unit 2 company law
TRANSCRIPT
Legal Aspects of BusinessUnit 2: Company Law
Prepared and Presented by,N. Ganesha PandianAssistant Professor
Madurai School of managementMadurai
Contents Major principles Nature and types of companies Formation of companies Memorandum and Articles of Association,
Prospectus Power, duties and liabilities of Directors winding up of companies Corporate Governance
Meaning of a Company Sec 3(1)(i) of the Act merely states that a
company means a company formed and registered under this act or an exiting company as defined.
Sec 3(1)(ii) provides that, ‘an existing company means ‘company formed and registered under previous company law.
Definition of a company A joint stock company may be defined to mean a voluntary
association of persons formed for some common purpose with capital divisible into transferable shares, limited liability with a distinctive name, having a corporate body, a legal personality on its own.
It is creation of law. It has no physical existence like a natural person
Justice James “ A company is an association of persons united for a common object”
Haney “ A company is an artificial person created by law, having separate entity, with a perpetual succession and a common seal”
Characteristic features of the company
1, Separate legal entity 2, Separate property 3, Common seal 4, Capacity to sue and to be sued 5, Limited liability 6, Perpetual succession 7, Transferability of shares
Corporation or Body corporate Term ‘corporate’ or ‘body corporate’ refers to company Corporation is wider than the company It includes a, Companies incorporated in India and foreign
companiesb, Nationalized banksc, Public financial institutions sec 4(A)d, Corporations formed under Acts of parliament
Contd… But excludes,a, a cooperative society registered under any law
relating to cooperative societies b, any other body corporate – central government
may by notification in the official gazettec, a society registered under societies registration
act 1860
Corporate veil Real person behind the company are disregarded once they have
formed a company and given to their association the status of a legal entity. The principle is known as ‘the veil of incorporation’
‘Corporate veil’ refers to the ‘partition’ or ‘curtain’ between the company and its members. The court in general consider bound by this principle in deciding the matter and therefore they refuse to go behind the persons responsible for acts of commission and omissions
The corporate entity is disregarded and the corporate veil is lifted or pierced in exceptional cases which is classified into
1, Exceptions under judicial interpretations2, Exceptions under statutory provisions
I, Exceptions under judicial interpretations
1, Protection of revenue 2, Avoidance of welfare legislation3, Prevention of fraud or improper conduct 4, Where the company is a sham 5, Company acting as agent or trustee of the
shareholders6, Determination of character of the company7,Where the doctrine conflicts public policy
II, Exceptions under statutory provisions
1, Reduction in no. of members below legal minimum (sec45)
2, Mis description of name (sec147)3, Failure to refund application money sec69(5)4, Investigation of the affairs and ownership of a
company (sec239)5, Misrepresentation in prospectus 6, Non – Payment of tax
Illegal associations (sec11) According to sec 11, no company, association or
partnership consisting of more than 20 persons (10 in case of banking business) can be formed to carry on any business for gain unless it is registered under the companies act or any other Indian Law
Otherwise such an association will be deemed to be illegal association having no legal existence
Association not for profit (sec25) Sec 25 provides that the central government may be
license direct that the association be regarded as a company with limited liability without using the words ‘Limited’ or ‘Private Limited’
These companies are also called licensed companies u/s 256 of the central government is empowered to grant exemption to such companies from any of the provisions of the company act
Privileges enjoyed by sec 25 companies
1, Permitted to register with limited liability – no need to use these words ‘Limited’ or ‘Private Limited’
2, Exempted from paying stamp duty on MoA and at time of registration
3, Need not send the list of its members to the registrar4, May be permitted to have even firm as a member5, Secretary need not possess the qualification prescribed under
sec 2(45)6, Board meetings once in six months7, Exempted from maintaining at its registered office a register of
directors and managers etc.,
Classification of companies According to sec12 of the companies act 1956,
seven or more persons or where the company to be formed will be private company and two or more persons may form an incorporate company with or with out limited liability
In words of Leonard W. Hein “the right of limited liability is desirable, but not a necessary adjunct to incorporation”
Classification of companies
Incorporation
MembershipControlLiability
No. of member
sChartered companie
sStatutory companie
sRegistered
companiesLicensed
company
Foreign company
Limited liability
Limited by sharesLimited
by guaranteeUnlimited liability
Private
Public Subsidiary
HoldingGovernem
ent
Non Governme
nt
On the basis of incorporation
1. Chartered companies – companies established as a result of royal charter granted by a king or queen of a country (eg) East India company and Bank of England
2. Statutory companies – Companies that are formed by special acts of parliament or state legislations are called statutory companies (eg) RBI ,LIC and etc.
