UNIT 4 BASICS OF TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

4.1 Introduction

Technical reporting is the practical writing that people do as a part of their jobs. Because it is practical, technical writing “aims to get work done, to change people by changing the way they do things .” Organisations use reports to provide a formal, verifiable link among people, places, and times. Some reports are used for internal communication; others are vehicles for corresponding with outsiders. Some serve as a permanent record; others solve an immediate problem or answer a passing question. Many move upward through chain of command to help managers monitor the various units in the organisation; some move down to explain managerial decisions to lower level employees responsible for day today operation. although business reports serve hundreds of purposes, most reports are used for one of the following six general purposes.

To monitor and control operationTo help implement policies and proceduresTo comply with legal and regulatory requirementsTo document work performed for a clientTo guide decisions on particular issuesTo obtain new business or funds

Each of these purposes imposes its own requirements on the report writer,

4.2 Learning Outcomes1. Understand the function of technical writing.2. Manage the writing process (think, plan, write, revise, and edit).3. Understand the structure of paragraphs and the role of topic sentences and thesis

statements.4. Understand the sections of scientific/technical report.

4.3 Report Writing Format

What is a report

A report is the conventional method of presenting precise information. A report may be used to convey an assessment of any situation or the results from qualitative and/or quantitative data analysis. A report has clearly stated aims. It is tightly focused on the subject of investigation. A really effective report will also be compelling and stimulating to read.

 

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Understanding the Sections of Your Report

Reports are generally divided up into sections. Each section has a specific purpose, and often there are specific guidelines for formatting each section. This part of the hypertext offers some general guidelines for working on each section of a report. It's always best to consult a style manual for your discipline, to talk to other people in your discipline who have written reports, and to look at similar reports that have been published in order to more fully understand the expectations for reports in your field.

Generally, a report will include the following sections:

Title page Abstract Table of contents Introduction Body Recommedations References Appendices

This section helps you to understand each of these sections. Just click on any of the links to the left to get started, or click on the next button at the bottom to start navigating through these sections.

Title page

The title page of the research report normally contains four main pieces of information: the report title; the name of the person, company, or organization for whom the report has been prepared; the name of the author and the company or university which originated the report; and the date the report was completed. You might also include other information on the title page such as contract number, a security classification such as CONFIDENTIAL, or a copy number depending on the nature of the report you are writing.

How do I come up with a title?

It is important to take your audience into account when developing a title for your research report.  It is a good idea to develop a "working title" for your project as you draft your report initially, but be open to changing your title after you are finished writing to accurately reflect your project.  Be sure that your title is accurate; it needs to reflect the major emphasis of your paper and prepare readers for the information you present.  Also, develop a title that will be interesting to readers and that will make them want to read the rest of your report.  Try to imagine what you would want to see in the title if you were searching for your paper by keyword; include keywords in the title when possible and when they are relevant. 

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There are four common approaches that writers often take to writing their titles. Notice how these approaches help to convey the nature of the research and introduce the topic.

1. Include the name of the problem, hypothesis, or theory that was tested or is discussed. Example: Demand and Supply Determination in a Public Distribution System.

2. Include the name of the phenomenon or subject investigated. Example: The Human Brain: Conservation of the Subcortical Auditory System

3. Name the method used to investigate a phenomenon or method developed for application.Example: A Practical EMG-Based Human-Computer Interface for Users with Motor Disabilities

4. Provide a brief description of the results obtained.

Omit obvious words and phrases such as “A study on . . .” and “An investigation of . . .” whenever you can as well. These make your title unnecessarily wordy.

Here is a sample title page. Note that this format may not be acceptable for your context; always consult your supervisor, instructor, or a style manual for your discipline to see how title pages should be formatted.

 

BUSINESS PROCESS MAPPING FOR STRATEGY AND ENTERPRISE MANAGEMENT OF TELECOM SERVICE PROVIDERS

submitted toDr. David

Department of Management StudiesAnna University

Chennai-600025May 7, 2006

byS.SELVADEVAN

(2555506)

 

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Abstract

“An abstract is an accurate representation of the contents of a document in an abbreviated form” (Porush 75). An abstract can be the most difficult part of the research report to write because in it you must introduce your subject matter, tell what was done, and present selected results, all in one short (about 150 words) paragraph. As a result, you should usually write the abstract last.

You will need to write an abstract when your dissertation for a higher degree (M.S. or Ph.D.) is accepted, when you submit an article for publication, or when your report will be disseminated to an audience that needs a summary of its contents. You may not have to write an abstract for reports written for a course; check the specific guidelines for your course to see if one is required.

An abstract serves an important function in a research report; it communicates the scope of your paper and the topics discussed to your reader, and, in doing so, it facilitates research. Abstracts help scientists to locate materials that are relevant to their research from among published papers, and many times scientists will only read a paper’s abstract in order to determine whether the paper will be relevant to them. Considering your audience and their needs will help you to determine what should be included in your abstract.

Ask yourself:

Why would another researcher be interested in this research? What are the most important aspects of the research? What should a reader be

sure to know about the research? What information will the reader have to have in order to understand the most

important aspects? What are the main points from each section of your report? Summarize each

section in one sentence, if possible.

The most common type of abstract is the informative abstract. An informative abstract summarizes the key information from every major section in the body of the report, and provides the key facts and conclusions from the body of the report. A good way to develop an informative abstract is to devote a sentence or two to each of the major parts of the report. If space permits, you can provide contextual information such as background of the problem and the significance of the research, but you can also omit contextual information because the abstract is not supposed to serve as an introduction to the subject matter of the report—your introduction will serve that role. You can also omit citations for your sources in the abstract. If you summarize information that you borrowed from other writers, you do not have to repeat the citation in the informative abstract. You should, however, include key numerical facts to make the informative abstract brief. Readers will not be surprised to see numerical data in an informative abstract.

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Be sure to summarize rather than describe your report in an informative abstract. Phrases such as “This report discusses” or “Several solutions are considered” describe what the content of the report will be rather than actually summarize the report’s main points or solutions. Someone reading your informative abstract should have a clear, albeit limited, understanding of the scope and nature of your research, as well as the conclusions you reach.

Table of Contents

Most reports will contain a Table of Contents that lists the report’s contents and demonstrates how the report has been organized. You should list each major section in your Table of Contents. Sometimes you may want to use additional descriptive headings throughout your report and for your Table of Contents. Using descriptive headings can help readers to see how your report is organized if the section headings are not clear enough. This is likely to be true especially if most of your report is contained in one long section called Body or Discussion that includes everything from the materials and methods you used to the results you found and the conclusions you draw. In this case, it might be best to include additional headings to indicate where readers can look specifically to read about your materials and methods or conclusions.

Introduction

Contents

The introduction prepares readers for the discussion that follows by introducing the purpose, scope, and background of the research. The audience for your report largely determines the length of the introduction and the amount of detail included in it. You should include enough detail so that someone knowledgeable in your field can understand the subject and your research.

You should begin your introduction at the top of a new page, preceded on the page only by the report’s full title. The title is followed by the word Introduction, which can be either a center or side heading. Most introductions contain three parts to provide context for the research: purpose, scope, and background information. These parts often overlap one another, and sometimes one of them may be omitted simply because there is no reason for it to be included.

It is very important to consider the purpose of your research and your report in the introduction. If you do not completely understand what the purpose is, there is little chance that the reader will understand your purpose either. The following questions will help you to think about the purpose of your research and your reason for writing a report:

What did your research discover or prove? What kind of problem did you work on?

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Why did you work on this problem? If the problem was assigned, try to imagine why the instructor assigned this particular problem; what were you supposed learn from working on it?

Why are you writing this report? What should the reader know or understand when they are finished reading the

report?

Scope refers to the ground covered by the report and will outline the method of investigation used in the project. Considering the scope of your project in the introduction will help readers to understand the parameters of your research and your report. It will also help you to identify limiting factors on your research and acknowledge these early in the report. For example, “if 18 methods for improving packaging are investigated in a project but only 4 are discussed in the report, the scope indicates what factors (such as cost, delivery time, and availability of space) limited the selection” (Blicq and Moretto 165). Scope may also include defining important terms.

These questions will help you to think about the scope of both your research and your report:

How did you work on the research problem? Why did you work on the problem the way you did? Were there other obvious approaches you could have taken to this problem? What

were the limitations you faced that prevented your trying other approaches? What factors contributed to the way you worked on this problem? What factor

was most important in deciding how to approach the problem?

Background Information includes facts that the reader must know in order to understand the discussion that follows. These facts may include descriptions of conditions or events that caused the project to be authorized or assigned and details of previous work and reports on the problem or closely related problems. You might also want to review theories that have a bearing on the project and references to other documents although if you need to include a lengthy review of other theories or documents, these should be placed in an appendix.

Ask yourself:

What facts does the reader need to know in order to understand the discussion that follows?

