate change the de!letion of the o=one la"er the use
and management of oceans and fresh water resources e%cessive deforestation
desertification and land degradation ha=ardous waste and de!leting biological diversit".
#n the "ears that followed it also came to be recogni=ed that regional or local environmental
!roblems such as e%tensive urbani=ation deforestation desertification and general natural
resource scarcit" can s!read to !ose serious re!ercussions for broader international
securit". or e%am!le the" undermine the economic base and social fabric of wea* and
!oor countries generate or e%acerbate social tensions and conflicts and stimulate greater
flows of refugees. Environmental degradation in diverse !arts of the develo!ing as well asthe develo!ed world can in this wa" affect the !olitical economic and social interests of the
world as a whole.
Earth "ummit 415527- $he United Nations Conference on Environment and
evelopment (UNCE) also *nown as the $io "ummit $io Conference and Earth
"ummit was a maBor Dnited 4ations conference held in io de Ianeiro from Iune to 10
Iune 199+.
3ome 17+ countries were re!resented at io 18 b" their head of state or government. $his
made the Earth 3ummit the largest gathering of state leaders in histor". #n addition some+0 re!resentatives of 45s were !resent and about 17 !eo!le attended a !arallel
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45 J5lobal orum2. Almost 1 on-site Bournalists hel!ed to conve" the 3ummit2s
message around the world. ?ith the involvement of about !eo!le in total the Earth
3ummit was the largest environmental conference ever held.
$he Earth 3ummit resulted in two international agreements two statements of !rinci!lesand an action agenda on worldwide sustainable develo!ment'
• $he onvention on iological :iversit"
• $he ramewor* onvention on limate hange ()
• $he Princi!les for the 3ustainable &anagement of orests
• $he io :eclaration on Environment and :evelo!ment Agenda +1 (the D42s
!rogramme of action from io).
3ignificance' $he io Earth 3ummit was im!ortant in at least three res!ects. $he Earth
3ummit was the first global conference to ta*e !lace in a conte%t of mass activism and
heightened 45 involvement.
$he Earth 3ummit !re!ared the wa" for other larger conferences such as the 199 eiBing
ourth ?orld onference on ?omen which involved 189 governments and some +1
45s. $he second develo!ment was that io !rovided a tem!late for future activist
struggles ensuring that from then onwards maBor conferences and international summits
would be accom!anied b" demonstrations.
$io829 429127- #n +1+ the Dnited 4ations onference on 3ustainable :evelo!ment was
also held in io and is also commonl" called io@+ or io Earth 3ummit +1+. #t too*
!lace in ra=il on +-++ Iune +1+ to mar* the +th anniversar" of the 199+ Dnited 4ations
onference on Environment and :evelo!ment (D4E:) in io de Ianeiro and the 1th
anniversar" of the ++ ?orld 3ummit on 3ustainable :evelo!ment (?33:) in
Iohannesburg.
$he io@+ onference was envisaged as a onference at the highest !ossible level
including /eads of 3tate and 5overnment or other re!resentatives. At the io@+
onference world leaders along with thousands of !artici!ants from governments the
!rivate sector 45s and other grou!s came together to sha!e how we can reduce !overt"
advance social euit" and ensure environmental !rotection on an ever more crowded !lanet
to get to the future we want.
$he onference focus was on two themes' (a) a green econom" in the conte%t of
sustainable develo!ment !overt" eradicationK and (b) the institutional framewor* for
sustainable develo!ment.
$he io@+ have highlighted seven areas which need !riorit" attentionK these include decent
Bobs energ" sustainable cities food securit" and sustainable agriculture water oceans and
disaster readiness.
UNCC-$he United Nations rame/or: Convention on Climate
Change (UNCCC or CCC) is an international environmental treat" negotiated at the
Dnited 4ations onference on Environment and :evelo!ment (D4E:) informall" *nownas the Earth 3ummit held in io de Ianeiro from Iune to 10 199+. $he obBective of the
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treat" is to Hstabili=e greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmos!here at a level that would
!revent dangerous anthro!ogenic interference with the climate s"stem.
$he treat" itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries
and contains no enforcement mechanisms. #nstead the treat" !rovides a framewor* for
negotiating s!ecific international treaties (called H!rotocolsH) that ma" set binding limits on
greenhouse gases.
$he D4 was o!ened for signature on &a" 9 199+ after an #ntergovernmental
4egotiating ommittee !roduced the te%t of the ramewor* onvention as a re!ort following
its meeting in 4ew Lor* from A!ril to &a" 9 199+. #t entered into force on &arch +1
1990. As of &a" +11 D4 has 190 !arties.
$he !arties to the convention have met annuall" from 199 in onferences of the Parties
(P) to assess !rogress in dealing with climate change. #n 1997 the ;"oto Protocol wasconcluded and established legall" binding obligations for develo!ed countries to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions.
ne of the first tas*s set b" the D4 was for signator" nations to establish national
greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas (5/5) emissions and removals.
C- $he Convention on iological iversity (:) entered into force on +9 :ecember
199. $he EarthMs biological resources are vital to humanit"Ms economic and social
develo!ment. As a result there is a growing recognition that biological diversit" is a global
asset of tremendous value to !resent and future generations. At the same time the threat to
s!ecies and ecos"stems has never been so great as it is toda". 3!ecies e%tinction caused
b" human activities continues at an alarming rate.
#n res!onse the Dnited 4ations Environment Programme (D4EP) convened the Ad /oc
?or*ing 5rou! of E%!erts on iological :iversit" in 4ovember 1988 to e%!lore the need for
an international convention on biological diversit". 3oon after in &a" 1989 it established the
Ad /oc ?or*ing 5rou! of $echnical and ,egal E%!erts to !re!are an international legal
instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversit". $he e%!erts were
to ta*e into account Hthe need to share costs and benefits between develo!ed anddevelo!ing countriesH as well as Hwa"s and means to su!!ort innovation b" local !eo!leH.
" ebruar" 1991 the Ad /oc ?or*ing 5rou! had become *nown as the #ntergovernmental
4egotiating ommittee. #ts wor* culminated on ++ &a" 199+ with the 4airobi onference for
the Ado!tion of the Agreed $e%t of the onvention on iological :iversit". $he onvention
was o!ened for signature on Iune 199+ at the Dnited 4ations onference on Environment
and :evelo!ment (the io HEarth 3ummitH). #t remained o!en for signature until 0 Iune
199 b" which time it had received 168 signatures. $he onvention entered into force on +9
:ecember 199 which was 9 da"s after the th ratification.
$he first session of the onference of the Parties was scheduled for +8 4ovember C 9
:ecember 1990 in the ahamas.
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$he onvention on iological :iversit" was ins!ired b" the world communit"Ms growing
commitment to sustainable develo!ment. #t re!resents a dramatic ste! forward in the
conservation of biological diversit" the sustainable use of its com!onents and the fair and
euitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
#t has main obBectives'1. $he conservation of biological diversit"
+. $he sustainable use of the com!onents of biological diversit"
. $he fair and euitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utili=ation of genetic
resources