3. Registered companies – Companies registered under the Indian companies act 1956 or under any of the previous companies acts are called registered companies
4. Licensed companies – companies established for promotion of arts, science, religion, charity or any other objects can obtain license (sec25)
5. Foreign companies – A company incorporated outside India under the law of the country of incorporation but having established its business in India
On the basis of number of membersA, Private company : In terms of sec3(1)(iii) of the act, a private company means a
company which has a minimum paid up capital of rs.1 lac or such higher paid up capital as may be prescribed and which by its articles:
1. Restricts the rights to transfer its shares if any,2. Limits the no. of its member to fifty not including, employee of the
company3. Prohibits any invitation to the public to subscribe for any share or
debenture4. Prohibits any invitation or acceptance of deposits from persons
other than its members, directors or their relatives
Contd…B, Public company: As per sec3(1)(V) of the act, a public company is a
company which1. Is not a private company2. Has a minimum paid up capital of rs. 25 lacs or
such higher paid up capital as may be prescribed3. Is a private which is a subsidiary of a company
which is not private
On basis of liability1. Limited liability: Liability of the shareholders
remains limited to the nominal value of the shares held by him
2. Limited by guarantee: In a guarantee company, the liability of a shareholder is limited to the amount has voluntarily undertaken to contribute towards the assets of the company to meet out any deficiency at the time of its winding up
On the basis of ownership 1. Government company – section 617 of
companies act 1956, defines a government company as any company in which not less than 51% of the paid up capital is held by the any government or subsidiary of a government company.
2. Non-Government company – It is controlled and operated by private capital
Contd…1. Investment companies – The principal business of which
consists in acquiring, holding and dealing in shares and securities
2. Finance companies – According to rule 2(CC) of the companies (acceptance of deposit) rules,1975, a “Finance company” means a non banking company which is a financial institution within the meaning of clause (C) of sec45-1 of RBI act, 1934
3. Producer companies – Formation of “producer company” dealing with primary produce, on co-operative principles. The scope of the proposed company is restricted to dealing with primary produce
Formation and incorporation of company
A company may be formed either to take over an existing business or to carry on new business
The procedure for the formation of a company may be divided into 3 principal stages
1. Promotion2. Incorporation3. Commencement of business
Company promotion The word promotion has not been defined in
the companies act. According to Bowen “the term promoter is a
term not of law but of business, usually summing up in a single word a no. of business operations familiar to the commercial world by which a company is generally brought into existence”.
Functions of promoters1. Promoter chooses the company’s name and ascertains
that it will be accepted by the registrar of companies2. Prepares details of company’s MOA and AOA ,
nomination of directors, solicitors, bankers, auditors and secretary and registered office of company
3. Promoter responsible for registration of company, issue of prospectus(public), in fact bringing the company into existence
Legal position of promoters
Companies act 1956 imposed fiduciary duties on the promoters.
He shouldn’t make any secret profits at the expense of company
Preliminary or pre-incorporation contracts:1. As promoters are not agents of the company in such
cases, companies are not liable for the acts of promoters entered into before incorporation
2. However the above term “Provisional” contracts which are entered into by a public company
Incorporation of company1. While selecting name, the promoters will keep in mind the provisions
of sec 20 and guidelines names of companies issued by government2. Decision on objects, the place where business is to be carried out,
the extent of the responsibility of each member for losses and etc., embody in the document called “Memorandum of Association”
3. Frame of rules and regulations for the company’s internal management which will be incorporated in “Articles of Association”
4. These two documents to be signed by at least 7 person (public company) 2 persons (private company) with requisite stamp duty and delivered with necessary stamp duty and delivered with necessary registration and filing ties
Documents to be prepared for incorporation of a public company limited by shares
1. Memorandum of Association2. Articles of Association3. Name of availability letter received from
registration of companies4. The MOA of a company is required to contain the
name of the state in which the registered office will be situated
5. Where a company by its AOA appoints any person a director, manager or secretary
Contd… According to sec 266 of the companies act, a person can’t be
appointed as director by the articles of a public company having share capital, unless the person before the articles are registered has signed and filed with the registrar either himself or through his agent his consent to act as director
Power of attorney on a non judicial stamp of a value prescribed in the stamp laws of the state concerned, empowering the attorney of the promoters
A declaration under sec 33(2) in form no:1 by an advocate of the supreme court, or a high court, an attorney or pleader entitled to appear before high court or a chartered accountant practicing in India, who is engaged in formation of a company, or by a persons name in article