Why was the project authorized or assigned? Who has done previous work on this problem? What theory or model informed your project? What facts are already known that support or don’t fit the theory? What will the reader know about the subject already and what will you need to

tell them so they can understand the significance of your work?

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Beginning an introduction

Introductions serve as a place for you to catch your reader’s attention, and they also help to place your project in its context (whether that context is background information or your purpose in writing is up to you). As a result, it is important to consider the approach you will take to begin your introduction

A good way to begin an introduction is to think of your audience and consider how you might best orient them to your topic. State the problem as specifically as possible and contextualize the project for them. Consider placing either the purpose of your project or the background information first, then moving on to consider scope after your topic has been introduced.

 

The Body of Your Report

The body is usually the longest part of the research report, and it includes all of the evidence that readers need to have in order to understand the subject. This evidence includes details, data, results of tests, facts, and conclusions. Exactly what you include in the body and how it is organized will be determined by the context in which you are writing. Be sure to check the specific guidelines under which you are working to see if your readers are expecting you to organize the body in a particular way.

In general, the body of the research report will include three distinct sections:

a section on theories, models, and your own hypothesis a section in which you discuss the materials and methods you used in your

research a section in which you present and interpret the results of your research.

You will usually use a heading to identify the beginning of each of these sections.

Results: Presenting data

In the results section of your report, you will finally get to talk about what you discovered, invented, or confirmed through your research, and you will present your experimental data, observations, and outcome. Because this section focuses on your specific research project, the results section is the most straightforward of the sections to write, and it may be the simplest and most enjoyable section you will write. Regardless of what other sections you need to include, you will always write a section in which you present results, although it might be called discussion rather than “results,” All preceding sections of the report (Introduction, Materials and Methods, etc.) lead in to the Results section of the report and all subsequent sections will consider what the results mean (conclusion, recommendations, etc.).

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Focus on the facts of your research in the Results section and present them in a straightforward way. Consider how best to organize your results section in the clearest and most logical way. The most common way to organize information in a research report is chronologically. This method of organization allows you to present information in the sequence that events occurred. Organizing information chronologically can be very simple and will not require much preplanning. It does tend to give emphasis to each event regardless of its relative importance, however and, as a result, can be difficult for readers to understand which event or what information is most important, and it can also be difficult for the writer to keep their reader’s attention.

How should I incorporate figures and tables into my report?

Most scientific reports will use some type of figure and/or table to convey information to readers. Figures visually represent data and include graphs, charts, photographs, and illustrations. Tables organize data into groups. You will most likely use figures and tables in your report to represent numerical data from measurements taken during your experiment. Figures and tables should help to simplify information, so you should consider using them when words are not able to convey information as efficiently as a visual aid would be able to. For instance, if you have to subject numerical data to computer analysis, it will be easier and more concise to represent this visually than it would be through words. Consider using figures and tables when you need to decipher information or the analysis of information, when you need to describe relationships among data that are not apparent otherwise, and when you need to communicate purely visual aspects of a phenomenon or apparatus.

In some cases, you will not have to make a decision about what kind of table or figure you will use. Such is the case when you need to include a photograph in your report, for instance. In other cases, you may have trouble in deciding what kind of table or figure would work best in your report. Readers will expect to see certain kinds of information presented in certain kinds of ways, and you can use reader expectations to your advantage. David Porush outlines the purposes that different kinds of tables and figures serve best and most often. It is important to choose the correct way to represent your data; if you understand what your audience expects from each one, you will be prepared to choose the best way to represent data.

Tables or lists are simple ways to organize the precise data which points themselves in one-on-one relationships.

A graph is best at showing the trend or relationship between two dimensions, or the distribution of data points in a certain dimension (i.e., time, space, across studies, statistically).

A pie chart is best at showing the relative areas, volumes, or amounts into which a whole (100%) has been divided.

Flow charts show the organization or relationships between discrete parts of a system. For that reason they are often used in computer programming.

Photographs are not very good at calling attention to a particular part within a larger structure. They are best at presenting overall shapes, shades, and relative

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positionings, or when a ‘real-life’ picture is necessary, as in the picture of a medical condition or an electron micrograph of a particular microscopic structure.

Illustrations are best when they are simple, unshaded line drawings. Remove all but the essential details in order to keep your line drawing as uncluttered as possible. They suit most purposes for representing real objects or the relationship of parts in a larger object. (Porush 141).

When you include tables and figures in your report it is important that you pay attention to some general guidelines for using them as well. These guidelines can help you decide when to include a table or figure and they will also help you to meet your audience’s expectations so that they will understand what is most important from your text and from tables and figures. The most important general rule is that tables and figures should supplement rather than simply repeat information in the report. You should never include a table or figure simply to include them. This is redundant and wastes your reader’s time.

Additionally, all tables and figures should:

be self-contained—they should make complete sense on their own without reference to the text

be cited in the text—it will be very confusing to your audience to suddenly come upon a table or figure that is not introduced somewhere in the text. They will not have a context for understanding its relevance to your report.

include a number such as Table 1 or Figure 10—this will help you to distinguish multiple tables and figures from each other.

include a concise title—it is a good idea to make the most important feature of the data the title of the figure

include clear and proportionate labels so that readers will understand your table or figure

Results: Interpretation of Data

It is unlikely that you will have a title a separate section of your report titled “Interpretation of Data.” Usually, this section, combined with your presentation of data, will be called “Results” or “Discussion.” Sometimes, presentation of data and interpretation of data may be split into separate categories, with presentation called “Results,” and interpretation called “Discussion.” Regardless of its title, interpretation of data is also crucial to a successful research report.

This section of the report is important because it demonstrates the meaning of your research. Without this section, readers will not necessarily understand what your research proves, or they might not see how it differs from or improves on other research. In this section you will interpret your results and your research as a whole and discuss the relationship of your findings to earlier research. This section of the paper draws upon writing skills that other sections do not because you need to write persuasively in this section as you convince readers that your interpretation of data is logical and correct. As you develop your argument in this section, consider arranging your evidence in the order

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that best highlights your main point, cite authorities that have come to similar interpretations under similar circumstances, and consider the superiority of your conclusions to opposing viewpoints.

Your interpretation will be most convincing if it proceeds logically. There may be many ways to organize your interpretation of data logically; consider your readers’ needs to help you decide how to organize your information:

What does your reader need to know before anything else in order to understand and be persuaded to believe your argument?

What does your reader need to know next, or what naturally follows from this first idea?

What is the most important thing for your reader to understand from your interpretation? Consider placing this first.

One basic way to organize your information logically is to move from what you are most certain about to what you are least certain about. For most research reports, the most certain part of your case will be your data, and many research reports will develop along this outline:

begin with a discussion of the data move on to generalize about or analyze the data consider how the data addresses the research problem or hypothesis outlined in

the Introduction discuss what can be inferred from the data as they relate to other research and

scientific concepts

It is also very important for you to identify the nature and extent of any limitations of your research in this section of your report, especially if your results are inadequate, negative, or not consistent with earlier studies or with your own hypothesis. Do not try to defend your research or minimize the seriousness of the limitation in your interpretation; instead, focus on the limitation only as it affects the research and try to account for it.

 

 

Conclusions

The Conclusion of a research report is usually a very short section that introduces no new ideas. You may ask, then, why include conclusions? The conclusion is important because it is your last chance to convey the significance and meaning of your research to your reader by concisely summarizing your findings and generalizing their importance. It is also a place to raise questions that remain unanswered and to discuss ambiguous data. The conclusions you draw are opinions, based on the evidence presented in the body of your report, but because they are opinions you should not tell the reader what to do or

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what action they should take. Save discussion of future action for your section on Recommendations.

The Conclusion follows naturally from the interpretation of data, so, in some cases, you will not need to title a new section “Conclusions,” but can simply end your discussion with conclusions. It is helpful to consider the conclusion a separate section even if you do not title it as such, though, so that you are sure to accomplish the purpose of the conclusion in your report. The most important thing to remember in writing your conclusion is to state your conclusions clearly. Do not be ambiguous about them or leave doubt in your readers’ minds as to what your conclusions are.

Once you have stated your conclusions clearly, you can move on to discuss the implications of your conclusions. Be sure that you use language that distinguishes conclusions from inferences. Use phrases like “This research demonstrates . . .” to present your conclusions and phrases like “This research suggests . . .” or “This research implies . . .” to discuss implications. Make sure that readers can tell your conclusions from the implications of those conclusions, and do not claim too much for your research in discussing implications. You can use phrases such as “Under the following circumstances,” “In most instances,” or “In these specific cases” to warn readers that they should not generalize your conclusions.

You might also raise unanswered questions and discuss ambiguous data in your conclusion. Raising questions or discussing ambiguous data does not mean that your own work is incomplete or faulty; rather, it connects your research to the larger work of science and parallels the introduction in which you also raised questions. The following is an example taken from a text that evaluated the hearing and speech development following the implantation of a cochlear implant. The authors of “Beginning To Talk At 20 Months: Early Vocal Development In a Young Cochlear Implant Recipient,” published in Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, titled their conclusion “Summary and Caution.” Using this title calls readers’ attention to the limitations of their study.

