unit 2a orville

7/28/2019 UNIT 2A Orville

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ANALYSING ARGUMENTS

Engineering a culture of

ReasoningUNIT 2


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Outline

Identifying Arguments

Arguments and Nonarguments

Well-Crafted ArgumentsArgument Diagrams


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Arguments

An argument is a set of statement s wheresome of the statement s, called the premises,are intended to support another, called the

conclusion Premises and conclusions are distinct complete

statements that are either true or false.

They may be found in any number and in any

location in a passage or utterance. Be careful since a complete sentence may contain

more than one complete statement.


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Notice three important things that follow

from this definition:

1.Arguments consist entirely of statements, i.e., sentencesthat it makes sense to regard as either true or false.

Questions, commands, exclamations, and other kinds of

nonstatements cannot be parts of arguments. (Keep in

mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be

treated as statements.)

2. No single statement, however long, complex, or

controversial, is an argument. Arguments always consist

of at least two statements.

3. Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed orintended that one statement followsfromone or more

other statements in the passage. In other words, a

passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer

intends to offerevidence orreasons why another

statement should be accepted as true.


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Nonarguments

Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused witharguments (Unsupported Assertions) are:

Reports Set of statements intended to provide information

about a situation, topic or event.

Illustrations Statements together with explanatory or clarifying

examples.

Explanatory Statements

Statements that provide a causal or other reason forsome phenomenon

Conditional Statements If then statements


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Example

Thirteen years ago Jamaica's crime rate was high, but stillnowhere near the horrendous levels that it has now reached.A record number of people were killed in Jamaica last year,police said, confirming the island's reputation as havingone of the world's highest murder rates. The majority of the1,680 killingssix more than the previous record set in 2005

involved victims of drug and extortion gangs. Most wereshootings. Therefore there possibility of being murdered in

Jamaica have increased rapidly over the last decade .

ARGUMENT


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Example

The Jamaican economy recorded growth of 0.7 per cent

during the third quarter of 2009, this was due mainly to a

1.7 per cent increase in the Goods Producing industries.

The economy however declined by 2.3 per cent whencompared to the similar quarter in 2008. Both the Goods

Producing and Services industries declined by 8.7 per cent

and 0.2 per cent respectively.

REPORT

Conveying information about the economy


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Example

Prime numbers are divisible only themselves and one. For

example, 3, 5, 7, and 11 are prime numbers

Jamaica continues to face a variety of development

challenges. For instance, the nation struggles with a

persistent fiscal deficit, heavy indebtedness and a high

crime rate. USAID

Non argument s- The passage is intended to illustrate theauthor's claim, rather than to prove it. An illustration is a

passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or

support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the

claim is true


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Example

"Jamaica has missed numerous opportunities to make

necessary adjustments because of the politics of

opportunism,"

Capitalpunishment should be abolished since

innocent people may be mistakenly executed

EXPLANATORY STATEMENS -show why something is the case, not

to prove that it is the case


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Example

If Jamaica was serious about education, then teachers

would be the highest paid in our society.

(Wilmot 'Mutty' Perkins)

If Jamaica's economic programme is designed to maintainrelative exchange rate stability while lowering interest rates,

then fiscal adjustment is unavoidable. (Colin Bullock)

The speaker isn't asserting that A or B will happen, he isasserting that B will occur provided thatan event has

already occurred. It is also a non argument because

arguments always contain at least two statements and

conditional statements consist of only a single statement


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Well-Crafted Arguments

A WCA is an argument that is stated in

such a way that its important logical

features are explicit.