Certificate of incorporation After filing the requisite document to the registrar, he
retains and registers the memorandum, the articles and other documents filled with him and issue a “certificate of incorporation” (ie) of the formation of company sec 33(3)
If there is any minor defect in any document, the registrar may ask for its rectification. But if there is a material and substantial defect, he may refuse registration
Commencement of business
1. A private company may commence its business immediately on incorporation
2. A public company can’t commence immediately, unless they obtain certificate of commencement from registrar
3. A company is bound to commence business within a year of its incorporation
Memorandum of association
MoA is most important document of a company and it lays down the powers and objects of a company and the scope of operation of the company beyond with its action can’t go
Sec 2(28) of companies act defines memorandum as follows “ The Memorandum of association of a company as originally framed or as altered from time to time in pursuance of any previous company law or of this act”
Set out the constitution of the company
Purpose of memorandum According to Lord Mac Millian “the purpose of
memorandum is to enable the shareholders, creditors as well as those who are deal with the company, to know the company’s permitted range of enterprise”
It enables the prospective shareholders the purpose for which their money is going to be utilized by the company and the risks the shareholder are expected to such investment
Contents of memorandum The memorandum of association of every
company shall contain the following clauses:1. Name clause2. The registered office clause3. Objects clause4. Liability clause5. Capital clause6. Subscription clause
1. Name clause {sec13(1)(a)} – this clause contains the name of company
2. The registered office clause {13(1)(b)} – notice of situation of registered office
3. Objects clause {13(1)(c)&(d)} – the clause must contains the object of clause
4. Liability clause {13(2)} – this clause has to state the nature of liability that members incur
5. Capital clause {13(4)(a)} – must state, the different types of shares (capital)
6. Association or subscription clause {sec13(4)(c)} –this clause provides that those who have agreed to subscribe to the memorandum must signify their willingness to associate and to form a company
Doctrine of ultra vires1. “Ultra” means beyond, “vires” means powers. An action outside the
memorandum is ultra vires the company. The doctrine of ultra vires refers to unauthorized acts.
2. An act may be ultra vires the companies act, the memorandum of association; Article of association, the directors.
3. Act which ultra vires the companies act shall not only be invalid and void but also illegal
4. Acts ultra vires the memorandum, shall be void5. Acts ultra vires the articles can be adopted or ratified by altering the
articles with retrospective effect.6. Acts Ultra vires the directors can be made valid and binding upon the
company by the acquiescence of all the members of a company.
Articles of Association According to sec2(2), “Article” means the
articles of association of a company as originally framed or altered from time to time in pursuance of any previous companies act or this act
The articles of association are the rules and regulations and bye-laws for the internal management of the affairs of a company
Contents of articles The articles contain rules and regulations regarding 1. Share capital and variation of rights2. Lien on shares 3. Calls on shares4. Transfer, transmission, forfeiture and surrender of share5. Issue of share warrants6. Alteration and reduction of capital7. Voting powers of members8. Borrowing powers9. Audit committee10. Dematerialization11. Buyback of shares12. Proceedings at the board and at the general body meetings13. Appointment, powers, duties, qualifications, remunerations and etc of
directors14. Appointment of manager, managing director and secretary15. Dividends and reserves16. Maintenance of books of accounts and their audit17. The company’s seal18. Winding up
Contd… Table A of schedule I of the act deals with regulations for management
of a company limited by shares However, the following companies shall have their own article of
association1. Unlimited companies2. Companies limited by guarantee3. Private companies limited by sharesForm and signature of articles:The articles shall be a, Printed b, divided into paragraphs c, Signed by each subscriber of memorandum
Alteration by articles The articles of association of a company can at any
time be altered by special resolution. It is statutory power and any provision in the articles making the articles unalterable would be invalid as it is contrary to the provisions of the companies act
The company must file with the registrar a copy of the special resolution within a month from the date of its passing. The altered articles will bind the members in the same way as did the original articles (sec31)
Doctrine of constructive notice MoA and AoA are available for public
inspection in the Registrar’s office on payment of rs.50/- for each inspection (sec 610)
The person contracting with the company know the contents of these two documents is known as “Doctrine constructive notice” or “Constructive notice of memorandum of articles”
Doctrine of Indoor management Outsiders are bound to read the registered
documents and to see that the proposal dealing is not inconsistent therewith, but they are not bound to do more; they need not inquire into the regularity of internal proceedings as required by the MoA.
