unit ii evolution of tqm

Notes on TQM By: SB MALLUR,STJIT,MED,RANEBENNUR 1

Sub: TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (06ME758) VII SEM BE (MECH)

EVOLUTION OF TQM: Contribution of Quality Gurus- Edward Deming, 14 points, PDSA cycle, Joseph Juran, Quality trilogy, Crosby &

quality treatment, Ishikawa and companywide quality control, Taguchi & his quality loss function.

NOTES By:

S.B. MALLUR, Mechanical Engineering Dept, STJ Institute of Technology, Ranebennur- 581 115 [email protected], [email protected]

A guru, by definition, is a good person, a wise person and a teacher. A quality guru should be all of these, plus have a concept and approach to quality within business that has made a major and lasting impact. The gurus mentioned in this section have done, and continue to do, that, in some cases, even after their death. The Quality Gurus—Dr. W. Edwards Deming, Dr. Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Dr. H. James Harrington, Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, Dr. Walter A. Shewhart, Shigeo Shingo, Frederick Taylor, and Dr. Genichi Taguchi—have made a significant impact on the world through their contributions to improving not only businesses, but all organizations including state and national governments, military organizations, educational institutions, healthcare organizations, and many other establishments and organizations.

1.0 INTRODUCTION (Contribution of Quality Gurus)

Over the past few decades, quality gurus such as Deming, Crosby, Juran, Feigenbaum, Ishikawa, Taguchi, Shingo and others have developed certain propositions in the area of quality management. Their insights into quality management provide a good understanding of quality management principles. This chapter present the main ideas proposed by these quality gurus. There are a number of writers whose work dominates the quality movement. Their ideas and approaches have stood the test of time and have come to from a body of accepted knowledge, to lead and advise their own movement in quality. They have become known as ‘gurus’. Many of the ‘gurus’ appear to present different theories of quality management. In reality they are all talking the same ‘language’ but they use different dialects. Quality has to be managed - it does not just happen. Task: Consider the strengths, weaknesses and different perspectives of each ‘guru.’ Remember that none of their views are ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, they are simply different, formed from the differing backgrounds, knowledge and experiences of the various writers. Each is based on the particular guru’s view of the world and is valid from his theoretical and practical perspective. Many authors and researchers justify the development of TQM based on the performance of Japanese Companies to the world Market during last three decades. This has been enhanced by the acknowledged influence of quality Gurus such as Deming, Juran, Ishikawa and Imai, Crosby, Feigenbaum and others. The primary authors of TQM have developed certain propositions in the field of TQM which have gained significant acceptance throughout the world. All quality Gurus’ insights provide a good understanding of the TQM philosophy, principles and practices. Although the philosophies of various gurus on Quality Management appear to be varying considerably, it can clearly be seen that there exists a common thread passing through all these Philosophies.

UNIT - 2 UNIT - 2

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The American gurus (W. Edward Deming, Joseph, M. Juran, Armand V-Feigenbaum), more lay emphasis on the social system including employee involvement concepts. The Japanese gurus (Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, Dr Genichi Taguchi, and Shigeo Shingo) successfully translated these into the shop floor Management systems through Just-in-time. The western gurus (Philip Crosby, Tom Peters, and Claus Moller) concentrated largely in the total quality control elements of the technical system. The total quality management philosophy is the integration of these three systems viz, the social system, the Management system and the technical system. (see Fig 1) Hence understanding of the Preaching of all these gurus makes the understanding of TQM more complete. TQM has became the key success factor for building business excellence for several organization all around the world each one of them adopt different Models and different routes but invariably all of them with one ultimate goal of becoming the best.

Three groups of Quality Gurus can be identified covering the period since World War II. 1. The early Americans who took the messages of quality to the Japanese. 2. The Japanese who developed new concepts in response to the Americans' messages. 3. The new Western wave of Gurus who, following Japanese industrial success, have given rise to

increased quality awareness in the West.

Fig.1 Integrations of total quality management philosophy by quality Gurus TQM is a leadership philosophy and strategy that is based on continuous improvement of every

process, improvement of people, continuous learning, all creating transformations towards an organization that is providing excellent products and service.

However, TQM may also be viewed functionally as an integration of two basic functions, i.e., Total quality control (TQC) and quality Management (QM). TQC is long term success strategy for organizations. Customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction product quality assurance in all its stages, and continuous improvement and innovation are the ingredients of TQC, whereas QM is a way of planning, organization and directly that will facilitate and integrate the capabilities and all employees for continuous improvement of anything and everything in an organization to attain excellence. Thus TQM is an organization that brings all the people together to ensure and improve product-process quality, the work environment and working culture.

1.1 The early Americans The Americans were themselves effectively responsible for making possible the miraculous turn-around of Japanese industry and for putting Japan on the road to Quality Leadership. Much of this transformation was associated with the introduction of statistical quality control into Japan by the US Army over the period 1946 to 1950 and the visits by three key American Quality Gurus in the early 1950s. These were: W Edwards Deming introduced concepts of variation to the Japanese and also a systematic approach to problem solving, which later became known as the Deming or PDCA cycle. Later in the West he

Western gurus (Philip Crosby, Tom Peters, Claus

Moller)

Technical system.