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Well-Crafted Argument Principles:

1. Identify the Premises and the Conclusion.

2. Eliminate excess verbiage (words and statementswhich add nothing to the argument).

3. Employ uniform language.

4. Be fair and charitable in interpreting anargument.

5. Do not confuse subconclusions with finalconclusions.

6. Make implicit premises explicit in a charitableway.


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1. Identify the Premises & the

Conclusion

Premises of an argument are statements on

the basis of which the conclusion is affirmed

Statements are sentences or parts of a

sentences that are either true or false

Premise indicators are words that typically

followed by a premise

Conclusion indicators are words that are

typically followed by a conclusion


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Premises & Conclusion Indicators

Since Because

for/for one thing

for the reason that

follows from

inasmuch as as shown by

given that

seeing that

owing to seeing that

as/as indicated by

assuming that

considering that

therefore hence

thus/ergo

so

follows that

consequently

which entails that

which proves that

which implies that

necessarily must be the case that

which means that

demonstrates that

we can conclude that as a result


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Example: Premises & Conclusion

We should abolish the death penalty because it does not

deter crime.

conclusion: we should abolish the death penalty

premise: the death penalty does not deter crime)

Words like because and since are always

followed by a premise.


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2. Eliminate Excess Verbiage

Excess verbiage is a word or statement that adsnothing to the argument

Four types:

Discounts

Repetition

Assurances

Hedges

Ignore discounts excess verbiage


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Discounts

Discount is an acknowledgement of a fact orpossibility that might be thought to render theargument invalid, weak, unsound, or uncogent

Ignore discount such as:

although while it may be true that

even though while I admit that

despite the fact that in spite of the fact that


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Example - Discount

Although certain events in the subatomic realm occur at

random, I still say that the universe as a whole displays a

marvelous order. Perhaps the best evidence for this is the

fact that scientists continue to discover regularities thatcan be formulated as laws.

Premises: The universe as a whole has a

marvelous order.

Conclusion: Scientists continue to discoverregularities that can be formulated as laws.

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Repetition

Restating premises and conclusions usingslightly different language

When rewriting the argument, choose thestatement that best seems to capture the essenceof the claim, and ignore the other version.

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Example - Repetition

The study of logic will increase both yourattention span and your patience with difficultconcepts. In other words, if you apply yourself

to the subject of logic, youll find yourself ableto concentrate for longer periods of time. Youwill also find yourself increasingly able to

approach complex material without feelingrestless or frustrated Therefore, a course inlogic is well worth the effort.

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Assurance

Assurance -words or phrases to indicate a highconfidence in the truth of the premises orconclusion. Some common assurances are:

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obviously the fact is that

clearly it is undeniable that

no one will deny that it is well known that

no doubt everyone knows that

no one will deny that


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Example: Assurance

Sarah will do well on the logic test, for she is bright and

has obviously studied very hard.

Premises:

Sarah is bright.

Sarah has studies very hard.

Conclusion:

Sarah will do well on the test.

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Hedges

indicates either a tentativeness about a premiseor inference (the opposite of an assurance)

Some common hedges are:

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I think that I guess that

it seems that in my opinion

perhaps it is reasonable to suppose that

Maybe it is plausible that

I believe that this seems reasonable


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ExampleHedges

In my opinion, it is wrong to kill animals for food.

Therefore, we should all be vegetarians.

Premises: It is wrong to kill animals for food.

Conclusion: We should all be vegetarians.

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Exception for Assurances &

Hedges Sometimes assurances and assurances cannot be

dropped from an argument because it contributeto the validity, strength, soundness of cogency

of the argument. E. g.

1. If it seems to me that I am in pain, then I am inpain

2. It seems to me that I am in pain

So, I am in pain

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3. Employ Uniform Language

There should be a logical link b/t the premisesand conclusion of an argument

1. God is love.

2. Love is blind.

3. Ray Charles is blind.

Thus, God is Ray Charles.The linkage b/t premises and conclusion is

obscured in this case

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3. Employ Uniform Language

Stick with one term throughout the argument asto highlight the logical form of reasoning (seeexample on page 79)

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4. Be Fair A fair reconstruction will be loyal to the

authors original meaning Consider an argument:

1. Morality is objective only if God exists.2. Morality is objective.3. So, God exists.

Now consider this unfair rendition:1. If Morality is objective then an invisible space ghost

exists.2. Morality is objective.3. So, an invisible space ghost exists.