 

Recommendations

You may or may not need to include a section titled “Recommendations.” This section appears in a report when the results and conclusions indicate that further work needs to be done or when you have considered several ways to resolve a problem or improve a situation and want to determine which one is best. You should not introduce new ideas in the recommendations section, but rely on the evidence presented in the results and conclusions sections. If you find that you need to include a recommendations section you have another opportunity to demonstrate how your research fits within the larger project of science, and the section can serve as a starting point for future dialogue on the subject. It demonstrates that you fully understand the importance and implications of your research, as you suggest ways that it could continue to be developed. Do not include a

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recommendations section simply for the sake of including one; this will waste your readers’ time and take up unnecessary space in your report.

Amy Gatian offers some specific recommendations for future research in the paper “Discussion on The Effects Of Screen Layout And Feedback Type On Productivity and Satisfaction of Occasional Users,” published in the Journal of Information Systems.

 

References

It is important to include a References section at the end of a report in which you used other sources. Informal or short reports may not have a references section or only a short one while more formal reports will likely have reference sections, sometimes very lengthy ones. If you included a section on the background of your research topic or discussed other theories and models related to your research, you will need a references section.

Reference sections are important because, like the sections on the procedure you used to gather data, they allow other researchers to build on or to duplicate your research. Without references, readers will not be able to tell whether the information that you present is credible, and they will not be able to find it for themselves. Reference sections also allow you to refer to other researchers’ work without reviewing that work in detail. You can refer readers to your reference page for more information.

You should include references that you cited directly in the report or that greatly informed your research. You do not need to include secondary materials that are only slightly related to your topic. Do not include references simply to make this section longer.

Reference styles vary greatly from one instructor to another, one journal to another. You should always format your references according to the guidelines provided by the journal or teacher to whom you are submitting your report. One of the most common reference styles used for research reports in the social sciences and some other disciplines is that outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA). Do not assume that this will be the style you should use, however. Talk to your instructor, your supervisor, or look up the appropriate style guide for your discipline.

It is best to compile your own reference list containing a variety of information. This will save you from having to track down pieces of information you may have neglected to make note of if they are specifically requested after you have filed a source, returned it to the library, or misplaced it.

Information to include on your reference list:

• author’s name and initials

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• date of publication• title of the book, paper or journal• publisher• place of publication• page numbers• details of the journal volume in which the article has appeared.

References should be listed in alphabetical order of the authors' names.Make sure that your references are accurate and comprehensive.

Appendices

An appendix contains additional information related to the report but which is not essential to the main findings. This can be consulted if the reader wishesbut the report should not depend on this. You could include details of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of terms, or other information whichmay be useful for the reader.Writing Reports 9

4.4 Process of report writingTo help you to produce a report four stages in the process have been identified foryou to follow. This may help you to tackle key issues and understand the task set.These four stages are

(a) preparation(b) planning(c) writing(d) pre-submission editing.

(a) Preparation

To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail. The importance of preparation and planning cannot be stressed too highly. Often, however, writers simply ignore this aspect or dismiss it as too mechanical to be worthwhile. As a result they start too quickly into the writing process itself and end up failing to realise their full potential. Anything you commit to paper before your overall plan has taken shape is likely to be wasted; it will be like a bricklayer starting to build the wall of a house before the architect has drawn up the plans.

The first stage is to make a choice from the list of titles – in particular do you want todo some primary research? Choose a title which you are interested in.The time spent at this stage of producing the report is vital. Careful preparation is aninvestment. It allows you to make the best use of the time available. During thisperiod you should decide WHAT you are writing and WHY, before resolving HOW to

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write your report. Establish the broad focus of your report first with reference to the specification and the assessment objectives and then with reference to the generalisation. Undertake some individual background reading using the suggested bibliography. Use asearch engine to look for more possibilities. This enables you to define the subjectand your aims more precisely. If you are going to do some primary data collection itis best to make your appointments for people you need to see, and do an initialsurvey at this stage. When you have completed your reading and feasibility study, review the key issues and research methods that will be used within your report. Make a note of them.

4.4.1 Planning

Before you write a single word you must:

Set your objective. Assess your readership. Decide what information you will need. Prepare your skeletal framework. Test and revise your skeletal framework.

Collectively these activities constitute the planning stage of report writing. The amount of time and thought you spend on them will make a vast difference to the effectiveness of all the work that will follow, by:

continually reminding you of your overall objective making you constantly 'think readers' ensuring you know what information you will need

to gather giving you clear guidelines to follow when writing

each section enabling you to rise above the detail and obtain an

overview of the entire report at any time.

Setting your Objective

It is vital to establish your precise objective. You must first be absolutely sure of the purpose of your report. Only then can you even begin to think about what you are going to write and how you are going to write it.

A clearly defined objective has a number of important benefits:

It helps you decide what information to include - and leave out.

It helps you pitch the report at the right level.

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It makes it easier to write the report.

Assessing your Readership

The next stage is to identify and assess your readership. In many cases, you know who will be reading your report and the detailed content, style and structure can then be matched to their level of knowledge and expertise:

Concentrate on points they will care about. Explain things they do not know. Address questions and concerns they would be

likely to raise.

Deciding What Information you will Need

Planning is essential. It saves time and promotes clarity in collecting the informationyou require, in organising the material and in writing the report. You will find it easier if you break the whole process down into a number of distinct tasks:

(a) data collection and analysis can be broken down either according tothe source or the subsection of the report;(b) similarly, the writing process can be broken down – the writing of textinto subsections, and presentation into graphs, tables and maps.

You will also be faced with a number of questions:

(a) what evidence is needed to meet the overall objective of the report?(b) where is that evidence?(c) how much evidence should be collected?(d) how should the evidence be analysed?(e) how should the evidence and the analysis be ordered for writing thereport?

Attempting to deal with all of these factors in a chaotic way leads to confusion andwasted effort. Therefore, after “preparation” you should begin to plan the datacollection, analysis and writing process. Good organisation is the key to success.Using the following sequence may help you to plan and to determine the method forwriting your report:

(a) identify the sources of evidence (data and/or literature), look for arange of views on the issue;(b) decide what is the most appropriate and relevant evidence to collect.Be precise in this, understand the evidence;(c) decide how you will present your findings including the order in whichthey will be used to create a structure to the report – the plan;

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(d) identify likely figures – maps, tables, diagrams, and think how you canuse them;(e) decide on the order of priority of each of the tasks;(f) draw up a realistic timetable for the completion of each task, includingwriting the draft of the report.

4.4.2 The writing process

There are three main factors to consider at this stage to give your report a soundframework, clear style and an attractive appearance:• structure• language• presentation.

StructureYou need to give form and shape to your report. A basic structure helps the readerdigest the report. It also helps you to write and organise your material logically.A structure implied the assessment criteria, but your report should have thefollowing:

(a) report cover sheet, title page and contents;(b) executive summary/abstract; [on front cover](c) introduction and definition of the question or issue;(d) sources of research information used, methods ofcollection and analysis and their limitations;(e) analysis and interpretation;(f) evaluation and conclusion;(g) bibliography and appendices.

First, concentrate on writing the body of the report. This is the introduction, thefindings, and the conclusions. Then deal with the other sections.The following order for writing is suggested.

(a) Analysis and interpretation. This is the section in which you presentyour findings. When you are writing this section all of your materialshould have been sorted, selected and arranged in note form. Thissection includes:

(i) the results of your analysis;(ii) your interpretation of those results.This section forms the basis for your conclusions. You should help thereader by ending each separate section with its own conclusion.

(b) Methods. In this section you should discuss:

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(i) the sources of evidence you have used and then possible bias;(ii) how you have collected and analysed the evidence;(iii) the limitations of the sources and methods of collection and analysis.

(c) Conclusions. This section is a summary of all the major findings madeat stages throughout the report. No new evidence should appear here.The conclusion considers the evidence presented in the main body,draws out the implications and brings it to one overall conclusion or anordered series of final conclusions.

(d) Introduction. After having written your findings and conclusions younow know clearly what you want to introduce. The introduction iswhere you acquaint the reader with the purpose of the report and guidethem through the structure of your report.

(e) Appendices. This section is set aside for supplementary evidence notessential to the main findings, but which provides useful back-upsupport for you main arguments eg a transcript of an interview or analysis of a complex set of statistics.

(f) Contents. All the sections of the report should be listed in sequencewith page reference.(g) Bibliography. This section covers the books and other sources whichhave been used in your research. It must include every referencementioned in the text and be presented correctly.(h) Title page. This should include the title, which indicates the centraltheme of the report. It should also include the candidate’s name andthe date of completion of the report.(i) Executive summary or abstract. This is a very important part of thereport and should be the last thing you write. You need to read throughyour report and develop a list of the ‘headlines’. An executivesummary is the key issues of a report.

