unit 1 introductory categories and concepts (1)
TRANSCRIPT
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Unit 1
Introductory concepts and categories (I)
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Outline• Types of grammatical units– Sentence– Clause– Phrase/Group– Word– Morpheme
• Words– Definition– Classes – The structure of words: Morphology
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Types of grammatical unitssentence
clause
phrase/group
word
morpheme
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Types of grammatical units• Sentence – grammatical unit consisting of one or more
clauses• Clause – grammatical unit consisting of one or more
phrases• Phrase – grammatical unit consisting of one or more
words• Word – grammatical unit consisting of one or more
morphemes
• Morphemes – grammatical units as parts of words (stems, prefixes, suffixes)
SYNTAX
MORPHOLOGY
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Types of grammatical units• Three criteria used to describe grammatical units:– Structure: the elements a grammatical unit is made of
(words in terms of bases and affixes; phrases in terms of heads and modifiers, etc.)
– Syntactic role: the syntactic function that the grammatical unit performs
– Meaning: the type of information expressed by the grammatical unit (adverbs, for ex., express information about time, place and manner)
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Words: Definition• Word: basic element of language or minimal free form (free-
standing & mobile)• Different senses of the word “word”:– Orthographic words: words in written language separated
by spaces. Ex.: They wrote us a letter (5 orth. words)– Grammatical words: words may belong to one
grammatical word class. Ex.: orth. word leaves may be either of two gram. words: a verb (3rd person singular form of verb leave) or a noun (plural form of noun leaf)
– Lexeme: set of gram. words sharing the same basic meaning, similar form and same word class. Ex.: leave, leaves, left and leaving are all members of the verb lex. leave
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Words: Classes• Words classified according to main function and grammatical
behaviour– Lexical words (also called open class/content words): nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs• carry information in a text/speech act• normally complex internal structure• stressed in speech
– Function words (also called closed class/grammatical words): prepositions, coordinators, auxiliary verbs and pronouns• Indicate meaning relationships
– Inserts (spoken language): oh, ah, wow, yeah, hm, uh-huh• carry emotional & discoursal meaning• don’t form part of syntactic structure (inserted freely in text)
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Lexical words• Nouns (common & proper). Characteristics:– Morphological (structure): 1) inflect for plural number &
genitive case (HOWEVER many nouns uncountable and don’t have plural forms); 2) often contain more than one morpheme (ex.: bombshell, singer)
– Syntactic: can occur as head of nominal group being pre- and post-modified. Ex.: The beautiful woman lying on the sand
– Semantic (meaning): commonly refer to concrete physical entities (people, objects, substances), although they can also denote abstract entities (feelings, emotions, ideas)
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Lexical words• Lexical Verbs. Characteristics:– Morphological: have different forms signalling tense,
aspect & voice– Syntactic: occur normally on their own acting as central
part of the clause/also occur in final or main verb position of verbal groups
– Semantic: denote actions, processes and states of affairs
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Lexical words• Adjectives. Characteristics:– Morphological: many take inflexional suffixes
(-er/-est)/they can be complex in morphology (acceptable, forgetful, influential)
– Syntactic: occur as the head of adjectival group used as modifiers preceeding head of nominal group
– Semantic: describe qualities of people, things & abstractions/ many are gradable
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Lexical words• Adverbs. Characteristics:– Morphological: many formed from adjectives adding –ly
(clearly, eagerly), others have no such ending (however, just)
– Syntactic: occur as head of adverbial groups often used as modifiers of adjective or verb
– Semantic: most often express degree of a following adjective/adverb (totally wrong/right now)
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Function words• Determiners: usually precede nouns and are used to clarify