The Japanese gurus (Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, Dr Genichi

Taguchi, Shigeo Shingo)

Management systems

American gurus (W. Edward Deming, Joseph, M. Juran,

Armand V-Feigenbaum)

Social system


concentrated on management issues and produced his famous 14 Points. He remains active today and he has attempted a summary of his 60 years experience in his System of Profound Knowledge. Joseph M Juran focused on Quality Control as an integral part of management control in his lectures to the Japanese in the early 1950s. He believes that Quality does not happen by accident, it must be planned, and that Quality Planning is part of the trilogy of planning, control and improvement. He warns that there are no shortcuts to quality. Armand V Feigenbaum is the originator of Total Quality Control. He sees quality control as a business method rather than technically, and believes that quality has become the single most important force leading to organisational success and growth.

1.2 The Japanese The Japanese adopted, developed and adapted the methodologies that the Americans brought in and by the late 1950s had begun to develop clearly distinctive approaches suitable for their own culture. The Japanese Gurus emphasised mass education, the use of simple tools and teamwork and had a background in an educational role. The three Japanese Quality Gurus included in this document are: Dr Kaoru Ishikawa's three main contributions to quality were the simplification and spread of technical statistical tools (the 7 tools of Quality Control) as a unified system throughout all levels of Japanese companies, his input to the company-wide Quality Movement and his input to the Quality Circle Movement. Dr Genichi Taguchi developed a methodology for minimum prototyping in product design and troubleshooting in production. Shigeo Shingo created the poka-yoke system to ensure zero-defects in production by preventive measures.

1.3 The new Western wave Much of the increased awareness of the importance of quality in the West in recent years has been associated with a new wave of Gurus who have well publicised some of the quality issues, through the 1970s and 1980s. The three included in this document are: Philip Crosby is perhaps best known in relation to the concepts of Do It Right First Time and Zero Defects. He is a controversial figure, who has based his quality improvement approach on Four Absolutes of Quality Management and Fourteen Steps to Quality Improvement. Tom Peters emphasises the importance of customers, innovation, people, leadership and systems. He has 45 prescriptions and 12 traits of a Quality Revolution. Claus Moller has developed a concept of Personal Quality on which he sees all other concepts of Quality as based. He provides 12 Golden Rules to help improve your actual performance level, and 17 Hallmarks of a quality company.

Many experts and authors writers and many other consultants have made substantial

contributions to the body of quality management. The quality gurus’ brief descriptions of the different approaches to TQM are mentioned below. In order to understand fully the TQM movement, we need to look at the philosophies of notable individuals who have shaped the evolution of TQM. Their philosophies and teachings have contributed to our knowledge and understanding of quality today. Their individual contributions are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Quality Gurus and Their Contributions

Quality Guru Main Contribution

Walter A. Shewhart Contributed to understanding of process variability. Developed concept of statistical control charts.


Genichi Taguchi Focused on product design quality. Developed Taguchi loss function.

W. Edwards Deming Stressed management’s responsibility for quality. Developed “14 Points” to guide companies in quality improvement.

Joseph M. Juran Defined quality as “fitness for use.” Developed the concept of cost of quality.

Kaoru Ishikawa Developed the cause-and-effect diagrams. Identified the concept of “internal customer.”

Armand V. Feigenbaum Introduced the concept of total quality control.

Philip B. Crosby Coined the phrase “quality is free.” Introduced concept of zero defects.

QUALITY FOR SURVIVAL Business survival now depends on quality Quality ideals are not always realised Quality costs are high both in mfg. And service sector, often it is unquantified Tqm is top management led, integrated approach oriented to customer satisfaction its elements are technology, management, people.

“GURU” A ‘Guru’is a good man and a teacher. Above all, he must be a charismatic individual whose concept and approach to ‘Quality’ within

‘Business’ and possibly life generally has made a major and a lasting impact. Guru is BAHUSHRUTHA Guru is a MASTER - – He knows all the jobs – He follows Procedures / Steps – He is Mentor – He handles Crisis – He is a Role Model

WHY A QUALITY GURU? CHANGE IS THE RESULT OF o KNOWLEDGE (What to) o SKILL (How to ) AND o DESIRE (Want to) DESIRE IS FROM INTRINSIC SOURCE SELF KNOWLEDGE & SKILL ARE FROM EXTRINSIC SOURCES. GURU IS THE EXTRINSIC SOURCE

MAJOR APPROACHES. AMERICAN …….TOP DOWN JAPANESE …….SIMPLE TOOLS

MASS EDUCATION

TEAM WORK NEW WAVE …….AWARENESS.


2.0 DR. W. EDWARDS DEMING (1900–1993)

Dr. W. Edward Deming is best known for reminding management that most problems are systemic

and that it is management's responsibility to improve the systems so that workers (management and non-management) can do their jobs more effectively. Deming argued that higher quality leads to higher productivity, which, in turn, leads to long-term competitive strength. The theory is that improvements in quality lead to lower costs and higher productivity because they result in less rework, fewer mistakes, fewer delays, and better use of time and materials. With better quality and lower prices, a firm can achieve a greater market share and thus stay in business, providing more and more jobs.

When he died in December 1993 at the age of ninety-three, Deming had taught quality and productivity improvement for more than fifty years. His Fourteen Points, System of Profound Knowledge, and teachings on statistical control and process variability are studied by people all over the world. His books include: Out of the Crisis (1986), The New Economics (1993), and Statistical Adjustment of Data (1943).

In emphasizing management's responsibility, Deming noted that workers are responsible for 10 to 20 percent of the quality problems in a factory, and that the remaining 80 to 90 percent is under management's control. Workers are responsible for communicating to management the information they possess regarding the system. Deming's approach requires an organization-wide cultural transformation.

