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2. Objectives of Unit 2:
Discuss findings/experience of Assignment 1: Doing Nothing
Reflect on the concept of theory in Sociology
Introduce the classical(traditional) perspectives in Sociology
Introduce the newer perspectives in Sociology
Introduce a global perspective in Sociology (unit 3 & 9)
Introduce briefly common methodological approaches (tools) in Sociology
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Assignment 1: Doing Nothing

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A theory is. Hmmm !?

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6. What is a Theory?
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Attempts to understand the (social) world and our place in it, has led to the development of theories
Theories are abstract propositions about how things are as well as how they should be; an explanation of how we think things work
We refer to theories as approaches, schools of thought, paradigmsor perspectives.
This implies that they are different approaches!
Social theories are guiding principles or abstract modelsthat attempt to explain and predict the social world
A theory is comparable to a map. When you discover new places, you have to modify this map

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Is there something like down or above? down and above become relative

11. Example of a theoretical model: the social change model
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12. Theories are dynamic, they change
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Theories have to be tested:
Thats what scientifically research is all about!
We develop theories and test them, modify them to fit the reality better, why?
Theories will change over time, because their area of study they seek to understand and explain:
Society, itself changes over time
Theories seek to understand society in periods of both order and change
Social change makes theoretical change a continual necessity

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The object of study is on the move

14. Have you ever tried to photograph a moving object?
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15. Different theoretical perspectives
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In attempting to develop theories about humans and societies, sociologists face a wide range of choices:
What issues should we study? How should we link facts together to form theories? What assumptions might underpin our theories?
I.e. what theoretical maps guides the study of phenomena?
=Theoretical Perspective
This is a basic image that guides thinking and research
There exists an array of basic images that guide thinking and research!

16. The elephant metaphor:poem by John Godfrey Saxe (1816-18-87)
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Wall
Fan
Snake
Rope
Spear
Tree

17. The poem/parables moral:
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Classical, traditional perspectives in Sclg

19. 3 classical perspectives in Sclg:
Macro-level perspectives:
Structural Functionalism
Conflict theory
Micro-level perspective:
Symbolic interactionism

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Structural Functionalism

21. Key tenets Structural Functionalism
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Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability
Our lives are guided by social structure
i.e. relative stable patterns of social behaviour
This frameworks understands social structure in terms of its social functions
i.e. functions/consequences for the operation of society
Society is stable, an ordered system of interrelated partsof the social structures. Each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability of society.

22. Founding Fathers of Structural Functionalism:
I focus on social solidarity
Society is comparable to the human body
To promote social integration during times of radical change
Herbert Spencer
Emile Durkheim
Auguste Comte

23. Key tenets Structural Functionalism
The SF perspective organizes sociological observations by identifying various structures of society and studying the function of each one.
E.g. of social structures (social institutions) are: the family, the educational system, politics, religion, mass media systems and the economy

24. Other theorists that have contributed to SF perspective
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Society is a system, with parts that have basic tasks, all members should be socialized to maintain order
Social functions can be expanded in manifest, latent and dysfunctions
Talcott Parsons
Robert Merton

25. Social functions expanded (Merton)
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The consequences of any social pattern are likely todifferfor various members of society
E.g. traditional families provide crucial support for the development of children but also confer privileges on men while limiting the opportunities for women
We dont always perceive all functions of a particular social structure:
Manifest functions: the recognized/intended consequences of any social pattern
Latent functions: consequences that are largely unrecognized and unintended
Not all the effects if any social structure turn out to be useful: Social Dysfunctions
i.e. any patterns undesirable consequences for the operation of society

26. (dys)functions of.?
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What are the main functions (in terms of manifest and latent) and dysfunctions of the following social structures:
The family
Education
Religion
Mass media
The economy
Jail
Gaming

27. Critique on Structural Functionalism
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How can we assume that society has a natural order when social patterns vary from place to place and changeover time?
By focusing on social integration and harmony SF tends to overlook/hide social inequalities based on social categories such as: ethnicity, gender, age and social class

