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Unit 3: Periodic Table and Electrons in the Atom

(C.5) (A) explain the use of chemical and physical properties in the historical development of the Periodic Table; (C.5)(B) use the Periodic Table to identify and explain the properties of chemical families, including alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases, and transition metals; and (C.6)(E) express the arrangement of electrons in atoms through electron configurations and Lewis valence electron dot structures.

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Table of Contents

History of the Periodic Table 3 - 13

Periodic Families and properties14 – 23

Energy and Electromagnetic 24 – 36 Spectrum

Valence Electrons 37 - 53and Electron Configurations

Lewis electron-dot diagram54 - 58

The History of the Modern Periodic Table

Formation of the Periodic Table of Elements

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During the nineteenth century, chemists began to categorize the elements

according to similarities in their physical and chemical properties. The end result

of these studies was our modern periodic table.

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John NewlandsIn 1863, he suggested that elements be

arranged in “octaves” because he noticed (after arranging the elements in order of increasing atomic mass) that certain properties repeated every 8th element. Law of Octaves

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Dmitri Mendeleyev“Father of the Periodic Table”

Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907), a Russian chemist, created the first published periodic table in 1869.

Mendeleyev noticed patterns in the properties of the elements [63 then-known], and ingeniously was the first to organize the elements not just according to their physical and chemical properties…but also by increasing atomic mass 6

Background on Mendeleyev

Mendeleyev was born in Siberia in 1834, the seventeenth child in a very large family.

He moved to Saint Petersburg to study medicine, but he was not accepted and instead became a chemistry professor.

It is said that he went to sleep one night and dreamt of a table where the elements were organized by similar properties.

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Mendeleyev Arrangement

Unlike the scientist before, Mendeleyev pieced the table together based on several specific elemental properties:

Atomic mass: Mendeleyev placed elements with increasing atomic mass across a row from left to right and down a column

Reactivity: Property that describes how easily an element will combine with other substances to form a new compound

Formula of Compounds: Mendeleyev paid attention to which elements combined with which, and the ratios in which their atoms combine

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Mendeleyev's TableIncreasing atomic mass

Incr

easi

ng a

tom

ic m

ass

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Predictive Value▪ Mendeleyev was so exact with his organization of

the elements that his table demonstrated predictive value.

▪ Using his periodic table, Mendeleyev was able to corrected the atomic masses of Be, In, and U and accurately predict the discovery of Sc, Ga, and Ge.

After the discovery of the unknown elements between 1874 and 1885, and the fact that Mendeleev’s predictions for Sc, Ga, and Ge were amazingly close to the actual values, his table was generally accepted.

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Henry MoseleyModified in 1913 by

Henry Moseley (1887-1915) into the modern Periodic Table

– Arranged in rows (periods) of increasing Atomic Number – that is, increasing number of protons

– Arranged in columns (groups or families) by repetition of physical and chemical properties 11

Glenn Seaborg In 1944, he identified the Lanthanide

and Actinide Series while working on the Manhattan Project during World War II.

Seaborg is credited with the discovery of 8 new elements.

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Modern Periodic Table Now

Through the laborious work of these and many more scientists the periodic table was created and a scientific masterpiece was born!

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GEOGRAPHY IS EVERYTHING

Periodic Families

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GROUPS AND PERIODSGroups

vertical columns containing elements with similar properties.

Groups are also called families due to their similar physical and

chemical properties.For this course, the groups are numbered 1-

18 with Group 1 being on the far left and Group 18 being on the far right of the periodic table.

 Periods

horizontal rows in order of atomic number; each period represents a

finite grouping of elementsCurrently, there are 7 periods

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3 TYPES OF ELEMENTS

Metalsgood conductors of heat and electricityMalleability → hammered or rolled, bendableDuctile → can be pulled into wireLuster → shiny when polished

NonmetalsBrittle → not malleable or ductilePoor conductor of heat and electricity

Metalloidsbrittle solidshave some properties of metals and nonmetalssemiconductors of electricity

LOCATION OF METALS, NON-METALS, AND METALLOIDS

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• Elements contained: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr• have 1 electron in the outside shell• extremely reactive, reacts with water, air, and• nonmetals• silvery• soft, can be cut with a knife• they are not found as pure elements in nature

GROUP 1: ALKALI METALS

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•Elements include: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra•Second most reactive group of metals•Have 2 electrons in the outside shell•Harder, denser and stronger than alkalis•They are not found as pure elements in nature

GROUP 2: ALKALINE EARTH METALS

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•many of the most commonly recognized metals are in these groups•good conductors of electricity• tend to have a high luster• typically less reactive than alkali and alkaline earth elements•many are found in pure form• some are the most dense of all elements