Deming's philosophy is summarized in his famous fourteen points, and it serves as a framework for quality and productivity improvement. Instead of relying on inspection at the end of the process to find flaws, Deming advocated a statistical analysis of the manufacturing process and emphasized cooperation of workers and management to achieve high-quality products.

Deming's quality methods centered on systematically tallying product defects, analyzing their causes, correcting the causes, and recording the effects of the corrections on subsequent product quality as defects were prevented. He taught that it is less costly in the long-run to get things done right the first time then fix them later.

1.1 THE RISE OF DEMING'S INFLUENCE The son of a small-town lawyer, Deming (a teacher and consultant in statistical studies) attended the University of Wyoming, University of Colorado, and Yale University, where he earned his Ph.D. in mathematical physics. He then taught physics at several universities, worked as a mathematical physicist at the U.S. Department of Agriculture and was a statistical adviser for the U.S. Census Bureau.

From 1946 to 1993 he was a professor of statistics at New York University's graduate school of business administration, and he taught at Columbia University. Deming became interested in the use of statistical analysis to achieve better quality control in industry in the 1930s.

In 1950 Deming began teaching and consulting with Japanese industrialists through the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). In 1960, he received the Second Order Medal of the Sacred Treasure from the Emperor of Japan for improvement of quality and the Japanese economy. In 1987 he received the


National Medal of Technology from U. S. President Ronald Reagan because of his impact on quality in the United States.

From 1946 to 1993, he was an international teacher and consultant in the area of quality improvement based on statistics, leadership, and customer satisfaction. The Deming Prize for quality was established in 1951 in Japan by JUSE and in 1980 in the United States by the Metropolitan Section of the American Society for Quality. American companies ignored Deming's teachings for years. In 1980, NBC aired the program "If Japan Can, Why Can't We?," highlighting Deming's contributions in Japan and American companies began to discover Deming. His ideas were used by major U.S. corporations as they sought to compete more effectively against foreign manufacturers.

As a consultant, Deming continued to conduct Quality Management seminars until just days before his death in 1993.

2.2 DEMING'S SYSTEM OF PROFOUND KNOWLEDGE One of Deming's essential theories is his System of Profound Knowledge, which includes appreciation for a system, knowledge about variation (statistics), theory of knowledge, and psychology (of individuals, groups, society, and change). Although the Fourteen Points are probably the most widely known of Dr. Deming's theories, he actually taught them as a part of his System of Profound Knowledge. His knowledge system consists of four interrelated parts: (1) Theory of Optimization; (2) Theory of Variation; (3) Theory of Knowledge; and (4) Theory of Psychology.

2.2.1 THEORY OF OPTIMIZATION. The objective of an organization is the optimization of the total system and not the optimization of the individual subsystems. The total system consists of all constituents—customers, employees, suppliers, shareholders, the community, and the environment. A company's long-term objective is to create a win-win situation for all of its constituents. Subsystem optimization works against this objective and can lead to a suboptimal total system. According to Deming, it is poor management, for example, to purchase materials or service at the lowest price or to minimize the cost of manufacturing if it is at the expense of the system. Inexpensive materials may be of such inferior quality that they will cause excessive costs in adjustment and repair during manufacturing and assembly.

2.2.2 THEORY OF VARIATION. Deming's philosophy focuses on improving the product and service uncertainty and variability in design and manufacturing processes. Deming believed that variation is a major cause of poor quality. In mechanical assemblies, for example, variations from specifications for part dimensions lead to inconsistent performance and premature wear and failure. Likewise, inconsistencies in service frustrate customers and hurt companies' reputations. Deming taught Statistical Process Control and used control charts to demonstrate variation in processes and how to determine if a process is in statistical control. There is a variation in every process. Even with the same inputs, a production process can produce different results because it contains many sources of variation, for example the materials may not be always be exactly the same; the tools wear out over time and they are subjected to vibration heat or cold; or the operators may make mistakes. Variation due to any of these individual sources appears at random; however, their combined effect is stable and usually can be predicted statistically. These factors that are present as a natural part of a process are referred to as common (or system) causes of variation.


Common causes are due to the inherent design and structure of the system. It is management's responsibility to reduce or eliminate common causes. Special causes are external to the system, and it is the responsibility of operating personnel to eliminate such causes. Common causes of variation generally account for about 80 to 90 percent of the observed variation in a production process. The remaining 10 to 20 percent are the result of special causes of variation, often called assignable causes. Factors such as bad material from a supplier, a poorly trained operator or excessive tool wear are examples of special causes. If no operators are trained, that is system problem, not a special cause. The system has to be changed.

2.2.3 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE. Deming emphasized that knowledge is not possible without theory, and experience alone does not establish a theory. Experience only describes—it cannot be tested or validated—and alone is no help for management. Theory, on the other hand, shows a cause-and-effect relationship that can be used for prediction. There is a lesson here for the widespread benchmarking practices: copying only an example of success, without understanding it in theory, may not lead to success, but could lead to disaster.