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Conflict Theory

29. Key tenets Conflict Theory
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Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
It highlights divisionsin society based on inequalities
Inequalitiesbased on social class, ethnicity (or race), sex and age
Theory focuses on dominance,competitionandsocial change
Conflictbetween categories of people (social groups): dominant vs. disadvantaged categories. E.g. Rich vs. poor
Aim is not only to understand how inequality is rooted in the way society is organized, but also to do reduce inequalities:
By promoting and bring about Social Change

30. Conflict Theory
has a materialistic view of society. It focuses on labor practices and economic reality
takes a critical stancetowards existing social arrangements (labor market, democracy, inequality between social groups)
doesnt believe that science can be objective: all theoretical approaches have political consequences. i.e. theories have hidden agendas
Believes that transformation of society is inevitable(social change)

31. Founding father of Conflict theory:
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My main task is not to just analyze how society reproduces inequality, but my task is to change this!
Karl Marx

32. Critique on Conflict Theory
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CT highlights inequality and overlooks how shared values or interdependence generate unity among members of society
CT sometimes pursuits explicitly political goals (it wants to bring social change) and because of this it sometimeslacks scientific objectivity*
* The objectivity of science is a much disputable notion in science on itself

33. Critique on how SF & CT approach Society
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Both the SF and CT envisage society in very broad terms. Society becomes a thing on itself describing our lives as a composite of for example: family or social class
we have criticized this notion in unit 1!
Both SF and CT are considered conservative theories (gone out of fashion!)

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Symbolic Interactionism

35. 3. Symbolic Interactionism*
Is a theoretical framework that envisages societyas the product of everyday interactions of people doing things together
Is influenced by Webers social action perspective. i.e. a perspective that emphasizes the need to understand a setting from the point of view of people in it.
Human meanings and action shape society
We act toward things on the basis of their meanings
Individual/social groups give meaning to the experience of life
Meaning is process of constant negotiation:
i.e. meanings can change or be modified through interaction and through time
*SI is the most influential sociological perspective!

36. Founding father & inspiration of SI
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Meanings and action shape society. Modern society is the product of a new way of thinking, not just of new technology and capitalism
I look at how we assemble our sense of self over time based on social experience
Max Weber
George Mead

37. Key tenets of Symbolic Interactionism
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Through the human process of finding meaningin our surroundings, we define our identities, bodies and feelings, and come to socially construct the world around us.
Society as a mosaic of subjective meanings and variable responses:
E.g. the meaning of the membership of a gang member:
The one perceives being part of a gang as something to be proud of, you get symbolic status in an other part of society, you are appreciated by fellow gang members, they are your family.
The other sees gangs as something to be feared, a menace for society, a collection of organized crime, peer pressure and stupidity

38. Changing meanings of the concept of beauty for teenagers(1975 vs. 2010):

39. Critique on Symbolic Interactions
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By focusing on day-to-day experience/interactions we overlook the workings of larger social structures

40. Conclusion so far
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Not one single perspective can cover in its totality the dynamic character of society and social experience.
A some what more better understanding of society comes from the combination of different perspectives:
Sociology examines the social world by looking at functions and dysfunctions, conflicts and consensus, actions and meanings
And still, as we will see, some other angles are lacking!
Because all 3 traditional perspectives have weakness as well as strengths, they will probably never fully explain the totality of social phenomena, even when taken together

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Contemporary, emerging perspectives

42. 3 new perspectives in Sociology
New perspectives will, and indeed must, continue to rise. Changes in society, bring changes in our conceptual way of studying it:
Each is linked to a major contemporary social transformation:
Changing ideas about gender roles
Changing notions of sexual identity
Changes associated with a post-industrial, technologically based society
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Feminist Theory

44. First female sociologist
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I can be considered the first female in sociology. My area of expertise is the study of urban life, I am one of the pioneers of the Chicago School
Jane Addams

45. 1. Feminist theory
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Looks at gender inequalities in society and the way gender structures the social world
Gender is a social construct