• Language

The strength of good technical writing lies in being able to write with: objectivity, clarity, accuracy, criticality and appropriateness.

OBJECTIVITY| you make the underlying assumptions of your argument clear. You have a balanced view given the data and results you have. You take care not to write your opinions as though they were facts. You avoid words like: obviously, surely, and of course. You critically reflect on your own work as well as that of others.

CLARITY| you write clearly with simple sentences that are put together logically showing evidence of clear scientific thinking.

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ACCURACY | the statements you make are related to the evidence -either your evidence of that of other researchers. Your sentences are precise and not woolly and you don't make general sweeping statements without evidence.

CRITICALITY| you are able to be dispassionate and evaluate your own work (and that of others).

APPROPRIATENESs| you are aware of your reader and you know what information they need to understand your work. You present your work clearly in order to facilitate this. You understand the kind of report you are writing and you write with the appropriate style.

Other important things to remember.

(a) Keep sentences short and simple. Long complex sentences slow thereader down and confuse and impede understanding. The sameapplies to paragraph.(b) Poor spelling automatically detracts from your work and will annoy thereader. Use a dictionary and you can also check the final documentusing the spell checker on a PC. (Remember, however, that this maywell use American spellings and its dictionary may not include all thewords you use in the report.)

4.4.4 Presentation

Your report must look good in addition to reading well. Adequate headings andnumbering make it easier for the reader to comprehend what you are saying. Thisstage of report writing requires the same level of care that went into composing thetext. Do not be afraid to use bullet points to present arguments.The presentation of statistics is often more informative and eye-catching if they areshown visually, for example by using graphs, pie charts or histograms.

Layout is important. This is the relationship between print and space on the page.This applies whether it is hand-written or word processed. A crowded page withdense blocks of print and little space looks unattractive and is off-putting.Always ensure that there are:(a) adequate margins;(b) either double or 1.5 spaced lines;(c) headings that stand out clearly from the page.(d) Pre-submission editingIt is important not only to read the draft through from start to finish before submissionbut also to edit and refine the report. It is so easy when word processing. You willhave to refine the report in order to meet the 1500 word limit requirements.As you read, mark pages which will need attention later. Do not stop to deal withthem now. You need to get a feel of the overall structure and impact of the reportfirst so your initial read through must be continuous. Put yourself in the reader’s

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shoes and be highly critical of what you have written.Proof-reading is vitally important. Regardless of the time and effort put into writingthe report, the required result will not be achieved without sufficient care beingdevoted to proof-reading. A poorly typed report, full of errors and inconsistencies inlayout, has a damaging effect regardless of the quality of the content.(a) The report must be checked in great detail, for grammar and spellingerrors.(b) Ask yourself whether you could have expressed yourself in a betterway. If so, change the sentence or the paragraph.(c) Assess whether the structure of the main body of work is really themost suitable one to present your material, ideas and arguments.(d) Is each paragraph structured well? Make sure every idea or piece ofinformation has a separate paragraph.(e) Are all the maps and diagrams included in the correct place andintegrated into the text (as figures)?(f) Are all the references in the text included in the bibliography with fullformal details?(g) Does the report fulfil the stated aims and assessment objectives?(h) Is your argument watertight and easy to follow?(i) Does your conclusion make your argument all the more convincing?(j) Does your executive summary/abstract convey the key points of thereport?(k) Finally, assess the layout and general appearance of the document.3 Submission

4.5 Technical Writing Style

4.5.1. Language and Style

Aim to Inform

Scientific or technical writing is different from literary writing in a number of ways.

Primarily, the aim of technical writing is to inform rather than to entertain. Hence, the

style of writing adopted is generally simple and concise.

An example of a literary sentence

The wind was blowing fiercely and the air outside was growing chilled.

An example of a scientific sentence

Onshore winds traveling at 45km per hour brought temperatures down to 15 degrees Celsius.

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As informing an audience is the primary aim of the scientific writer, emotive language is

avoided. The scientific writer should try to transmit information as objectively as

possible.

Be Concise

Avoid too many long sentences. Sentences with 4 or more clauses, or parts, are confusing

to read. Your text will probably read better if you consider making two sentences rather

than one long sentence. If you want to include a qualification or an example then a long

sentence is usually appropriate.

An example of a long sentence

After consulting three manufacturers: Dorthy and Co., Simthy Ltd. and Murthy Pty, we have found that there are two types of vibration suppression devices for portable CD players and both are simple in design but have inherent drawbacks.

More concise sentence

Three manufacturers were consulted: Dorthy and Co., Simthy Ltd. and Murthy Pty. We found two types of vibration suppression devices for portable CD players. Both are simple in design but have inherent drawbacks.

Use words and expressions economically. If you can use one word instead of 2 or 3 then

chose the one word (get around = avoid).

Be Clear

Avoid being unclear and ambiguous. This can happen when you do not specify what you

are writing about and can even depend how you use words like 'it', 'this', 'thing', 'way',

'some' etc.

An example of unclear expression

The way we did the study was not so successful. Some of what we needed wasn't there.

An example of clear expression

We were unable to complete the study. The SPPS and EXCEL software required for the study were not available in Computer laboratory GO25.

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Do not use contractions of verbs and pronouns as these are 'spoken forms' (doesn't, can't,

it's, they're). The formal writing you will do at university and in the workplace will

require the full form (does not, can not, it is, they are).

Be Correct

Check that the spelling, punctuation and grammar of your sentences are correct. If using a

computer spell checker, be careful. Make sure that you know which word to select. Many

easily corrected errors in your written work will affect your presentation and your marks.

Sometimes you can see errors more easily if you do not proofread your writing until a

day or two after finishing writing. This is called 'the drawer treatment'.

4.5.2. Jargon

Jargon is the technical terminology of any specialised field. Jargon is commonly used

when communicating with others in your field. Communication problems can begin when

jargon is used in communications aimed at a more general audience.

Jargon also includes sub-technical words. These have multiple meanings in general and

technical contexts. For example the word 'fast' has different meanings in medicine

(resistant to), mining (a hard stratum under poorly constructed ground) and painting

(colours not affected by light, heat, or damp). A specialist dictionary is required for

learning technical and sub technical vocabulary. Aim to write for your intended audience.

If your report is for your supervisor or a colleague, then the use of jargon may be both

appropriate and expected. If, however, you are writing a report for a general audience or

an expert from another field, jargon should be avoided and simple, clear descriptions

should be used instead.

4.5.3. Abbreviations and Acronyms

In scientific and technical writing abbreviations and acronyms are commonly used.

Abbreviations are pronounced as letters, e.g. IIM B, whereas acronyms are pronounced as

words, e.g. LASER. The first time you use an abbreviation or acronym, you must spell

out the full term followed by the abbreviation or acronym in brackets. Subsequent use of

the term is then made by its abbreviation or acronym.

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e.g.: The Indian Institute of Management Bangalore (IIMB) is situated in ,

Bangalore. The best way to travel to IIMB is by public transport.

The use of an abbreviation is largely dictated by the number of times you are going to be

using the term. If the term is only to be used three or four times, it may be better to use

the full term each time. This will improve readability, especially if you are using a

number of different abbreviations throughout your report.

5.4.4 Can I use ‘I’ in technical and scientific writing?

There is no single easy answer to this question—it depends. First we recommend that you

check with your lecturer/ tutor if and when you can use ‘I’ in your writing.

Reasons for using ‘I’ include:

The more practised a writer is, the more latitude the writer can have in being casual or creative.

If a writer is an accomplished engineer/scientist/professional, then as an

‘expert’ in their field the writer can use ‘I’

to give authority to their ideas.

Reasons for not using ‘I’ include:

When ‘I’ is used too often it can make your writing sound casual or spoken in style rather

than formal and objective.

Not using ‘I’ can make your writing more believable. The reader may interpret

your use of ‘I’ to mean that you are not aware of formal writing conventions. By

following conventions you show you are aware of the practices in your field. The

reader may also interpret your use of ‘I’ to mean that you are not aware or clear

about what other experts in the field have done or think, so instead you are

making your own choice.

In a student’s writing using ‘I’ can suggest absorption with the self or that the

student does not recognise that their work needs to stand up to scrutiny.

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4.5.5. Where possible use active voice

Using active verbs is the first rule of good writing. All authorities on good writing, including scientific and technical bodies, recommend active verbs rather than passive verbs. Why? Passive verbs are longwinded, ambiguous and dull. Active verbs make your writing simpler, less awkward, clearer and more precise. Here's an example:

Passive Verbs   Active Verbs

     

The QMS Magicolor 2 Printer is equipped with two interfaces, one is known as the parallel interface, the other is known as the Ethernet interface. Whatever interface connection is needed, you will find that MS Windows 98 has already been preinstalled and your software applications are based on this platform. (50 words)

 

The QMS Magicolor 2 Printer has Parallel and Ethernet interfaces. Whatever interface you need, you will find your software applications will work on the preinstalled MS Windows 98. (28 words)

Technical writing is full of passive verbs because most people learn to write in the third person because it is supposedly more objective. This is a false notion. In the next example, the passive and active are both objective—but the active sentences sound more natural and by 29 words shorter.