2.2.4 THEORY OF PSYCHOLOGY. Psychology helps to understand people, interactions between people and circumstances, interactions between leaders and employees, and any system of management. Consequently, managing people requires knowledge of psychology. Also required is knowledge of what motivates people. Job satisfaction and the motivation to excel are intrinsic. Reward and recognition are extrinsic. Management needs to create the right mix of intrinsic and extrinsic factors to motivate employees. A SYSTEM OF PROFOUND KNOWLEDGE

A set of functions or activities within an organisation that work together for achieving the objectives of the organisation;

Composed of many smaller, interacting subsystems such as stockholders, employees, customers, community, and the environment - to gain over the long term;

It is a basic understanding of statistical theory and variation; It is the theory of knowledge. There was no knowledge without theory, and experience alone

would not establish theory. Experience only describes; it cannot be tested or validated. Theory shows the cause-and-effect relationship that can be used for prediction;

The last component of theory of profound knowledge is psychology. Psychology helps us to understand people, interaction between people and circumstance, interaction between leaders and employees. Psychology helps us to nurture and preserve these positive innate attributes of people;

2.3 DEMING'S SEVEN DEADLY DISEASES The Seven Deadly Diseases can be summarized as:

1. Lack of constancy of purpose to plan products and services.

2. Emphasis on short-term profits.

3. Personal review systems for managers and management by objectives.

4. Job hopping by managers.

5. Using only visible data in decision making.

6. Excessive medical costs.

7. Excessive costs of liability driven up by lawyers that work on contingency.


Deming believed that traditional management practices, such as the Seven Deadly Diseases listed below, significantly contributed to the American quality crisis.

1. Lack of constancy of purpose to plan and deliver products and services that will help a company survive in the long term.

2. Emphasis on short-term profits caused by short-term thinking (which is just the opposite of constancy of purpose), fear of takeovers, worry about quarterly dividends, and other types of reactive management.

3. Performance appraisals (i.e., annual reviews, merit ratings) that promote fear and stimulate unnecessary competition among employees.

4. Mobility of management (i.e., job hopping), which promotes short-term thinking. 5. Management by use of visible figures without concern about other data, such as the effect of happy

and unhappy customers on sales, and the increase in overall quality and productivity that comes from quality improvement upstream.

6. Excessive medical costs, which now have been acknowledged as excessive by federal and state governments, as well as industries themselves.

7. Excessive costs of liability further increased by lawyers working on contingency fees.

2.4 DEMING'S FOURTEEN POINTS

Deming formulated the following Fourteen Points to cure (eliminate) the Seven Deadly Diseases and help organizations to survive and flourish in the long term:

1. Create a plan; publish the aims and purposes of the organization.

2. Learn and adopt the new philosophy of quality.

3. Understand the purpose of inspection; stop depending on inspection.

4. Stop awarding business based on price alone.

5. Improve the system constantly.

6. Institute training.

7. Teach and institute leadership.

8. Drive out fear, create trust, and create a climate for innovation.

9. Optimize the efforts of teams, groups and staff areas.

10. Eliminate exhortations, and targets for the work force; provide methods of achievement.

11. Eliminate numerical quotas for the work force.

12. Remove barriers that rob people of pride for workmanship.

13. Encourage education and self improvement for everyone.

14. Make action to accomplish the transformation, make it everyone's job.

1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service. Develop a plan to be competitive and stay in business. Everyone in the organization, from top management to shop floor workers, should learn the new philosophy.

2. Adopt the new philosophy. Commonly accepted levels of delays, mistakes, defective materials, and defective workmanship are now intolerable. We must prevent mistakes.

3. Cease dependence on mass inspection. Instead, design and build in quality. The purpose of inspection is not to send the product for rework because it does not add value. Instead of leaving


the problems for someone else down the production line, workers must take responsibility for their work. Quality has to be designed and built into the product; it cannot be inspected into it. Inspection should be used as an information-gathering device, not as a means of "assuring" quality or blaming workers.

4. Don't award business on price tag alone (but also on quality, value, speed and long term relationship). Minimize total cost. Many companies and organizations award contracts to the lowest bidder as long as they meet certain requirements. However, low bids do not guarantee quality; and unless the quality aspect is considered, the effective price per unit that a company pays its vendors may be understated and, in some cases, unknown. Deming urged businesses to move toward single-sourcing, to establish long-term relationships with a few suppliers (one supplier per purchased part, for example) leading to loyalty and opportunities for mutual improvement. Using multiple suppliers has been long justified for reasons such as providing protection against strikes or natural disasters or making the suppliers compete against each other on cost. However, this approach has ignored "hidden" costs such as increased travel to visit suppliers, loss of volume discounts, increased set-up charges resulting in higher unit costs, and increased inventory and administrative expenses. Also constantly changing suppliers solely on the base of price increases the variation in the material supplied to production, since each supplier's process is different.

5. Continuously improve the system of production and service. Management's job is to continuously improve the system with input from workers and management. Deming was a disciple of Walter A. Shewhart, the developer of control charts and the continuous cycle of process improvement known as the Shewhart cycle. Deming popularized the Shewhart Cycle as the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) or Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycle; therefore, it is also often referred to as the Deming cycle. In the planning stage, opportunities for improvement are recognized and operationally defined. In the doing stage, the theory and course of action developed in the previous stage is tested on a small scale through conducting trial runs in a laboratory or prototype setting. The results of the testing phase are analyzed in the check/study stage using statistical methods. In the action stage, a decision is made regarding the implementation of the proposed plan. If the results were positive in the pilot stage, then the plan will be implemented. Otherwise alternative plans are developed. After full scale implementation, customer and process feedback will again be obtained and the process of continuous improvement continues.

6. Institute training on the job. When training is an integral part of the system, operators are better able to prevent defects. Deming understood that employees are the fundamental asset of every company, and they must know and buy into a company's goals. Training enables employees to understand their responsibilities in meeting customers' needs.

7. Institute leadership (modern methods of supervision). The best supervisors are leaders and coaches, not dictators. Deming high-lighted the key role of supervisors who serve as a vital link between managers and workers. Supervisors first have to be trained in the quality management before they can communicate management's commitment to quality improvement and serve as role models and leaders.