This limitation of the doctrine of constructive notice is called “Doctrine of indoor management”
Prospectus Issuing a “prospectus” by which the public is
invited to subscribe to the capital of the company through equity shares, debentures and/or deposits
Objectives of prospectus:1. To inform the public about the forming of a new
company;2. To induce the investors to invest in its shares,
debentures and deposits
Definition of prospectus A prospectus is defined under sec2(36) of the companies act
as “any document described or issued as a prospectus and include any notice, circular, advertisement or other document inviting offers of deposits from the public for subscription or purchase of any shares in or debentures of a body corporate”
Thus a prospectus means1. A document 2. An invitation to public to invest in shares, deposits and
debentures3. It is widely advertised
Contents of a Prospectus sec 56 of the matters and reports stated in schedule II to the
companies act must be included in a prospectus1. General information:I, Name and address of registered officeII, Name(s) of stock exchangesIII, Declaration about refund of the issue if minimum subscription
of 90% is not received within 120 days from the opening of the issue
IV, Declaration about the issue of allotment letters/refunds within a period of 10 weeks and interest in case of any refund at the prescribed rate under sec 73
Contd…V, Date of opening of the issueVI, Date of closing of the issueVII, Name and address of auditors and lead managersVIII, Whether rating form CRISIL or any rating agency
has been obtained for the proposed debentures/ shares issue. if no rating has been obtained, this should be answered as “No”
2.Capital structure of the company i. Authorized, issued, subscribed and paid up
capitalii. Size of the issue, giving separately reservation
for preferential allotment to promoters and others
3. Terms of the present issue i. Terms of payment ii. How to apply iii. Any special tax benefits
4. Particulars of the issue i. Objects ii. Projects cost iii. Means of financing (Including contribution of promoters)5. Company management and project i. History and main objects and present business of the company ii. Promoters and their background iii. Location of the project iv, Collaborations, if any v, Nature of the product(s), export possibilities vi, Future prospect vii, Stock market date
Contd…6. Particulars in regard to the company and
other listed companies under same management
7. Outstanding litigations relating to financial matters or any criminal proceeding
8. Management perception of risk factors
Statutory and other information include information about :
1. Minimum subscription2. Expenses of the issues3. Underwriting commission and brokerage4. Previous public or rights issue giving particulars about
date of allotment, refunds, premium, discount and etc.,5. Issue of shares otherwise than for cash6. Particulars about purchase of property, if any7. Revaluation of assets, if any8. Material contracts and time and place where such
document may be inspected
Guidelines framed by SEBI regarding additional disclosures in
prospectus1. An index to the contents of the prospectus2. Details of: a, Actual expenditure incurred on the project b, means and source of financing such expenditure
c, year wise break up of the expenditure proposed to be incurred on the said project
3. Details of ‘bridge loan’ or other financial arrangement
Contd…4. The turnover disclosed in the profit or loss statement shall be
bifurcated into: a. turnover of products manufactured by company b. turnover of products traded by company c. details of products and not normally dealt in by the company5. The statement of assets and liability prepared after deducting
the amount of revaluation reserve from both fixed assets and reserves and the net worth arrived at after such deduction
6. The following details in case of companies undertaking major expansion or new projects; a, technology b, market c, Competitions d, managerial competence e, capacity build up
Contd…7. No projections of future profits shall be made8. A statement by the directors 9. The details of: a, the aggregate shareholding of the promoter group b, The aggregate no. of securities purchased or sold
by the promoter groupc, The maximum and minimum price at which
purchases and sales referred to.
Abridged prospectus Sec 56(3) of the companies act, 1956 requires
that no one shall issue form of application for shares in or debentures of a company unless the same is accompanied by a memorandum containing salient features of prospectus(more commonly known as ‘abridged form of prospectus’), as may prescribed
Registration of prospectus As per sec 601 of the companies act, 1956 a copy of
the prospectus must be filed with the registrar of companies on or before the date of publication of the prospectus, further
1. The copy sent for registration must be signed 2. Prospectus issued in more than one language, a copy
should be sent3. A copy should be delivered for registration4. The prospectus must be issued by newspaper ad
Documents to be enclosed with the prospectus for registration
The following documents are to be filed along with the prospectus1. Consent letter from an expert, if any, as required under sec 58 of the act2. Copy of any contract appointing and fixing remuneration of M.D or
manager3. Copy of other contracts not being a contract entered into in the ordinary
course of business carried on or intended to be carried on or a contract entered into more than 2 years before the date of prospectus
4. A statement certified by the auditor stating any adjustment in respect of loses or assets and liabilities and reasons for such adjustment