Passive Verbs   Active Verbs

     

The experiment was conducted so that the relationship between the two theories could be examined. First, the cultures were prepared and then were examined under the microscope to see if any impurities could be found. Once the purity of the samples could be established, they were used

  The experiment examined the relationship between the two theories. First, microscopic examination for impurities isolated pure examples used in six independent tests. (22 words)

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in six independent tests. (51 words)

In switching your style from passive verbs to active verbs throughout your writing, you face several problems.

You must accurately spot them. Often writers miss passive verbs or try to change verbs that are already active.

You need to measure your use of passive verbs. One or two passive verbs a page will not ruin your style, nine or ten will.

You need to know how to turn passive verbs to active verbs.

While we encourage you to use the active voice, this does not mean that you cannot use

passive voice, as it can be convenient and necessary. Most writing will have a mixture of

active and passive clauses depending on what word is chosen for the subject of a

sentence.

4.5.6 Non-discriminatory Language

Nondiscriminatory language is language that treats all people equally. It does not use any discriminatory words, remarks, or ideas. It is very important that the business writer communicate in a way that expresses equality and respect for all individuals. Discriminatory language can come between your message and your reader. Make sure your writing is free of sexist language and free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, and disability.

Suggestion Not: But:

Use neutral job titles. Chairman Chairperson

Avoid demeaning or stereotypical terms.

After the girls in the office receive an order, our office fills it within 24 hours.

When orders are received from the office, they are filled within 24 hours.

Avoid words and phrases that unnecessarily imply gender.

Executives and their wives

Executives and their spouses

Omit information about group membership.

Chandra performed the job well for her age.

Chandra performed the job well.

If you do not know a reader’s gender, use a

Dear Gentlemen: To Whom it May Concern:

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nonsexist salutation.

Do not use masculine pronouns.

Each student must provide his own lab jacket.

Students must provide their own lab jackets. Or Each student must provide his or her own lab jacket.

4.6 Paragraph Development

This section will…

help you understand how paragraphs are formed help you develop stronger paragraphs help you learn how to completely and clearly express your ideas

What is a paragraph?

One of the central components of a report is the paragraph. When most students think of a paragraph, they hold onto the old myths about length: a paragraph is at least 5 sentences, a paragraph is half a page, etc. A paragraph, however, is "a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit" (Lunsford and Connors,116). Length or appearance is not a factor in determining whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. In fact, it is not the number of sentences that construct a paragraph, but it is the unity and coherence of ideas among those sentences that makes a paragraph . For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be one sentence. As long as that sentence expresses the paper's central idea, that sentence can serve the function of a paragraph. Ultimately, strong paragraphs contain a sentence or sentences unified around one central, controlling idea. When the paragraph reaches completion it should serve to bring the reader into your report and guide his/her understanding of what has been read. Whether that completion happens with one sentence or with twenty, the end result is still a paragraph.

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Parts of aParagraph

Topic Sentence

Supporting Details

Closing Sentence

How to Write a Paragraph

Prewriting Paragraphs

Writing Paragraphs

Editing Paragraphs

Publishing Paragraphs

Kinds of Paragraphs

Definition

Classification

Description

Compare and Contrast

Sequence

Choice

Explanation

Evaluation

4.6.1 Composition of a Paragraph

Before you begin to determine what the composition of your paragraphs will be, you must understand what the controlling idea in your specific piece of writing is. What is the main point or expression that you are trying to convey to your reader? The information that comprises your paragraphs should always have a relationship to this controlling idea.

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In other words, your paragraphs should remind your reader, at every possible point, that there is a recurrent relationship between your controlling idea and the information in each paragraph. The controlling idea functions like a seed through which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is an organic one--a natural progression from a seed to a full-blown paper where there is direct, l relationships between all of the ideas in your paper. Once you have decided what your controlling idea will be, then you should choose information that will help to support and perpetuate that idea throughout the entire paper. That information takes the form of sentences that comprise each paragraph of your paper.

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs, ultimately, begins with the germination of a seed of ideas. This "germination process" is better known as the process of brainstorming. Whatever the topic of your paper may be, it is always a good idea to think about all the issues that surround your topic and the ultimate goal that you want to express. This process can take on many forms. What form you choose will depend heavily on your style or approach to writing in the pre-writing stage of your writing process. For some writers, the key is writing down all of the relevant issues in a series of phrases or words that express some greater idea. For others, this process involves a collection of information in the form of sentences. Whatever your method for prewriting, this part of paragraph development cannot be avoided. Often, these prewriting efforts become the first signs of development. Building paragraphs can be just as involved as building a major skyscraper: there must be a careful foundation that supports each paragraph just as there must be a careful foundation that supports each building. Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions of the foundation can cause the whole paper to crumble.

Every paragraph in a paper should be

Unified - The sentences should all refer to the main idea, or thesis, of the report/paper (Rosen and Behrens 119).

Coherent-The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite plan for development (Rosen and Behrens 119).

Well-Developed - Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paper's controlling idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).

4.6.2 5-step process to paragraph development

1. Controlling idea- the expression of the main idea, topic, or focus of the paragraph in a sentence or a collection of sentences.

Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the paragraph's development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic sentence. A topic sentence announces and controls the content of a paragraph . Topic sentences can occur at four major

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points in a paragraph: the beginning of the paragraph, the middle of the paragraph, the end of the paragraph, or at both the beginning and the end of the paragraph. Here's how you might begin a paragraph on handing in homework:

Idea - Learning how to turn in homework assignments on time is one of the invaluable skills that college students can take with them into the working world.

2. Explanation of controlling idea- the writer's rationale into his/her thinking about the main topic, idea, or focus of the paragraph

Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale or the explanation that the writer gives for how the reader should interpret the information presented in the idea statement or topic sentence of the paragraph. Here's the sentence that would follow the controlling idea about homework deadlines:

Explanation - Though the workforce may not assign homework to its workers in the traditional sense, many of the objectives and jobs that need to be completed require that employees work with deadlines. The deadlines that students encounter in the classroom may be different in content when compared to the deadlines of the workforce, but the importance of meeting those deadlines is the same. In fact, failure to meet deadlines in both the classroom and the workforce can mean instant termination.

3. Example -- the example serves as a sign or representation of the relationship established in the idea and explanation portions of the paragraph

Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or evidence for the idea and the explanation that came before it. Here are two examples that you might use to follow the homework deadline explanation:

Example A--For example, in the classroom, students form a contract with the teacher and the university when they enroll in a class. That contract requires that students complete the assignments and objectives set forth by the course's instructor in a specified time to receive a grade and credit for the course.

Example B--Accordingly, just as a student risks termination in the classroom if he/she fails to meet the deadline for a homework assignment, so, too, does that student risk termination in the workforce.

4. Explanation (of example) - the reasoning behind why you chose to use this/or these particular examples as evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in your paragraph.

The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and its relevance to the topic sentence and rationale given at the beginning of the paragraph. This pattern continues until all points/examples that the reader deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be left

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unexplained; the relationship between the example and the idea should always be expressed. Look at these two explanations for examples in the homework deadline paragraph:

Explanation for example A--When a student fails to complete those assignments by the deadline, the student breaks her contract with the university and the teacher to complete the assignments and objectives of the course. This often leaves the teacher with no recourse than to fail the student and leaves the university with no other recourse than to terminate the student's credit for the course.

Explanation for Example B--A former student's contract with his/her employer functions in much the same way as the contract that student had with his/her instructor and with the university in a particular course.

4.6.5. Completion of Paragraph's idea or transitiong into next paragraph--a review for your reader about the relevance of the information that you just discussed in the paragraph, or a transition or preparation for your reader for the paragraph that follows.

The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the paragraph--and reminding the reader of the relevance of the information in this paragraph to the main or controlling idea of the paper. You might feel more comfortable, however, simply transitioning your reader to the next development in the next paragraph. Here's an example of a sentence that completes the homework deadlines paragraph:

Idea-Developing good habits of turning in assignments in class now, as current students, will aid your performance and position as future participants in the working world.

Notice that the example and explanation steps of this model (steps 3 and 4) can be repeated as needed. The idea is that you continue to use this pattern until you have completely developed the main idea of the paragraph.

Now here is a look at the completed paragraph:

Learning how to turn in homework assignments on time is one of the invaluable skills that college students can take with them into the working world. Though the workforce may not assign homework to its workers in the traditional sense, many of the objectives and jobs that need to be completed require that employees work with deadlines. The deadlines that students encounter in the classroom may be different in content when compared to the deadlines of the workforce, but the importance of meeting those deadlines is the same. In fact, failure to meet deadlines in both the classroom and the workforce can mean instant termination. For example, in the classroom, students form a

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contract with the teacher and the university when they enroll in a class. That contract requires that students complete the assignments and objectives set forth by the course's instructor in a specified time to receive a grade and credit for the course. Accordingly, just as a student risks termination in the classroom if he/she fails to meet the deadline for a homework assignment, so, too, does that student risk termination in the workforce. When a student fails to complete those assignments by the deadline, the student breaks her contract with the university and the teacher to complete the assignments and objectives of the course. This often leaves the teacher with no other recourse than to fail the student and leaves the university with no other recourse than to terminate the student's credit for the course. Developing good habits of turning in assignments in class now, as current students, will aid your performance and position as future participants in the working world.