8. Drive out fear. Create a fear-free environment where everyone can contribute and work effectively. There is an economic loss associated with fear in an organization. Employees try to please their superiors. Also, because they feel that they might lose their jobs, they are hesitant to ask questions about their jobs, production methods, and process parameters. If a supervisor or manager gives the impression that asking such questions is a waste of time, then employees will be more concerned about pleasing their supervisors than meeting long-term goals of the organization. Therefore, creating an environment of trust is a key task of management.


9. Break down barriers between areas. People should work cooperatively with mutual trust, respect, and appreciation for the needs of others in their work. Internal and external organizational barriers impede the flow of information, prevent entities from perceiving organizational goals, and foster the pursuit of subunit goals that are not necessarily consistent with the organizational goals. Barriers between organizational levels and departments are internal barriers. External barriers are between the company and its suppliers, customers, investors, and community. Barriers can be eliminated through better communication, cross-functional teams, and changing attitudes and cultures.

10. Eliminate slogans aimed solely at the work force. Most problems are system-related and require managerial involvement to rectify or change. Slogans don't help. Deming believed that people want to do work right the first time. It is the system that 80 to 90 percent of the time prevents people from doing their work right the first time.

11. Eliminate numerical goals, work standards, and quotas. Objectives set for others can force sub-optimization or defective output in order to achieve them. Instead, learn the capabilities of processes and how to improve them. Numerical goals set arbitrarily by management, especially if they are not accompanied by feasible courses of action, have a demoralizing effect. Goals should be set in a participative style together with methods for accomplishment. Deming argued that the quota or work standard system is a short-term solution and that quotas emphasize quantity over quality. They do not provide data about the process that can be used to meet the quota, and they fail to distinguish between special and common causes when seeking improvements to the process.

12. Remove barriers that hinder workers (and hinder pride in workmanship). The direct effect of pride in workmanship is increased motivation and a greater ability for employees to see themselves as part of the same team. This pride can be diminished by several factors: (1) management may be insensitive to workers' problems; (2) they may not communicate the company's goals to all levels; and (3) they may blame employees for failing to meet company goals when the real fault lies with the management.

13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self improvement. Deming's philosophy is based on long-term, continuous process improvement that cannot be carried out without properly trained and motivated employees. This point addresses the need for ongoing and continuous education and self-improvement for the entire organization. This educational investment serves the following objectives: (1) it leads to better motivated employees; (2) it communicates the company goals to the employees; (3) it keeps the employees up-to-date on the latest techniques and promotes teamwork; (4) training and retraining provides a mechanism to ensure adequate performance as the job responsibilities change; and (5) through increasing job loyalty, it reduces the number of people who "job-hop."

14. Take action to accomplish the transformation. Create a structure in top management that will promote the previous thirteen points. It is the top management's responsibility to create and maintain a structure for the dissemination of the concepts outlined in the first thirteen points. Deming felt that people at all levels in the organization should learn and apply his Fourteen Points if statistical process control is to be a successful approach to process improvement and if organizations are to be transformed. However, he encouraged top management to learn them first. He believed that these points represent an all-or-nothing commitment and that they cannot be implemented selectively.


2.5 THE DEMING CYCLE

PDCA (plan–do–check–act) is an iterative four-step management process typically used in business. It is

also known as the Deming circle/cycle/wheel, Shewhart cycle, control circle/cycle, or plan–do–study–

act (PDSA).

Known as the Deming Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle, this concept was invented by Shewhart and popularized by Deming. This approach is a cyclic process for planning and testing improvement activities prior to full-scale implementation and/or prior to formalizing the improvement. When an improvement idea is identified, it is often wise to test it on a small scale

prior to full implementation to validate its benefit. Additionally, by introducing a change on a small scale, employees have time to accept it and are more likely to support it. The Deming PDCA Cycle provides opportunities for continuous evaluation and improvement. The steps in the Deming PDCA or PDSA Cycle as shown in Figure are as follows:

1. Plan a change or test (P). 2. Do it (D). Carry out the change or test, preferably on a small scale. 3. Check it (C). Observe the effects of the change or test. Study it (S). 4. Act on what was learned (A). 5. Repeat Step 1, with new knowledge. 6. Repeat Step 2, and onward. Continuously evaluate and improve.

Deming was trained as a mathematical physicist, and he utilized mathematical concepts and tools (Statistical Process Control) to reduce variation and prevent defects. However, one of his greatest contributions might have been in recognizing the importance of organizational culture and employee attitudes in creating a successful organization. In many ways, his philosophies paralleled the development of the resource-based view of organizations that emphasized that employee knowledge and skills and organizational culture are very difficult to imitate or replicate, and they can serve as a basis of sustainable competitive advantage. PDCA is a successive cycle which starts off small to test potential effects on processes, but then gradually leads to larger and more targeted change. Plan, Do, Check, Act are the four components of Work bench in Software testing. PLAN: Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected

output (the target or goals). By making the expected output the focus, it differs from other techniques in

that the completeness and accuracy of the specification is also part of the improvement.

DO: Implement the new processes, often on a small scale if possible, to test possible effects. It is

important to collect data for charting and analysis for the following "CHECK" step.

CHECK: Measure the new processes and compare the results (collected in "DO" above) against the

expected results (targets or goals from the "PLAN") to ascertain any differences. Charting data can make

this much easier to see trends in order to convert the collected data into information. Information is what

you need for the next step "ACT".