the meaning of the noun (definite, indefinite article; demonstrative det.; possessive det.; quantifiers)
• Pronouns: fill the position of a noun or a whole noun phrase (personal, demonstrative, reflexive, reciprocal, possessive, indefinite, relative, interrogative)
• Auxiliary verbs: precede the main or lexical verb in a verb phrase (primary (be, have, do) & modal (will, can, shall, may, must, would, could, should, might))
• Prepositions: linking words introducing prepositional groups/most are short & invariable but can also be complex
• Coordinators & subordinators: indicate a relationship between two units (and, or, but/because, since)
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Inserts• Mainly in spoken language• Marked off by break in intonation or speech and by
punctuation mark in writing (Well, we made it)• Used to express speaker’s emotional response to situation:
Wow! That’s awesome!/ Oh! I didn’t know it• Used to signal a response to what has just been said: Yeah, I
will/Hm hm, very good
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The structure of words: Morphology
• Lexical words may be made of a single morpheme (stem) or have a more complex structure by means of inflexion, derivation & compounding– Inflexion: lexical words take inflexional suffixes to signal
meanings & roles important to their word class (plural for nouns or past tense for verbs)• Other classes of words are generally invariable
(prepositions, conjunctions, & determiners)
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The structure of words: morphology
– Derivation usually involves adding an affix (morpheme attached to the beginning – prefix – or to the end – suffix – of a word)• Different from inflexion because it changes the identity
of a word and creates new nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs• It changes the meaning of a word or the class of a word
and creates a new base form for the word (prefixes: ex+president, un+kind; suffixes: boy+hood, central+ize)
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The structure of words: Morphology
– Compounding is a form of derivation where a word contains more than one stem (Noun+noun (chair+man); Verb+noun (cook+book); Adjective+noun (blue+bird); Noun+adjective (water+tight))• Three tests to check if the word is a compound:– The word will be spelt as a single word (no spaces)– The word will be pronounced with the main stress
on first element– The word will have a meaning not determined from
individual parts
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The structure of words: Morphology
• Apart from compounds, sequences of words behave as a combination:– Multi-word unit: sequence of orthographic words
functioning like one grammatical unit (ex.: on top of)– Idiom: multi-word unit where meaning can’t be predicted
from the meanings of its parts (ex.: make up (one’s) mind)– Collocation: relationship between one/more independent
words commonly appearing together (ex.: broad agreement)
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Introduction to phrases/groups• Phrases/groups are higher units into which words are
organized
• A phrase/group may consist of one single word or a group of words
• Phrases/groups can be embedded (i.e. be part of another structure)
– E.g. [They] [passed] [the table [with [the two men]]]
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clause
Noun phrase
They
Verb phrase
passed
Noun phrase
the table Prep phrase
with Noun phrase
the two men
They passed the table with the two men
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Classes of phrases
• For each type of lexical word there is a type of phrase, where the lexical word is the head (function words are also found):– Noun phrase or Nominal Group– Verb phrase or Verbal Group– Adjective phrase or Adjectival Group– Adverb phrase or Adverbial Group– Prepositional phrase or Prepositiona Group
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Noun phrase• Noun phrase/Nominal group: A phrase with a noun as its head
(determiner)+(modifier)+HEAD+(qualifier) d m h q – Ex.: A house/These houses/Her beautiful big charming house
• Abstract nouns can also be followed by complements completing the meaning of the noun (esp. that-clauses and infinitive to-clauses). Ex.: He feels awkward about her refusal to show any sign of emotion
• Proper nouns, pronouns and sometimes adjectives can also be head of NP. Ex.: Thomas lives in Wembley/They said they’d got it/Show me how the impossible can be possible
• NPs can take the syntactic role of subject or object as well as of predicative, adverbial and complement in PPs.