5. Copies of underwriting agreements6. Consent letter of auditors, legal auditors, solicitors, bankers or brokers to
act as such7. Certified copies of power of attorneys given by directors to their agents
to sign the prospectus on their behalf
Refusal of registration As per sec 60(3) of the act, the registrar shall not register a prospectus
unless- 1. It is dated as provided under sec 55 of the act2. It contains matters as provided under sec56 of the act3. It contain statements or reports of experts engaged or inserted in
formation, promotion or management of the company as provided under sec 57 of the Act
4. It includes a statement purporting to be made by an expert without a statement that he has given and not withdrawn his consent
5. It doesn’t contain the consent letters in writing of directors6. It is not accompanied by consent letters in writing of directors, legal
advisers and etc as provided under sec60(3) of the act
Shelf prospectus “Shelf prospectus” means a prospectus issued by
any financial institution or bank for one or more issues of the securities or class of securities specified in that prospectus
Who shall file a shelf prospectus?Any public financial institution, public sector bank or
scheduled bank whose main object is financing, shall file a shelf prospectus
Information memorandum “Information memorandum” means a process
undertaken prior to the filing of a prospectus by which a demand for the securities proposed to be issued by a company is elicited and the price and the terms of issue for such securities is assessed by means of a notice, circular, advertisement or document
{sec 2(19B)} the concept of information memorandum has been introduced with a view to ascertain the quantum and acceptable price of securities to be offered by a company
Red-herring prospectus A “Red-herring prospectus” means a
prospectus which doesn’t have complete particulars on the price of the securities offered and the quantum of securities offered. Every variation as made and highlighted shall be individually intimated to the person invited to subscribe to the issue of securities
Misleading prospectus1. A prospectus constitutes the basis of the contract b/w the
company and the shareholders and therefore it must disclose all material facts very accurately
2. It must not misrepresent or conceal material facts and thereby improperly influence and mislead the prospective investor into becoming an allottee of shares and in consequence suffer loss
3. A Prospectus containing false, misleading, ambiguous or fraudulent statement of material facts, is termed as “Misleading prospectus”
Liabilities in case of Mis-statement in prospectus
1. Company 2. Promoters 3. Directors 4. Experts
Two types 1. Civil liability 2. Criminal liability Civil Liability divided into 1. Remedies against company2. Remedies against directors, experts and
promoters
Shares and debentures
Definition of shares Section 2(46) of the companies act defines
“share” as ‘share in the share capital of company and includes stock except where distinction between share and stock is expressed or implied.
Kinds of shares Preference share Equity share Deferred share
Equity capital share
With voting rights With differential rights as to divided, voting or
otherwise in accordance with such rules and subject to such conditions as may be prescribed
Shares which do not have any preferential right in respect of dividend as well as repayment of capital are known as with “equity shares”
Share certificate Share certificate is a certificate issued by the company to the member
of the company under the common seal specifying the number of shares held by him and the amount paid on each share. A member of a company has a right to receive a share certificate.
It is a prima facie evidence of his title to the shares. Rule 6 of the companies (issue of share certificates) rules, 1960 provides
that every share certificate shall be issued under the common seal of the company and shall be signed by two directors or persons authorized by the two directors and the secretary or some other person appointed by the board for the purpose.
Contents of share certificate
A share certificate usually contains the following particulars Name of the company Address of the registered office of company Date of issue Name of the allottee|transferee Certificate number No of shares held Distinctive numbers Folio no Amount paid on the shares.
Preference shares1. Payment of dividend 2. Payment of capital
Classification of Preference shares
Non Participating
Participating
Irredeemable
redeemable
Non -Cumulative
Cumulative
Preference share capital As per sec 85(1) of the act, preference share capital
means that part of the share capital which fulfils both the follow requirements.
1. In respect of dividend, it carriers a preferential right to be paid at a fixed amount at an amount calculated at fixed rate which may be free subject to income tax.
2. An respect of capital, it carries on winding up or on re payment of capital preferential right to be repaid the amount of capital paid up.
Deferred shares Only private company can issue
deferred shares such shares are normally issued to the promoters and directors of the company. It is also known as founders shares. A public company cannot issue deferred shares.
Sweat equity shares As per explanation given to sec 79(a) of the Act,
sweat equity share means equity shares issued by a company to its employees or directors at a discount or for consideration other than cash for providing know-how or making available rights in the nature of intellectual property rights or value additions by whatever name called
Share capital Share capital means the capital raised by the issue of shares.