ACT: Analyze the differences to determine their cause. Each will be part of either one or more of the P-D-

C-A steps. Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement. When a pass through these

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Edwards_Deming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_A._Shewhart

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specification


four steps does not result in the need to improve, refine the scope to which PDCA is applied until there is

a plan that involves improvement.

2.6 DEMING'S MESSAGE TO THE JAPANESE Deming's message to the Japanese reflected his statistical background. However, he broadened

Shewhart's manufacturing approach to include non-manufacturing and human variation. He encouraged managers to focus on variability and understand the difference between special causes and common causes. He said that the special causes of variation in a product, process or service were those which prevented its performance from remaining constant in a statistical sense. These special causes are often easily assignable: changes of operator, shift, or procedure, for example. They can often be identified, and sometimes solved by local operators. On the other hand, common causes are those which remain once the special causes have been eliminated. They are due to the design, or the operation of the process or system. They may be identified by the operators, but only management authority can eliminate common causes.

Deming believed that managers who lacked this understanding of variation, and confused the two types of variation could actually make matters worse. Furthermore he revised his views on responsibility for variation, until by the mid 1980s he estimated that management was accountable for up to 94% of the potential improvement. However, Deming's lectures and work extended considerably beyond statistical methods. He encouraged the Japanese to adopt a systematic approach to problem solving, which later became known as the Deming or PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Action) cycle. He also pushed senior managers to become actively involved in their company's quality improvement programmes.

2.7 DEMING'S WORK IN THE WEST Deming's work in Japan has been identified as putting Japan on the road to leadership in

international business and industry. Subsequent work by Deming and his followers in the United States and elsewhere has attempted to make major changes in the style of Western management. This is however more management-based than statistically-based. Much of this is captured in his book Out of the Crisis. Deming constantly improved and refined his ideas, also taking on-board ideas from others and he is probably seen as the father figure of the modern quality revolution; perhaps the number one Guru. Dr Deming himself emphasized that no one sentence or chapter of his books captured the full intent of any of his 14 fundamental points. However, he placed great importance and responsibility on management, both at the individual, company and societorial level. 'Failure of management to plan for the future and to foresee problems have brought about waste of manpower, of materials, and of machine-time, all of which raise the manufacturer's cost and price that the purchaser must pay. The consumer is not always willing to subsidies this waste. The inevitable result is loss of market.' So what is management's way forward?: 'Everyone doing his best is not the answer. It is first necessary that people know what to do. Drastic changes are required.

The first step in the transformation is to learn how to change... Long term commitment to new learning and new philosophy is required of any management that seeks transformation. The timid and the fainthearted, and people that expect quick results are doomed to disappointment.' Whilst the introduction of statistical problem solving and quality techniques and computerization and robotisation have a part to play, this is not the solution: 'Solving problems, big problems and little problems, will not halt the decline of American industry, nor will expansion in use of computers, gadgets, and robotic machinery. Benefits from massive expansion of new machinery also constitute a vain hope. Massive immediate expansion in the teaching of statistical methods to production workers is not the answer either, nor does wholesale flash of quality control circles. All these activities make their contribution, but they only prolong the life of the patient, they cannot halt the decline'. Only transformation of management and of Government's relations with industry can halt the decline. Even in Japan in the


1950s, Deming taught that 'the consumer is the most important part of the production line'. One useful portrayal of the Deming philosophy, the Joiner Triangle, shows this concern with the customer. The word 'obsession' conveys the profound and primary importance of quality. Deming was concerned with delighting, rather than merely satisfying customers. The Joiner Triangle shows that such quality is achieved by total teamwork and the 'scientific approach'. Certain features of his later teachings in America were based on such foundations. In his seminars in America in 1980, he spoke of the need for 'the total transformation of Western Style of Management'. He produced his 14 Points for Management, in order to help people understand and implement the necessary transformation. Deming said that adoption of, and action on, the 14 points are a signal that management intend to stay in business. They apply to small or large organizations, and to service industries as well as to manufacturing. However the 14 points should not be seen as the whole of his philosophy, or as a recipe for improvement. They need careful discussion in the context of one's own organization.

2.8 ACTION PLAN 1. Management struggles over the 14 Points, Deadly Diseases and obstacles and agrees meaning and

plans direction. 2. Management takes pride and develops courage for the new direction. 3. Management explains to the people in the company why change is necessary. 4. Divide every company activity into stages, identifying the customer of each stage as the next stage.

Continual improvement of methods should take place at each stage, and stages should work together towards quality.

5. Start as soon and as quickly as possible to construct an organization to guide continual quality improvement. Deming advocates the Deming or Shewhart Cycle as a helpful procedure for improvement of any stage.

6. Everyone can take part in a team to improve the input and output of any stage. 7. Embark on construction of organization for quality. (Deming sees this as requiring the participation of

knowledgeable statisticians.)

2.9 LATTER-DAY DEMING In the late 1980s and early 1990s Deming's thinking can perhaps best be expressed as Management by Positive Co-operation. He talks about the New Climate which consists of three elements. These are Joy in Work, Innovation and Co-operation. He has referred to this New Climate as 'Win: Win', as opposed to the 'I Win: You Lose' attitude engendered by the ethic of Competition. Before his death Deming appears to have attempted a summary of his 60 years' experience. This he called the System of Profound Knowledge. It describes four interrelated parts: 1. Appreciation for a system. This emphasises the need for managers to understand the relationships between functions and activities. Everyone should understand that the long term aim is for everybody to gain - employees, share holders, customers, suppliers, and the environment. Failure to accomplish the aim causes loss to everybody. 2. Knowledge of statistical theory. This includes knowledge about variation, process capability, control charts, interactions and loss function. All these need to be understood to accomplish effective leadership, teamwork etc. 3. Theory of knowledge. All plans require prediction based on past experience. An example of success cannot be successfully copied unless the theory is understood. 4. Knowledge of psychology. It is necessary to understand human interactions. Differences between people must be used for optimisation by leaders. People have intrinsic motivation to succeed in many areas. Extrinsic motivators in employment may smother intrinsic motivation. These include pay rises and performance grading, although these are sometimes viewed as a way out for managers.