4.6.6 Formula for Paragraph Development

There are some other central components of paragraph development that help to make this formula work. These components are often overlooked, but developing the sentences that complete the steps of the paragraph development process is not possible without these two components:

1) Topic Sentences - A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It tells the reader what to expect about the information that will follow. Without the use of a topic sentence, developing a paragraph can be extremely difficult. Topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph:

the beginning of the paragraph the middle of the paragraph the end of the paragraph the beginning and the end of the paragraph

*Notice how the development of the paragraph (in the 5-Step example above) is framed by two topic sentences (beginning and end) which work to reinforce the same idea and close the discussion and multiple examples given by the writer.)

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or organises an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in most of your major paragraphs. It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two directions simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the thesis, and thereby acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it also defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For example, consider the following topic sentence:

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Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":

Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed in the menu.

This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the composition of "forget sauce."

In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients are never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget sauce" to secret fast-food industry practices.

"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary amnesia in consumers.

Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:

After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a disagreeable experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes effect, and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no wiser.

Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

Analysing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

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Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic sentence itself:

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.

All the sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.

Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus for the writing which follows.

Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way.

Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.

Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Here is an example of a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph (in bold print):

Homework is one of those necessary evils of being a student. The one sure way that a teacher knows how to measure your progress in his/her course is to assign homework that tests your knowledge of the information that is taught. Some instructors, however, seem to use homework as a way of reassuring themselves that they have "taught" the information to the students. Many students, aware of these ideas about homework, tend to treat homework as a chore, putting little or no thought into the work that is turned in. However, like any designated task, homework is a reflection not only on you as a student, but also on you as an individual. When an employer has to decide whether or not to hire you, he or she has to consider your ability to complete the demands of the working world. For many employers, the way you handle your "homework" in college often indicates the way you will handle your homework on the job. For example, often your grade in a class is determined by the quality of the homework that you do. That homework grade can be a significant part of your final grade for the course. In fact, many students can attest to an experience where the homework grade made the difference in their final course grade. Once you leave college and attempt to find a job, those homework grades translate into final GPAs for your major. Those final GPAs show up on résumés and job applications and employers look to see if you have done your "homework" in school as a key factor in determining if you will do your "homework" on the job.

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The paragraph writing process consists of prewriting stage, writing stage and publishing stage.

4.6.7Prewriting Stage

The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your paragraph before you begin writing.

Six Prewriting Steps:

1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I best answer this question? What is the most important part of my answer? How can I make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from the most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I make this paragraph or essay interesting? Do I need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this topic?

2. Open your notebook. Write out your answers to the above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this; just write enough to help you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph or essay.

3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic. Look for and write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Timesaving hint: make sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.

4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I want to say about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?

5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the most important point you are going to present. If you cannot decide which point is the most important, just choose one point and stick to it throughout your paragraph or essay.

6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea. Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your paragraph. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which order to put them in the paragraph. Write down your own note set that you can use to guide yourself as you write your paragraph or essay.

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What is the writing stage?The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.

Five Writing Steps:

1. Open your notebook and word processor.2. Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence.3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.4. Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.5. Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your ideas

Editing Paragraphs

What is the editing stage?The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them.

Grammar and Spelling

1. Check your spelling.2. Check your grammar.3. Read your essay again.4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.5. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.

Style and Organization

1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.5. See if your paragraph is Publishing Paragraphs

What is the publishing stage?The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your paragraph to hand in.

Three Publishing Steps:

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1. Make a paper copy of your paragraph.2. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or classmates.3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.

Types of Paragraphs

Definition Paragraph

When writing a definition paragraph, you take a thing or an idea and explain what it is. Example: Write a paragraph giving the definition of a pest.

The following words can help you to write a good definition paragraph:

1. "is defined as"

Example: A pest is defined as any animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or property.

2. "is a kind of"

Example: A pest is a kind of animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or property.

In a description paragraph, you are writing about what a person, place, or thing is like. Sometimes, you may describe where a place is located. Examples: Write a paragraph describing how a polar bear looks like.

Describe where Canada's industry is located.

The following words can help you to write a good description paragraph:

Helper Words:

Properties Measurement Analogy Locationsize length is like in

colour width resembles aboveshape mass/weight   below

purpose speed   beside

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      near      north/east/south/west

Compare and Contrast Paragraph

In a compare and contrast paragraph, you write about the similarities and differences between two or more people, places, things, or ideas.

Example:  Write a paragraph comparing the weather in Vancouver and Halifax.

The following words can help yo

u to write a good compare and contrast paragraph:

Helper Words:

Similarities Differencesis similar to the other hand

both howeveralso buttoo in contrast

as well differs from  while  unlike

4.7 Transitions - Transitions come in the form of single words, phrases, sentences, and even whole paragraphs. They help to establish relationships between ideas in a paragraph and to create a logical progression of those ideas in a paragraph. Without transitions, your paragraph will not be unified, coherent, or well developed. Look at the following paragraph and the transitions that it uses from idea to idea (in bold print):

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Juggling the demands of a job with the demands of being a full-time student makes good academic performance difficult. Many students are forced to choose between good work on the job and good work in the classroom. Often, good work in the classroom is compromised for good work on the job because the job pays the rent. In addition, those students who do manage to perform well in both areas usually do so at the expense of their health. For example, several students complain of the inability to handle the stress of both a job and school. In fact, the stress of both can often cause headaches, dizziness, fatigue, and other ailments which slow the body down and prevent adequate performance in either area. To eliminate the threat of being in the middle between job and school, students have to form a balance between the demands of work and the demands of the classroom. Ultimately, managing your time more effectively, working the same number of hours in smaller chunks, and planning ahead can all help in alleviating some of the stress to the body and to the mind.

Some Useful Transitions

To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too

To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate

To compare: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

To show time: after, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while

To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus

4.8 CoherenceIn a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, eachsentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old and new information to make thestructure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader. Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph's coherence may also be related to its length. If you have

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written a very long paragraph, one that fills a doublespaced typed page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if it contains more than one controlling idea. If it does, you should start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from itscontrolling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, orcombine it with another paragraph. A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are described below.

Repeat key words or phrases .Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and help the reader understand your definition or description.

Create parallel structures.Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures, you make your sentences clearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating apattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and the sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph have been constructed in a parallel way. The parallelstructures (which have been underlined) help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set of examples of a general statement.

Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number.Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number are subtle but important aspects of coherence. If you shift from the more personal you to the impersonal one, frompast to present tense, or from a man to they, for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs.

Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas and help readers follow the train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand.

Business and industry cannot function without short written reports. You may write an occasional report in response to a specific question or you may be required to write a daily or weekly report on routine activities about which your readers expect detailed information. Many organizations – businesses, clinics, mass transportation systems, universities – must submit regularly scheduled reports in order to maintain their accreditation or funding by state, municipal or central agencies. Since a large part of your annual evaluation for raises and promotions will depend on the caliber of your short reports, it is important to know how to write them effectively.

4.9 Writing Short Reports

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Although there are many different kinds of short reports, they all have certain features in common. The most important point to keep in mind is that reports are written forreaders who need information so that they can get a job accomplished. Never think of reports you write as a series of short notes jotted down for your own convenience.

Do Necessary Research. An effective short report needs the same careful planningthat goes into other types of on-the-job writing. Some types of research you can expect to do on the job include checking data in reference manuals, exploring the Web, searching databases, conferring with colleagues, and reviewing a client’s file.

Anticipate How an Audience Will Use Your Report. Employers, who constitutethe largest audience for your reports, may not always know (or be interested in) thetechnical details of your work. Instead they may want you to focus on the bottom line –costs, personnel, organizational structure, problems, or delays. To meet your reader’s needs, answer the following questions appropriately for your readers:

• Why are you writing? This may be your reader’s most significant, and urgent,question. Always explain your reasons for writing

• What happened? Explain what steps you followed in a lab report, what specificevents or circumstances occurred, what conclusions can be made, whatprospects are likely for future business.

• When did something happen? Always give dates and specify exact period thereport covers. Just listing “Thursday” is not enough. Give date, and indicateA.M. or P.M.

• Where did something happen? Give precise locations.

• Who did something or who was involved? Give readers the names of clients,contact people, technical staff you consulted, members of your collaborativeteam, or individuals involved in a test or accident.

• How did something happen? Tell readers how a test was conducted Describethe procedures you used. Explain whether a presentation was relevant andeffective and how it might affect your business.