The amount invested by the shareholders towards the face value of shares are collectively known as share capital which is quite distinct from the capital put in by individual shareholders. The share capital is divided as shown below:
1. Authorized capital 2. Issue capital3. Subscribed capital4. Share warrant 5. Stock invest
1. Authorized capital: Authorized capital refers to that amount which is stated in the
‘capital clause’ of the memorandum of associations as the share capital of the company. This is the maximum limit of the company which it is authorized to raise and beyond which the company can’t raise unless the capital clause in the memorandum is altered in accordance with the provisions of sec 94 of the companies Act,1956
2. Issue capital: Issued capital refers to the nominal value of that part of
authorized capital, which has been subscribed for the signatories to MOA ii) allotted for cash or for consideration other than cash and iii) allotted as share bonus
Subscribed capital: Subscribed capital refers to the paid up value of the issued
capital. Other items used under the companies Act, 1956 are:Unissued capital: Unissued capital refers to that portion of the
authorized capital which has not yet been issuedUncalled capital: Uncalled capital refers to that portion of the
issued capital which has not yet been called up by the companyReserve capital: It refers to that portion of uncalled share capital
which shall not be except in the event and for the purposes of the company being wound up(sec 99). A limited company may, be a special resolution, determine a portion of this uncalled capital as reserve capital
Contd…Share warrant: A public company limited by shares, if authorized by its
article may issue share warrant with the prior approval of the central government only fully paid shares can be converted into share warrant with the prior approval of central government
Stock invest: stock invest is an instrument issued by banks to solve the problem of delay in refund of excess application money on account of over subscription and to solve the liquidity problem of excess application money. The stock invest is valid for three months
It is an additional facility given to the investors for applying public issues apart from the other instruments such as cash, cheques and drafts
Alteration of share capital Alteration of share capital means alteration of capital clause of the MOA of
the company by any of the following means:1. Increase of share capital by issuing new shares2. Consolidation or division of all or any of its share capital into shares of
larger amount than existing shares3. Conversion of all or any of its fully paid up shares into fully paid up
shares of denomination4. Sub-division of its shares or any of them into shares of smaller amount
that is fixed by the memorandum5. Cancellation of shares which have not been taken or agreed to be taken
and diminution of the amount of its share capital by the amount of the shares so cancelled
Reduction of share capital Sec 100 of the companies Act 1956 provides that a company limited by
shares or a company limited by guarantee and having a share capital may, if authorized by its articles, by special resolution and on its confirmation by the court on petition, reduce its share capital in any way in particular;
1. By reducing or extinguishing the liability of members in respect of uncalled or unpaid capital
2. By paying off or returning paid up capital not wanted for the purpose of the company
3. By paying off the paid up capital on the footing that it may be called up again so that the liability is not extinguished
4. By writing off or cancelling the capital which has been lost or is unrepresented by the available assets
5. By following a combination of any of the preceding methods
Debt capital A debenture capital is a certificate of
loan issued by a company The term ‘debenture’ is expressed to
include debenture stock, bonds and assets of the company or not; but there is no statutory or judicial definition of the term debenture
Debenture stockIn the word of BK Sengupta, ‘Debenture’ is the
description of an instrument whereas ‘debenture stock is the description of a debt or sum secured by an instrument
1. Debenture stock is the ‘loan capital’ in consolidated form
2. Always accompanied by a trust deed3. Stamp duty is paid in lump-sum at the time of
executing the trust deed
Main features of debenture:1. It is a document given by a company as evidence
of a debt to its holders usually arising out of a loan2. It is a form of certificate issued by a company
under its common seal3. It is generally contains a charge on the assets of
the undertaking or some class of assets or even part of its profits or even may not create any charge
4. It is generally provides for payment of interest until the amount is repaid back to the holder
Kinds of debenture1. Registered debentures: The registered debentures are those
which are payable to registered holders2. Bearer debentures: These are negotiable instrument and are
transferable by mere delivery to the transferee 3. Secured or mortgaged debentures: These are debentures
which are secured by a charge on the assets of the company. The charge may be fixed or floating
4. Naked or unsecured debentures: debentures which do not have any charge on the assets of the company known as unsecured or naked debentures
Contd…5, convertible debentures: sec 81(3) permits the issue
of convertible debentures. It enables the issue of shares to debenture holders and creditors in exchange for the amount due to them
i, Fully convertible debentureii, Non convertible debentureiii, Partially convertible debenture6, Redeemable debenture7, Irredeemable debenture
Company Directors Sec 253 of the companies act provides that no body corporate
or association or firm can be a appointed as director of a company
Sec 2(13) of the companies Act defines a director as including any person occupying the position of a director by whatever name called. It means that it is the position what is important and not the individual concerned
Sec 2(30) of companies Act defines officer includes a director as well as any person under whose direction or instruction the board or any one or more of the directors are accustomed to the Act
Qualification and Disqualifications of directors
The companies Act has not prescribed any academic qualifications for he directors of any company
Disqualification of directors: Section 274 of companies act 1956, provides that the following persons shall
not be capable of being appointed as directors of any companya, A person found by a competent court to be unsound mindb, an un discharged insolventc, a person who has applied to be adjudged an insolventd, a person who has been convicted by a court e, a person who has not paid any call in respect of shares of the company held
by him whether alone or jointlyf, a person has been disqualified by a court or tribunalg, a person who is already a director of a public company
Kinds of directors1. Executive directors2. Non executive directors3. Representative directors4. Nominee directors5. Independent directors
Appointment of Directors The appointment of a director may be
grouped as:1. Appointment of first directors2. Appointment at general meeting3. Appointment by Board of directors4. Appointment by third parties5. Appointment by central government
1. Appointment of first directors (sec 254) a. The first directors are usually appointed by
name in the articles or in the manner provided therein.