2.10 THE DEMING PRIZE The Deming Prize is Japan’s national quality award for industry. It was established in 1951 by the Japanese Union of Scientists and engineers (JUSE) and it was named after W. Edwards Deming. He brought statistical quality control methodology to Japan after W.W.II. The Deming Prize is the world’s oldest and most prestigious of such awards. Its principles are a national competition to seek out and commend those organizations making the greatest strides each year in quality, or more specifically, TQC. The prize has three award categories. They are Individual person, the Deming Application Prizes, and the Quality Control Award for factory. The Deming Application prizes are awarded to private or public organizations and are subdivided into small enterprises, divisions of large corporations, and overseas companies. There are 143 companies who won the prize. Among them, only once has the Deming Prize been awarded to a non-Japanese company: Florida Power and Light in 1989. The Deming Prize, especially the Deming Application Prize which is given to companies, has exerted an immeasurable influence directly or indirectly on the development of quality control and management in Japan.

Check list of application for Deming Award Item Particulars Item Particulars

1. Policy 1. Policies pursued for management quality, and quality control

2. Method of establishing policies 3. Justifiability and consistency of policies 4. Utilization of statistical methods 5. Transmission and diffusion of policies 6. Review of policies and the results achieved 7. Relationship between policies and long- and

short-term planning

6. Standardization 1. Systematization of standards 2. Method of establishing, revising, and abolishing

standards 3. Outcome of the establishment, revision, or

abolition of standards 4. Contents of the standards 5. Utilization of statistical methods 6. Accumulation of technology 7. Utilization of standards

2. Organization and its Management

1. Explicitness of the scopes of authority and responsibility

2. Appropriateness of delegations of authority 3. Interdivisional cooperation 4. Committees and their activities 5. Utilization of staff 6. Utilization of QC Circle activities 7. Quality control diagnosis

7. Control 1. Systems for the control of quality and such related matters as cost and quantity

2. Control items and control points 3. Utilization of such statistical control methods as

control charts and other statistical concepts 4. Contribution to performance of QC circle activities 5. Actual conditions of control activities 6. State of maters under control

3. Education and Dissemination

1. Education programs and results 2. Quality- and control-consciousness, degrees of

understanding of quality control 3. Teaching of statistical concepts and methods,

and the extent of their dissemination 4. Grasp of the effectiveness of quality control 5. Education of related company (particularly those

in the same group, sub-contractors, consigness, and distributers)

6. QC circle activities 7. System of suggesting ways of improvements and

its actual conditions

8. Quality Assurance 1. Procedure for the development of new products and services (analysis and upgrading of quality, checking of design, reliability, and other properties)

2. Safety and immunity from product liability 3. Customer satisfaction 4. Process design, process analysis, and process

control and improvement 5. Process capability 6. Instrumentation, gauging, testing, and

inspecting 7. Equipment maintenance, and control of

subcontracting, purchasing, and services 8. Quality assurance system and its audit 9. Utilization of statistical methods 10. Evaluation and audit of quality 11. Actual state of quality assurance

4. Collection, Dissemination and Use of Information of Quality

1. Collection of external information 2. Transmission of information between divisions 3. Speed of information transmission (use of

computers) 4. 4. Data processing statistical analysis of

information and utilization of the results

9. Results 1. Measurements of results 2. Substantive results in quality, services,

delivery time, cost, profits, safety, environments, etc.

3. Intangible results 4. Measures for overcoming defects

5. Analysis 1. Selection of key problems and themes 2. Propriety of the analytical approach 3. Utilization of statistical methods 4. Linkage with proper technology 5. Quality analysis, process analysis 6. Utilization of analytical results 7. Assertiveness of improvement suggestions

10. Planning for the Future

1. Grasp of the present state of affairs and the concreteness of the plan

2. Measures for overcoming defects 3. Plans for further advances 4. Linkage with the long-term plans


3.0 DR. JOSEPH Moses JURAN (December 24, 1904 – February 28, 2008)

3.1 INTRODUCTION AND HIS BIODATA Dr. Juran was born on December 24, 1904 in Braila, Romania. He moved to the United States in 1912 at the age of 8. Juran's teaching and consulting career spanned more than seventy years, known as one of the foremost experts on quality in the world.

A quality professional from the beginning of his career, Juran joined the inspection branch of the Hawthorne Co. of Western Electric (a Bell manufacturing company) in 1924, after completing his B.S. in Electrical Engineering. In 1934, he became a quality manager. He worked with the U. S. government during World War II and afterward became a quality consultant. In 1952, Dr. Juran was invited to Japan. Dr. Edward Deming helped arrange the meeting that led to this invitation and his many years of work with Japanese companies.

Juran founded the Juran Center for Quality Improvement at the University of Minnesota and the Juran Institute. His third book, Juran's Quality Control Handbook, published in 1951, was translated into Japanese. Other books include Juran on Planning for Quality (1988), Juran on Leadership for Quality (1989), Juran on Quality by Design (1992), Quality Planning and Analysis (1993), and A History of Managing for Quality (1995). Architect of Quality (2004) is his autobiography.