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Verb phrases• Verb phrase/Verbal group: a phrase with a primary/lexical
verb as its head: (operator)+(auxiliary)+VERB o x v (ex.: do you go/has gone/go)
• Finite VPs show distinctions of tense (present/past) & include modal auxiliaries (different from non-finite VPs)
• VPs are the essential part of a clause, referring to a type of state/action (the main verb determines the other elements in the clause)
• Sometimes VPs are split into two parts (e.g. in questions, when adverbs and other adverbials are placed in the middle)– What were you doing?– This year has definitely started well
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Adjective phrases• Adjective phrase/Adjectival group: A phrase with an adjective
as its head: (modifier)+HEAD+(qualifier) m h q (ex.: good/definitely good/good enough)
• Modifiers answer the question about the degree of a quality• Adjective heads often take complements which answer the
question “In what sense is the adjectival quality to be interpreted?” (ex.: guilty of a serious crime/slow to respond)
• The most important roles of AP are as modifier (attributive) & subject predicative (ex.: a deeply sick man/He’s totally crazy)
• APs may be split into two parts by the noun head (ex.: He’s a really tough player to beat)
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Adverb phrases• Adverb phrase/Adverbial group: a phrase with an adverb as its
head: (modifier)+HEAD+(qualifier) m h q (ex.: there/pretty soon/fortunately enough)
• Adverb phrases are different from adverbials: adverb phrases are structures while adverbials are clause elements (adverb phrases, prepositional phrases and adverbial clauses can all function as adverbials)
• Two basic syntactic roles of adverb phrases are: 1) modifier in adjective/adverb phrases (ex.: He was an attractive little creature with a sweetly expressive face); 2) adverbial (ex.: She smiled sweetly)
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Prepositional phrases• Prepositional phrase/Prepositional group: a phrase with a
preposition as its head: (modifier)+HEAD+completive m h k (ex.: considerably to the right/on the night of the first day)
• Prepositions can also take complement clauses that behave like NPs (normally wh-clauses and ing-clauses) (ex.: instructions on where they are used/after spending some time in California)
• PPs have two basic syntactic roles: 1) adverbial (ex.: He worked in a shop); 2) modifier/complement of a noun (ex.: He was a teacher of philosophy)
• Stranded prepositions are not followed by their complements (found in direct questions, interrogative clauses and direct clauses; ex.: What more could a child ask for?)
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Clauses• Clause: key unit of syntax capable of occurring independently• Clause: complete description of an event/state of affairs (ex.:
Have you got an exam on Monday?/She smiled sweetly)• All clauses may be utterances but not all utterances are
clauses – ex. (1): More sauce? vs. Would you like more sauce?– ex. (2): Thirty pence please vs. It’s thirty pence please
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Clauses• Verb is the key element of a clause (valency of the verb
controls kinds of elements that follow it). Five major valency patterns (each term used to refer to both valency and clause pattern):– Intransitive (S+V): Sarah and Michael dissapeared– Monotransitive (S+V+DO): She’s changed her dress– Copular (S+V+SP and S+V+Adv): The Swiss cheese has gone
bad/Marc was in the bathroom– Ditransitive (S+V+IO+DO): You gave her the wrong answer– Complex transitive (S+V+DO+OP and S+V+DO+A): That
makes me so mad/They’re sending us to Disneyland
TRANSITIVE
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TYPES OF CLAUSES
• INDEPENDENT & DEPENDENT• FINITE (tensed VP) & NON-FINITE (tenseless VP)• VERBLESS (moodless; minor) CLAUSES• ABBREVIATED CLAUSES
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Syntactic elements of clauses
Subject (S)Predicator (P)Direct object (Od)Indirect object (Oi)Prepositional object (Op; Oprep.)Subject complement (Cs)Object complement (Co)Predicator complement (Cp)Adjunct (A)
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verb complementation• The verb is the key element of a clause . There are 3 major
valency patterns (one-place, two-place & three-place verbs):→ Intransitive: S+V: Sarah and Michael disappeared→ Copular:
S+V+Cs : The Swiss cheese has gone bad S+V+A: Marc was in the bathroom
→ Monotransitive (S+V+Od): She’s changed her dress→ Ditransitive (S+V+Oi+Od): You gave her the wrong answer→ Complex transitive :
S+V+Od+Co: That makes me so madS+V+Oi+C Loc: They’re sending us to
Disneyland