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4. Be charitable

The basic idea: when confronted with aninterpretative choice, it is best to pick theinterpretation that best preserves the rationality

of the author. example (pg 80):

Oh, yes, we are all deeply appreciative of the fulland accurate information from our government

during the Vietnam War. So, how can anyonedoubt that we received full and accurateinformation during the war in the Persian Gulf?

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4. Be charitable

well-crafted:

1. Americans did not receive accurate informationfrom their government

2. during the Vietnam War.

3. So, Americans probably did not receiveaccurate information from their governmentduring the war in the Persian Gulf.

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Argument Diagrams

4.An argument may have several premises that

jointly support the conclusion.

5. An argument may have several premises, each

separately supporting the conclusion.

6. It may contain a series of premises, the 1stsupporting the 2nd and the 2nd supporting the

conclusion which could be the 3rd statement.

Example:

1. 1[Campaign reform is needed] because 2[many contributionsto political campaigns are morally equivalent to bribes.]

2

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Argument Diagrams

In the diagram above, the arrow is drawn downfrom premise to conclusion.

The arrow means; (1), the conclusion, is

affirmed, on the basis of (2), the premise. In other words, (2) is given as support for (1).

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Argument Diagrams

Premise, sub-conclusion and conclusion

Example

1[Charles is unpleasant to work with] since 2[he

interrupts people constantly.] Therefore, 3[I donot want to serve on a committee with Charles.]

2

1

3 34


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Argument Diagrams

Premise, sub-conclusion and conclusion.Example

- The diagram above says that premise (2)supports (1), the sub-conclusion and (1) is givenin support of (3).

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Argument Diagrams Arguments Sometimes two or more premises provide

independent support for a single conclusion:Example:

- Although 1[Americans like to think they have interfered with

other countries only to defend the downtrodden andhelpless], 2[there are undeniably aggressive episodes inAmericas history.] For example, 3[the USA took Texas fromMexico by force.] 4[The USA seized Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and

Guam.] And 5[in the 1st third of the 20th century, the USAintervened militarily in all of the following countries withoutbeing invited to do so: Cuba, Nicaragua, Guatemala, theDominican Republic, Haiti, and Honduras.]

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Argument Diagrams

The diagram is as follows:

3 4 5

2 NB: Statement (1) is omitted as it is a

discount and so it is neither premise nor

conclusion.

The premises support the conclusion

independently.

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Argument Diagrams

Statements joined by the words and or but

of ten need to be separated into distinct unitsfor diagramming.

Whenever the word and joins two premises,

the diagram must indicate whether the premisesoperate independently or interdependently.

Example:1[The defendant is guilty.] After all, 2[he confessed

to stealing the jewels] and 3[he was undoubtedlypresent at the scene of the crime] since 4[his

fingerprints are on the safe.] 38

A Di


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Argument Diagrams

Interdependent Premises: Below

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2 3

1

The diagram indicates that premises (2) and (3)support conclusion (1) independently. Inaddition, (4) supports (3) but not (2).

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Summary1. The principles of WCA are used to help you

detect faults and problems with arguments.2. The principles of WCA enables you to see the

content of the argument more clearly.

3. By observing these principles in craftingarguments enables you to distinguish betweenarguments and non-arguments.

4. Argument diagrams help the reader or thelistener to identify the logical connectionsbetween statements and propositions in an

argument. 40


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Summary

Argument diagrams helps the reader and listenerto determine what ads value to the argument.and what statements detract from the value of it.

With the aid of argument diagrams the reader orlistener is more able to analyze and meticulouslyexamine the argument to determine validity and

invalidity. The diagrams help the reader or listener to

identify and discard verbiages such as discounts,hedges, assurances and so on.

unit 2a orville

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