b. Where the articles do not provide for the appointment of first directors, those of the subscription to memorandum are deemed to be first directors of company
c. The first directors can hold office until the directors are duly appointed in accordance with the provisions of sec 255
Appointment of directors at General meeting (sec 255)
According to sec 255 the directors must be appointed by the company in general meeting
Sec 256 states that of the directors subject to retirement by rotation only one-third or a number nearest to one-third shall retire at an annual general meeting
In the first place, those directors shall retire who have been longest in office since their last appointment
Appointment of directors other than those retiring (sec 257) recognizes the right of any person, whether a member of a company or not, to contest election as a director at any general meeting of a company
Consent to act as director: sec 264 requires that every person proposed as candidate for the office of a director shall sign, and file with the company, his consent in writing to act as a director, if appointed
Appointment of directors by the board The board of director may appoint a directora, as an additional director (or) (sec260)b, to fill a casual vacancy (or) (sec262)c, as an alternate director (sec313)
Appointment of directors by third party
The articles may empower a third party to appoint directors. Similarly, banking company or a financial institution which has advanced loans to the company may appoint their nominees on the board
Appointment of directors by the central government
The central government has been empowered to appoint directors on an order passed by the company law board
A person appointed by the central government in pursuance of the above provisions shall not be:
1. Considered for the purpose of reckoning two-third or any other proportion of the total no. of directors of the company
2. Required to hold qualification shares3. Required to retire by rotation
Powers of board of directors
The board of directors of a company shall be entitled to exercise all such powers and perform all such acts and things as the company is authorized to exercise and do in general meetings
General powers of the board (sec292)1. The power to make calls on shareholders in respect of money
unpaid on their shares 2. The power to authorize the buyback of shares3. The power to issue debentures4. The power to borrow money otherwise than on debentures5. The power to invest funds of the company and 6. The power to make loans
The board however by a resolution passed at a meeting delegate to any committee of directors, the managing director, the manager or any other principal officer of the company, the power specified in clauses (4),(5)and (6) on such conditions as the board may prescribe
Besides the power specified in sec 292, there are certain other powers also which can be experienced only at the meeting of the board
1. The power of filling casual vacancies in the board2. Sanctioning of a contract in which a director is inserted3. The power to recommend the rate of dividend, to be declared
by the company at the AGM subject to the approval by the shareholders
Contd… In the following cases, not only that the powers be
exercised at the board’s meeting but also that every director present and entitled to note must consent thereto:
a, the power to appoint a person as M.D or manager, who is already M.D or manager of another company
b, The power to invest in any shares and debentures of any other body corporate
Powers of the board of directors only with the consent of the shareholders in general
meeting (sec 293)1. Sale, lease or otherwise dispose of the whole, or the whole of
the undertaking of their company2. Remit or give time for the repayment of any debt by a director3. Invest otherwise than in trust securities, the amount of
compensation received by the company in respect of compulsory acquisition of any fixed assets by the company
4. Borrow money exceeding the aggregate of the paid up capital of the company and its free reserves
5. Contribute in any year to charitable and other net profits for the funds not directly relating to the business of the company or the welfare of its employee any FY whichever is greater
Duties of directors Duties of directors may be divided
under two heads: 1. Statutory duties2. General duties
Statutory duties1. To file returns of allotments in case of issue of securities2. To disclose the extent of interest in contracts entered into by the company3. Not to issue irredeemable preference shares or share redeemable after 10
yrs4. To disclose receipt from transfer of property 5. To disclose receipt of compensation from transferee of shares6. Duty to attend board meetings7. Duty to convene general meetings8. To prepare and place at the AGM along with the balance sheet and P&L a/c
a report on the company’s affairs9. Duty to make declaration of solvency in the case of members’ voluntary
winding up
General duties
1. Duty of good faith 2. Duty of care and affection3. Duty not delegate
Responsibilities of Board of directors
a, Preparation of strategic plans operating plans and budget
b, monitoring major capital expensesc, Defining and reviewing the board functions periodicallyd, Setting the values, mission and vision of the company
and chalking out procedures to realize theme, Provision of adequate resources to achieve the set
objectivesf, Mentoring, monitoring and evaluating the agreed
objectives
Contd…g, Ensuring compliances and disclosuresh, monitoring and managing potential conflicts of