3. Be Objective and Ethical. Your readers expect you to report facts objectively and impartially – costs, sales, weather conditions, eyewitness accounts, observations, statistics, test measurements, and descriptions. Your reports must be correct, complete and candid.

4. Choose a Reader-Centered Format and Design. Most reports for internal readers within your company will be written or emailed as memos, while those submitted to external clients will be letters. You can help you r readers easily find information by including a clear subject line, headings, bulletted or numbered lists, and visual aids.

5. Write Concisely and Clearly. Being concise means avoiding wordiness andrepetition. Being to the point and clear require effort. Call machines and otherequipment by their precise names. Never use “thing” to refer to partsor tools.

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6. Organize Carefully. This means including the right amount of information themost appropriate places for your audience. Many times a simple chronological orderwill be acceptable. Your employer may have very precise instructions on how toorganize routine reports, but here is a fairly standard organizational plan to follow:

• Purpose. Begin by telling readers why you are writing and by alerting them towhat you will discuss. You might also need to provide necessary backgroundinformation (such as a summary of an earlier report or occurrence) to assistreaders.• Findings. This is the longest part of the report: the facts about prices,personnel, equipment, events, locations, incidents, or experiments.• Conclusion. Your conclusion tells readers what you r data mean. A conclusioncan summarize what has happened, review what actions were taken, or explainthe outcome or results of a test, a visit, or a program.• Recommendations. A recommendation informs readers what specific actionsyou think your company or client should take. Recommendations must be basedon the data you have collected and the conclusions you reached. Theplacement of recommendations in a short report can vary. Some employersprefer to see recommendations at the beginning of a report; others want themlisted last. Information reports do not give recommendations.

4.9.1Information Reports

Information reports present information in an objective, organized way. Qualities of Information ReportsInformational texts often depend on the traditional prompts of who, what, when,where, and how. Informational writing asks writers to answer research questions,assess problems, define concepts, explain insights and principles, and summarizeinformation and ideas.

Effective informational business reports

Maintain a clear sense of purpose and focus on the topic Create or use an organizing structure appropriate to purpose, audience, and

context Use language and style appropriate to the audience and context Include appropriate detail and information for audience and context Use a range of appropriate strategies, such as

– Providing facts and details – Describing or analyzing the subject – Narrating relevant anecdote(s) – Comparing and contrasting – Explaining benefits and/or limitations – Demonstrating claims or assertions – Offering scenario(s) to illustrate – Incorporating effective visual or media aids

• Develop details rather than relying on general references• Avoid extraneous and/or inappropriate information• Use transition words to increase coherence between ideas• Contain a beginning, middle, and end

In addition to information, you should also look for a visual aid to include within your report. The visual aid is an essential part of helping the reader fully understand thebenefits of your proposal get into the habit of providing visual aids whenever you can.

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Visual aids are particularly helpful in business reports because they help our readersunderstand (and then act correctly upon) our reports.

Kinds of Information Reports

Business documents of all types - those that give facts and research - are information

Business and industry cannot function without short written reports. People often needinformative reports that gather and present information on a subject in one compactpackage.

4.9.2 Progress ReportsOne kind of information report is the progress reports.

A periodic report discusses the headway you're making in on on-going project, such as sales reports of a quarter (notice how the project continues.) On the other hand, aprogress report about headway you're making on a one-time, limited project,such as on a committee's work to organize a Christmas party or on renovations(notice how these projects end.) You write a progress report to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you've made on a project over a certain period of time. In the progress report, you explain any or all of the following:

How much of the work is completeWhat part of the work is currently in progressWhat work remains to be doneWhat problems or unexpected things, if any, have arisen How the project is going in general

Progress reports have several important functions:

Reassure recipients that you are making progress, that the project is going smoothly, and that it will be completed by the expected date.

Provide their recipients with a brief look at some of the findings or some of the work of the project.

Give their recipients a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to request changes.

Give you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to forewarn recipients.

4.9.3 Accident ReportsWorkplace accidents require written reports to record the incident, to documentactions, and preserve evidence and testimony information of victims, witnesses, andbystanders. Accident reports must meet both legal and company rules, usually have specific forms to fill out, and often have filing deadlines. If the employee makes medical, disability of other claims, the information will serve as documentation. Accident reports can also be formatted as memo reports.

Minimally, the report should contain the following information:

1. Time and Place of Accident2. Description of Accident and the Victim – full description of how injury orillness occurred3. Cause of the Accident

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4. Information about the victim – visitor? employee? body parts affected? difficulty breathing?5. Witness information (names)6. Result – first aid given? doctor called? ambulance called? victim taken tohospital? treatment, ambulance called, incapacity, hospitalization

Recommendation Report

Recommendation reports differ from information reports in one important way: therecommendation reports advise readers with to take a certain course of action: buildor not build, purchase or not purchase.

This type starts from a stated need, a selection of choices, or both and thenrecommends one, some, or none. Imagine, for example, you receive this assignmentfrom your supervisor: Recommend the grammar-checking software for purchase.As the report writer on this project, you research the market to learn everything you can about the nature and extent of the problem and the feasibility of varioussolutions. Based on your analysis, you recommend one particular product, a couple of products (differing perhaps in their strengths and their weaknesses), or none (if none are any good.) The recommendation report answers the question "Which option should we choose?" (or in some cases "Which are the best options?) by recommending Product B, or maybe both Products B and C, or none of the products.

Kinds of Recommendation Reports

A feasibility report studies a situation (for example, a problem oropportunity) and a plan for doing something about it and then determineswhether that plan is "feasible" --which means determining whether ittechnologically possible and whether it is practical (in terms of currenttechnology, economics, social needs, and so on). The feasibility report answersthe question "Should we implement Plan X?" by stating "yes," "no," but moreoften "maybe." Not only does it give a recommendation, it also provides thedata and the reasoning behind that recommendation.

Recommendation report starts from a stated need, a selection of choices,or both and then recommends one, some, or none. For example, a companymight be looking at grammar-checking software and want a recommendationon which product is the best. As the report writer on this project, you couldstudy the market for this type of application and recommend one particularproduct, a couple of products (differing perhaps in their strengths and theirweaknesses), or none (maybe none of them are any good). Therecommendation report answers the question "Which option should we choose?"(or in some cases "Which are the best options?) by recommending Product B, ormaybe both Products B and C, or none of the products.

An evaluation report provides an opinion or judgment rather than a yes-nomaybeanswer or a recommendation. It provides a studied opinion on the valueor worth of something. bus transportation in an attempt to increase ridership and reduce automobile traffic. Did it work? Was it worthwhile?-- These are questions an evaluation report would attempt to answer. This type of report compares a thing to a set of requirements (or criteria) and determines how well it meets those requirements. (And of course there may be a recommendation -- continue theproject, scrap it, change it, or other possibilities.)

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Steps to writing the recommendation reportStep 1: Define the key problem. As you see the situation, what is the most important problem to be solved? State exactly why you believe it is a problem worth serious attention. Do not assume the reader sees the problem as you do--if you fail to define it, and the reader does not see it as you do--the rest of your analysis may be discounted, misinterpreted, or rejected because of misunderstanding.

Be careful to separate the problem from its causes, its effects, and decisions.

Phrase the key problem as a neutral question: What option is the best?Define the problem as concretely and precisely as you can--not

abstractly or generally.• Define terms.

Step 2: Specify the cause (s) of the problem. Now that you've described the nature of the problem exactly, identify the causes that account precisely for the difficulties.

Explain what is wrong. Focus on explanation.Where is it wrong. What caused "it" to go wrong?When did it go wrong? Extent to which it is wrong

Step 3: Suggest and evaluate possible solutions.

What is the nature of each proposed solution (cost, actions, changes implied)?

Can you group various solutions? What elements are common to all solutions and are therefore probably

desirable? How do the proposed solutions differ? Which solutions should be eliminated, which considered further?

Step 4: Outline the course of action you consider best.

Explain why and how the course of action you recommend not only solves the problem but also takes into account the causes of the problem better than the alternative courses of action do.

• Show how the action is practical.• Anticipate relevant problems or objections readers may think of.• Specify individuals or agencies that need to take action and in what order.Avoid imperative verbs ("Buy Software ABC" or "You should buy..."). Instead,tell what should be done ("XYZ Company should buy Sotware ABC") or whatthe best option is ("Software ABC is the best option for XYZ Company")

Organize the recommendation report

Order your ideas. The recommendation may be organized as a traditionalmemo:1. Introduction2. Discussion/Comparison of Options3. Recommendations4. Conclusion

a stronger format puts the most important information - therecommendations - first:

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1. Recommendations – what the reader should do2. Introduction – the situation is3. Discussion/Comparison of Options – comparison with all facts4. Conclusion – restatement of the recommendationThis format works well because it tells the reader what s/he wants to know atthe very start of the memo.