GROUP 3-12: TRANSITION METALS

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• Contain elements: F, Cl, Br, I, At• 7 electrons in outer shell• most reactive nonmetals• react with most metals to form compounds called salts

• fluorine and chlorine are gases

GROUP 17: HALOGENS

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• Includes elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

• Inert gases that do not react with anything, found as individual atoms

• Have 8 electrons in the outer shell (stable configuration)

• Neon, Argon, Krypton, and Xenon are all used for different types of lighting

• Radon is radioactive• A few noble gas compounds have been formed under extreme conditions

GROUP 18: NOBLE GASES

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Element placement in the periodic table is key and is not

by accident! Elements belonging to certain families have similar

physical and chemical properties! So in periodic table, you really are who you group

with!

GEOGRAPHY IS EVERYTHING!

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ENERGY AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUMEnergy and Light

Energy and Light

Matter is has to have mass and volume

Energy is not composed of particles.

Energy can only travel in waves.

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation is made of waves called photons; traveling at “c”

Electromagnetic radiation moves through space like waves move across the surface of a pond

Classical View Of the Universe

The Nature of Light – Wave Nature

Electromagnetic Waves

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

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Every wave has four characteristics that determine its properties: wave speed, v height (amplitude), length, λ number of wave peaks that pass in 1

second, ƒ All electromagnetic waves move through

space at the same, constant speed. 3.00 x 108 meters per second in a vacuum

= The speed of light, c.

Characterizing Waves

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

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The amplitude is the height of the wave. The distance from node to crest. The amplitude is a measure of how intense the

light is—the larger the amplitude, the brighter the light.

The wavelength (l) is a measure of the distance covered by the wave. The distance from one crest to the next.

Or the distance from one trough to the next, or the distance between alternate nodes.

It is actually one full cycle, 2π Usually measured in nanometers.

1 nm = 1 x 10-9 m

Characterizing Waves

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

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The frequency (n) is the number of waves that pass a point in a given period of time. The number of waves = number of cycles. Units are hertz (Hz), or cycles/s = s-1.

1 Hz = 1 s-1

The total energy is proportional to the amplitude and frequency of the waves. The larger the wave amplitude, the more

force it has. The more frequently the waves strike, the

more total force there is.

Low Frequency Wave

High Frequency Wave

l

l

l

amplitude

amplitude

C, frequency and wavelength Wave speed, frequency and wavelength

have mathematical relationship. Using c = λ x ƒ, frequency or wavelength

can be found. Example what is the wavelength of a wave of

light if it has a frequency of 3.2 x 1014 hertz? 3.00 x 108 m/s = λ x 3.2 x 1014 s-1 solve for λ. λ = 3.00 x 108 m/s = 1.5 x 10-5 m

3.2 x 1014 s-1

Light Particles and Planck’s Constant

Scientists in the early 20th century showed that electromagnetic radiation was composed of particles we call photons. Max Planck and Albert

Einstein. Photons are particles of

light energy. One wavelength of light

has photons with that amount of energy.

Planck’s Constant is a physical constant reflecting the sizes of energy quanta (photons) in quantum mechanics. It is named after Max

Planck, one of the founders of quantum theory, who discovered it in 1900.

The equation is E = hf where E = energy, h = Planck's constant (6.63 x 10-34 J s), and f = frequency.

Particles of Light Planck’s Constant

Using Planck’s equation, E = h x ƒ

Example 1: Solving for E using Planck’s Constant

Example 2: Solving for energy using wavelength and Planck’s Constant

What is the energy (Joules) of Violet light with a frequency = 7.50 x 1014 s-1?

h =6.63 x 10- 34 J s we then plug in our frequency into our formula and we get

E = 6.63 x 10-34 J s x 7.50 x 1014 s-1 = 4.97 x10-19 J

Find the energy of light, wavelength is 4.06 x 10-11 m.

We first need to plug in the frequency-wavelength relationship so ƒ = c / λ.

We then plug it into the energy equation, E = h x ( c / λ ) then we plug in all our numerical values.

E = 6.63 x 10-34 J s x (3.00 x 108 m/s /4.06 x 1014 m)

E = 4.90 x 10-40 J

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation . The color of the light is determined by its

wavelength.

The electromagnetic spectrum extends from low frequencies used for modern radio communication to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength (high-frequency) end.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Photon Energy

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

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Short wavelength light have photons with highest energy = High frequency Radio wave photons have the lowest

energy. Gamma ray photons have the highest

energy. High-energy electromagnetic radiation

can potentially damage biological molecules. Ionizing radiation The waves fit between atom-atom

bonds, and vibrate/shake the atoms loose

Order the Following Types of Electromagnetic Radiation:Microwaves, Gamma Rays, Green Light, Red Light, Ultraviolet Light, Continued

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

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By wavelength (short to long).Gamma < UV < green < red < microwaves.