interests of management, board members and shareholders including misuse of corporate assets and abuse in related party transactions
i, Ensuring the integrity of company’s accounting and financial reporting system
j, Monitoring the effectiveness of corporate governance practice
Removal of directorsThe company directors may be removed
as stated below:1. Removal by shareholders2. Removal by central government 3. Removal by company law board
Company meeting Definition: A meeting may be defined as any gathering,
assembly or coming together of two or more persons for the transactions of some lawful business of common concern
Elements of valid meeting: 1. Properly convened2. Proper authority 3. Proper notice4. Proper quorum5. Resolution6. Minutes
AGM (Annual general meeting) The annual general meeting is to be held each
year with a view to enable the shareholders to review and evaluate the overall progress of the company during the past year
The first AGM must be held within 18 months of the incorporation of the company
Thereafter it must be held within 6 months of the expiry of FY of company
Classification of meetings1. Meeting of members2. Meeting of directors and committee
of directors3. Meeting of debenture holders4. Meeting of creditors and contributors
Resolutions: A valid resolution can be passed only at the meeting which has been duly convened and duly constituted with the requisite quorum
Kinds of resolution: 1, Ordinary resolution 2, special resolution Minutes: Minutes is an authentic record of the proceedings of the
meeting. Sec 193 of the companies Act 1956, requires every company to maintain minutes of its general meetings, board meetings and meetings of the committee of the board
Reports: Reports are always in a narrative form giving a historical account of all things discussed. An report gives statement of results, events, progress etc., (i.e) full a/c of the proceedings of the meeting
Under companies Act, 2 types of reports are prepared 1, Statutory reports 2, Non-statutory reports
Winding up of company Winding up/ liquidation represents the last
stage in company’s life. It is a proceeding by which a company is dissolved
The company’s asset are disposed of, the debts are paid off out of the realized assets, and the surplus, if any is then distributed among the members in proportion to their holdings in the company.
Modes of winding up There are two modes of winding up of
a company1. Winding up by the tribunal2. Voluntary winding up a, member’s voluntary winding up b, Creditors voluntary winding up
Winding up by tribunal Also known as compulsory winding up and a company
may be wound up in the following cases1. Special resolution of the company2. Default in delivering the statutory report to the
registrar3. Failure to commence or suspension of business4. Reduction in membership 5. Inability to pay its debts6. Just and equitable
Petition An application to the tribunal for avoiding winding up of
a company is made by a petition. This may be presented in following cases
1. Petition by the company2. Petition by any creditor(s)3. Petition by any contributor(ies)y4. Petition by registrar5. Petition by central government
Commencement of winding up1. Advertisement of petition 2. Powers tribunal3. Consequences of winding up order4. Procedure of winding up by the tribunal5. Committee of inspection6. Dissolution of company7. Contributory
Voluntary winding up Voluntary winding up means winding up by
the members or creditors of a company without interference by the tribunal
A company may wound up voluntarily:1. By passing an ordinary resolution2. By passing a special resolution
Consequences of winding up
1. Consequence as to shareholders/ members2. Consequence as to creditors3. Preferential payments4. Consequence as to servants and officers5. Consequence as to proceedings against
the company 6. Consequence as to cost
Corporate governance Corporate governance is defined by The institute of
company secretaries of India as follows: “The application of best management practices, compliance of law in letter and spirit and adherence to ethical standards for effective management and distribution of wealth and discharge of social responsibility for sustainable development of all stakeholders”
Principles of corporate governance The principles evolved by the ICSI are as under:1. Sustainable development of all stakeholders to
ensure growth of all individuals associated with.2. Effective management and distribution of wealth3. Discharge of social responsibility4. Application of best management practices5. Compliance of law in letter and spirit
Objectives of corporate governance Corporate governance extends beyond corporate law. It is integral to the
very existence of a company1. It tries to inspire and strengthen the investors 'confidence2. To ensure commitment of the board in managing the company in
transparent manner so as to minimize the shareholders’ value3. To see that the board is balanced as regards the representation of
adequate number of non executive director and independent directors4. To review that the board adopts transparent procedures and practices in
the interest of both company and stakeholders5. To check that the board provides adequate information pertaining to the
development 6. To ensure that the board leads the company forward so as to maximize
long term value and shareholders’ wealth
Corporate governance needs
1. Impact of globalization2. Economic changes3. Change in the structure of
shareholding4. Financial reporting and transparency 5. Shareholders’ net worth and net
wealth