Specifically, make sure to do the following:Write a good introduction in which you indicate the situation and the

audience and provide an overview of the contents. State requirements--those factors that influence the decision or the choice of optionsIndicate how the field of options was narrowed to the ones being compared.Organize the comparison of the options using the point-by-point approach.

Don't use the whole-to-whole approach.At the end of each comparative section, state the best choice in terms of that point of comparison.In addition to information, look for a visual aid to include within your report.

The visual aid is an essential part of helping the reader fully understand the benefits of your proposal get into the habit of providing visual aids whenever you can. Visual aids are particularly helpful in business reports because they help our readers understand (and then act correctly upon) our reports.

Provide technical background, if necessary for understanding the comparative discussion.

Discuss the background on the problem or opportunity--what brought about the need for the report.Include strong sections of definition, description, or both, as necessary, using

the guidelines on content, organization, and format in the chapters on definition and description.

• Include a conclusions section where you restate all the key conclusions from the comparison section.• State secondary conclusions in the conclusions section--and base them onrequirements that you state in the requirements section of the report.• State a final conclusion in the conclusions section--one that states which is thebest choice.• Include a recommendation section where you make the recommendation andthe key factors influencing the recommendation.

4.9.5 Sales Proposal

A sales proposal is a persuasive document used to sell your goods and services. A sales proposal offers to sell services or products, usually for a set completion date for an agreed-upon price.

Writing for the reader's needsThe proposal's readers are usually in a position of authority - supervisors, managers,department heads, company buyers, elected officials, civic leaders - to endorse orreject the writer's plan.Sales proposals are persuasive plans: your proposal must convince the reader that your plan will help them improve business -- that you are "uniquely qualified."The tone of the proposal should be "Here is what I can do for you." Stress the precise benefits your plan has for the reader. Show readers how approving your plan will

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save time and money or will improve employees' morale or customer's satisfaction. Above all, make sure you answer the reader's most important questions:• How will you serve our needs better than your competitors:or• Why should we hire you instead of someone else?Competition is fierce in the world of work, and a persuasive proposal frequentlydetermines which company receives a contract. Demonstrate to your reader why yourplan is better - more efficient, practical, economical - than a competitor's. In a sense,a proposal combines the persuasiveness of a sales letter, the documentation of a report, and the binding power of a contract, for if the reader accepts your proposals, s/he will expect you to live up to its terms to the letter.+

4.9.6 Kinds of ProposalsProposals are classified according to how they originate -- solicited or unsolicited --and where they are sent after they are written -- internal or external.

A solicited proposal responds to a specific call for proposals.An unsolicited proposal is not a response to a specific call but is usually

originated by the writer who identifies a need and prepares the proposal in the chance that it will be seriously considered. As they suggest, the terms "internal" and "external" refer to the audience and the format the proposal takes.

Internal (memos) proposals are for supervisors and are also called justification

reports because they justify a change in policy or an expenditure.External (letter memo with headings) are for customers and clients.

Organization of proposalRemember that a proposal is essentially a sales or promotional kind of thing.

1. Introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents.

The introduction answers all these questions that apply to the situation:

Statement of Problem and Objective - What problem do youpropose to solve? In general, what solution are you proposing?

Benefits - What are the benefits?Qualifications - What are your qualifications for this project?

From the beginning, your goal is to sell your idea, to persuade readersthe job needs doing and you are the one to do it. If your introduction islong-winded, evasive, or vague, readers might stop reading. Make itconcise, specific, and clear.

Spell out the problem to make it clear to the audience—and to show youunderstand it fully. Explain the benefits of solving the problem orundertaking the project. Identify any sources of data. In a research orsales proposal, state your qualifications for doing the job. If your planhas limitations or contingencies, explain them. Finally, give the scopeof your plan by listing the subsections to be discussed in the bodysection.

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2. Present the background --the problem, opportunity, or situation that bringsabout the proposed project. Get the reader concerned about the problem,excited about the opportunity, or interested in the situation in some way.

3. State what you propose to do about the problem and how you intend to helpthem with the situation.

4. Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that comefrom approving it.

The body will receive most attention from readers. It answers all thesequestions that are applicable:

Methods - How will it be done?Timetable - When will it be done? How long will it take? Materials, Equipment, and Personnel - What materials, methods,

and personnel will it take? Facilities - What facilities are available? Cost - How much will it cost, and why? Expected Results - What results can we expect? Feasibility - How do we know it will work?

Here you spell out your plan in enough detail for readers to evaluate itssoundness. If this section is vague, your proposal stands no chance ofbeing accepted. Be sure your plan is realistic and promises no more thanyou can deliver. The main goal of this section is to prove that your planwill work.

5. Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it wouldlook like, how it would work--describe the results of the project.

6. Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that method--enablereaders to understand how you'll go about the proposed work.

7. Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the project.8. Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a mini-resume of thebackground you have that makes you right for the project.9. Now (and only now), list the costs of the project, the resources you'll need to do the project.10. Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case the shock from the costs section was too much), and urge the audience to get in touch or to accept the proposal. End on a strong note, and keep it short.

Notice the overall logic of the movement through these section:(1) you get them concerned about a problem or interested in an opportunity,(2) then you get them excited about how you'll fix the problem or do theproject,(3) then you show them what good qualifications you have(4) and then hit them with the costs, but then come right back to the goodpoints about the project.In addition to information, you should also look for a visual aid to include within your report. The visual aid is an essential part of helping the reader fully understand the benefits of your proposal get into the habit of providing visual aids whenever you can. Visual aids are particularly helpful in business reports because they help our readers understand (and then act correctly upon) our reports.

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Revising and proofreadingAs you reread and revise your proposal, watch out for problems such as the following:• Make sure you use the right format. Remember, the memo format is forinternal proposals; the business-letter format is for proposals written from oneexternal organization to another. (Whether you use a cover memo or coverletter is your choice.) Use one of our letter formats (see unit 4) or use abusiness letter template, found online at WebCT or at Ms. Hurley's Emediaweb site.• Make sure the sections are in a logical, natural order. For example, don't hitthe audience with schedules and costs before you've gotten them interested inthe project.• For internal projects, don't omit the section on costs and qualifications:there will be costs, just not direct ones. For example, how much time will youneed, will there be printing, binding costs? Include your qualifications--imagineyour proposal will go to somebody in the organization who doesn't know you.

Review questions

1. Distinguish between active-voice sentence and passive voice sentences. give examples.

2. Describe three kinds of sentences used to develop ideas in paragraphs.3. Describe three paragraph plans. Identify the uses for each.4. What is coherence, and how is it achieved?5. Why writers should plan for revision?6. What is jargon, and when is it appropriate for business writing?7. What are compliance reports?8. What should a progress report shouldinclude?9. What are the major differences between informational and analytical reports10. H ow is an abstract different from an executive summary?11. What materials go in an appendix?12. Why are proposals important to many businesses?

Read the following paragraph carefully. Click on A, B, or C to answer the questions that follow. After you finish the exercise, click on Submit to get your score.

(1) An effective public speaker uses nonverbal signals from the audience to adjust his or her presentation. (2) For example, an effective public speaker adds more examples or explanations when members of the audience look befuddled or confused. (3) An effective speaker tries to liven up his or her presentation or ask the audience questions when members of the audience start showing signs of boredom or lack of interest. (4) Fidgeting, doodling, reading instead of listening, shuffling papers, or leaving the room are obvious signs that the audience has lost interest. (5) The speaker can acknowledge opposing points of view when he or she sees frowns, scowls, head shaking, or gestures from the audience that show signs of disagreement or disapproval. (6) Glazed looks, lack of eye contact with the speaker, or lack of response to questions or humorous anecdotes are other signs of boredom. (7) Any

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public speaker will be more effective and dynamic if he or she watches for listeners' nonverbal signals and adjusts the speech accordingly.

1. Which sentence breaks the coherence of this paragraph?

A. Sentence 2B. Sentence 4C. Sentence 6

2. The details are arranged in

A. the random order of confused, bored, and in disagreement or disapproval.B. chronological order.C. spatial order.

3. The writer of this paragraph could strengthen the coherence of the paragraph by

A. giving more details.B. adding more kinds of nonverbal responses audiences give to speakers.C. using more transition words and repeating the words nonverbal signals.

4. The topic sentence is "An effective public speaker uses nonverbal signals from the audience to adjust his or her presentation." The subject of these sentence is

A. speaker.B. nonverbal signals.C. presentation.

5. In the independent clause "An effective speaker tries to liven up his or her presentation and to ask the audience questions," the verb or verbs in the sentence are

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A. tries.B. tries, to liven up.C. tries, to ask.

6. In a summary paragraph, the first sentence should quote the thesis statement from the essay or the article.

A. TrueB. False

7. In a formal summary, the first sentence includes the title of the article, the author's full name, and the thesis statement.

A. TrueB. False

8. When you write a formal summary, you should organize the main ideas in an order that flows smoothly and logically.

A. TrueB. False

9.In a formal summary paragraph, The writer should introduce each new main idea by using the author's last name and a present-tense verb.

A. TrueB. False

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