By frequency (low to high).Microwaves < red < green < UV < gamma.

By energy (least to most).Microwaves < red < green < UV < gamma.

VALENCE ELECTRONS AND ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

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VALENCE ELECTRONS Valence electrons are electrons found on the

outer energy shell of an atom Electrons available to be lost, gained, or

shared in the formation of chemical compounds.

Found in the highest energy level.Valence electrons

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VALENCE ELECTRONS Elements in the same group (family) have

the same number of valence electrons

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Energy shells are divided into sub-shells as shown

in the research of Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg

The sub-shells are labeled as the s, p, d, and f sub-shells. The each hold a certain number of orbitals Each orbital can hold 2 electrons

Electron configuration: A shorthand way to keep track of all the electrons in an atom of an element for all the sub-shells that have electrons. The number of electrons in each sub-shell is shown as a superscript.

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Electron Shells (n= 1,

2, 3, 4…) The letter n represents

the main shell or energy level.

The maximum numbers of electrons that can occupy the main shells

The electron shells in the shell model of an atom (except for n =1) are divided into sub-shells.

Energy Level

# of electrons per energy level (2n2)

1 2

2 8

3 18

4 32

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Electron Sub-Shells (s, p,

d, and f)Each sub-shell is

indicated by its main shell number and a letter, either s, p, d, or f.

The number of sub-shells in each shell is the same as the shell number.

The maximum numbers of electrons that can occupy s, p, d, and f sub-shells are 2, 6, 10, and 14, respectively

sub-shell# of

electrons in sub shell

s 2

p 6

d 10

f 14

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION•Sub-shells can be seen by the separation on the periodic table.• Helium is part of the s sub-shell.

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION In an electron configuration,

the number indicates the shell number

the letter indicates the sub-shell within the shell

the superscript indicates the number of electrons in the sub-shell.

The superscript numbers sum to the total number of electrons for an atom of the element Example: carbon has six electrons

and its electron configuration is 1s22s22p2 2 +2 +2 =6 total electrons

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table can be used to find the electron configuration for an element First find the element on the periodic table Then follow through each element block in order by

stating the energy level, the orbital type, and the number of electrons per orbital type until you arrive at the element.

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GUIDED PRACTICE Find the electron configuration for selenium,

Se. Selenium is in the 4th energy shell, in the p sub-

shell, and in the fourth column of the p sub-shell so its electron configuration should end in 4p4.

Just follow the fill order to write the electron configuration. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4

Add up all the superscripts to check if the number equals selenium’s atomic number 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 +2 +10 + 4 = 34 Se atomic # =

34

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PRACTICE Write the following elements electron

configurations. Li, Lithium

K, Potassium

Kr, Krypton

Pb, Lead

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PRACTICE Answers

Li, Lithium 1s22s1

K, Potassium 1s22s22p63s23p64s1

Kr, Krypton 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6

Pb, Lead 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p2

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NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION To write a noble gas (shorthand)

configuration for any element, count backwards from that element until you reach a noble gas.

Write that element in brackets. Then, continue forward with next sub-shell(s)

- see the following version of the periodic chart that shows the sub-shell order with respect to the elements.

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NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATIONNoble Gases

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NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION For example, if we wanted to do the

shorthand configuration for sodium (Na), you would count back one element to neon (Ne) and put Ne in brackets. [Ne]

Put this element symbol in brackets and then, noting that the next correct sub-shell is 3s, include the rest of the electrons as we did with the smaller elements. [Ne]3s1

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PRACTICE Write the following noble gas configuration

for the following elements. Be, Beryllium

F, Fluorine

Pt, Platinum

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PRACTICE Write the following noble gas configuration

for the following elements. Be, Beryllium

[He]2s2

F, Fluorine [He]2s22p5

Pt, Platinum [Xe]6s24f145d8

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Lewis electron-dot diagram

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Lewis electron-dot diagram

Lewis electron-dot diagrams are pictures or representations of atoms and their valence (or outer shell) electrons. Electron dot diagrams show only the electrons in the valence or

outer energy level. First the atomic symbol is written. Then the dots representing the valence electrons are put on

each side of the atomic symbol. Each side must have at least one dot before dots can be paired up.

Lewis electron-dot diagrams are used to help determine how bonding will occur between atoms and the possible shapes that the molecules will form.

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Lewis electron-dot diagram

Sulfur Sulfur has 6 valence electrons

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Practice

Draw the Lewis electron-dot diagram for the following elements Hydrogen

Phosphorus

Bromine

Nitrogen

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Practice

Answers Hydrogen

Phosphorus

Bromine

Nitrogen