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47. E.g. A feminist analysis of female fairy tale characters
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Queer Theory

50. 2. Queer theory
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Proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or normal

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Post-modernism

52. 2. Postmodern theory
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Suggests that there is no universal, knowable truth: realities are fluid and diverse
The kaleidoscope metaphor

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It has all been done. The extreme limit of possibilities have been reached. It has deconstructed its entire universe. So, all that are left are pieces. All that remains to be done is play around with the pieces: that is post-modern
Baudrillard

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Global perspective in Sociology

56. Global perspective
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The study of the larger world and each societys place in it
Importance of interrelations
Importance of contexts
We will continue with this theme in unit 3 and unit 9

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Common methods in Sociology

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There is no absolutely objective scientific analysis of culture.or social phenomena independent of special and one-sided viewpoints according to which they are selected, analyzed and organized (Weber, 1949: 72)
Max Weber

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Distinction between Quantative and Qualitative research methods
Quantative: uses data that can easily be converted into numbers, such as a survey or an experiment
E.g. Censo 2010

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Qualitative: involves data that cannot easily be converted to numbers, such as observation or informal interviews.
Most sociological research uses the scientific method
This is the standard for acquiring and verifying empirical scientific knowledge:
After conducting a literature review, a researcher forms a hypothesis stating a potential relationship between 2 or more variables:
The number of friendships at the work & the level of job satisfaction
e.g. more friendships at the workplace increases job satisfaction
Variables must be clearly defined so that they can be measured
Finally data is collected and the hypotheses tested (deductive)

63. Steps of the scientific Method
Starting from 1 to 7 = Deductive research
Starting from 5 (4) to 1 = Inductive research
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64. 1. Ethnographic methods
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One way to collect data is through ethnography, a method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities
It involves:
Active participation in and observation of a naturally occurring setting and a written account (field notes) of what goes on there.
In participant observation the research observes and becomes a member in the social setting
Anthropology uses this method often

65. Ethnography:
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Snow white joined the 7 dwarfs in their private homes, here she could observe their social practices

66. 2. Interviews
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Involves direct, face-to-face contact with respondents.
The researcher identifies the target population that she wishes to study and then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from that population
close-ended questions:
E.g. Are you for or against the legislation of abortus? (yes-no)
open-ended question:
What is your opinion about legalizing abortus? please elaborate
What do you think of married couples cheating on each other?

67. 3. Surveys
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Surveys are questionnaires that are administrated to a sample of respondents selected from a target group population
Tend to look at Large-scale social patterns and employs statistics methods of analysis
http://www.censo2010.aw/

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URL: www.censo2010.aw

69. 4. Experimental methods
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Experiments are formal test of whether an independent variable causes the dependent variable that are performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.
Comparison between experimental group vs. control group (sample without intervention)
Experiments in social science are very difficult to conduct because of ethical questions:
Twins separated at birth, one grows-up in a nice family, one in a dysfunctional family?

70. Pill to make you dance at a party when you dont like dancing
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Control: she takes a placebo pill
Experiment: she takes the to be tested pill

71. 5. Emerging research tools:
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Life stories (narratives)
Diaries
Logs and time-budgets
Letters
Visual sociology: Photography
Visual sociology: Film and video

72. Issues in Social science research
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Social scientists/researches should be Value-free
Code of ethics to avoid bias, protect respondents from harms, privacy issues and unethical behavior in the name of science etc.
On the wikispace you can find examples of different code of ethics for social sciences

73. E.g. Unethical research
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http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/02/health/research/02infect.html?_r=1&ref=todayspaper
Article trackback:

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Awakening thesociological imagination:
Studying = feeling like a space traveler, flying above earth, fascinated by its organizing ecology & exploring its encoded meanings
N.D.L.

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Social Scientists

76. Assignment 2:
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77. Understanding the London Riots
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See Assignment 2 on the wikispace: Free-styling sociological imagination: Understanding the London Riots.
As sociologists-in-training we will attempt to understand the riotscarefully. Follow the instructions for this assignment on the wikispace.