Joseph M. Juran, like Deming, went to Japan in 1954 and assisted the Japanese in their quest to achieve quality. Like Deming, Juran emphasized planning, organizing and controlling. However he emphasized customer satisfaction more than Deming did and focused on management and technical methods rather than worker satisfaction. Juran was a prolific author, publishing over a dozen books. His most influential book Quality Control Handbook (later called Juran's Quality Handbook)was published in 1951 and became a best seller.

By 1960 Japan was using quality control circles and simple statistical techniques learned and applied by Japanese workers. Juran developed basic steps that companies must take, however he believed there was a point of diminishing return, a point at which quality goes beyond the consumer needs. For example, if the consumer trades his car in after 50,000 miles, the car need only be built to perform trouble-free for 60,000 miles. Building a better car would drive up costs without delivering the expected product. This is called the Pareto Principle, or the Juran 80/20 rule: 80 percent of the trouble comes from 20 percent of the problems. The rule is named for Vilfredo Pareto, an economist, but it was Juran that applied the idea to management. It can be expressed as: "concentrate on the 'vital few' sources of problems; don't be distracted by less important problems." Juran's trilogy involves: BORN: December 24,1904, Braila, Romania Emigrated to USA 1912 Naturalized, U.S. Citizen: 1917 DIED February 28, 2008, Rye, New York


EDUCATION B.S., Electrical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 1924 J.D. , Law, Loyola University 1936 EMPLOYMENT 1924-1941 Engineer; Manager; Western Electric Company 1941-1945 Asst. Administrator; Lend Lease Admin.; Foreign Economic Administration, U.S. Government 1945-1951 Professor and Chairman, Industrial Engineering; New York University 1951-1979 Consultant; self-employed 1979-Present Founder, Chairman; Juran Institute, Inc. (Emeritus, 1987) 1986 Founder, Chairman, Juran Foundation, Inc. HONORARY DOCTORATES Doctor of Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, 1988 Doctor of Science, University of Minnesota, 1992 Doctor of Science, Rochester Institute of Technology, 1992 Doctor of Laws, University of New Haven, 1992 HONORARY MEMBERSHIPS, USA American Society for Quality Control; Honorary 1981 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1993 International Academy of Management National Academy of Engineering, 1988 The Academy of the Association for Quality & Participation Alpha Pi Mu Sigma Xi, 1946 Tau Beta Pi HONORARY MEMBERSHIPS, FOREIGN Australian Organization for Quality Control, 1974 Argentine Organization for Quality Control , 1977 British Institute of Quality Assurance ), 1976 European Organization for Quality Control Philippine Society for Quality Control , 1974 Spanish Association for Quality Control Romanian Academy,1992 SOCIETY AFFILIATIONS, USA American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1967 American Institute of Industrial Engineers, 1967 American Management Association, 1941 Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, Board of Overseers, 1988 to 1991 Member Illinois Bar, 1936 - Professional Engineer, New York, New Jersey MEDALS, USA Alumni Medal, University of Minnesota, 1954 American Management Association, Wall of Fame, 1983 Brumbaugh Award, ASQC, 1958 Chairman's Award, American Association of Engineering Societies, 1988


Edwards Medal, ASQC, 1961 Eugene L. Grant Medal, ASQC, 1967 Gilbreth Award, American Institute of Industrial Engineers, 1981 Managing Automation, Hall of Fame, 1995 National Medal of Technology, 1992 Soichiro Honda Medal, ASME, 1995 Stevens Medal, Stevens Inst. of Technology, 1984 Wallace Clark Medal, ASME, AMA, 1967 Worcester Reed Warner Medal, ASME, 1945 Xerox Quality Award MEDALS, FOREIGN 250th Anniversary Medal, Czechoslovakian Higher Institute of Technology, 1965 Medal of Technikhaza, Esztergom, Hungary, 1968 Medal of Honor Camera Official de la Industria, Madrid, 1970 Order of Sacred Treasure (Emperor of Japan), 1981 Medal of European Organization for Quality, 1993 PLACQUES, SCROLLS OF APPRECIATION, USA American Management Association, Wall of Fame, 1983 Department of the Army Department of Commerce Department of Defense Department of the Navy Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award PLACQUES, SCROLLS OF APPRECIATION, FOREIGN Scroll of Appreciation, JUSE, 1961 Taiwan Productivity Center, 1974 Plaque of Appreciation, Republic of Korea, 1978

3.2 SELECTED JURAN QUALITY THEORIES Juran's concepts can be used to establish a traditional quality system, as well as to support Strategic Quality Management. Among other things, Juran's philosophy includes the Quality Trilogy and the Quality Planning Roadmap.

3.3 JURAN'S QUALITY TRILOGY.

Quality Planning

(Determine customer needs, develop product in response to needs). Identify who are the customers.

Determine the needs of those customers.

Translate those needs into our language.

Develop a product that can respond to those needs.

Optimise the product features so as to meet our needs and customer needs.

Quality

Improvement

(Assess performance, compare performance with goals, act on differences etween performance and goals).

Develop a process which is able to produce the product.


Optimise the process.

Quality Control

(Develop infrastructure, identify areas of improvement and implement projects, establish project team, provide teams with what they need).

Prove that the process can produce the product under operating conditions with

minimal inspection.

Transfer the process to Operations.

The Quality Trilogy emphasizes the roles of quality planning, quality control, and quality improvement. Quality planning's purpose is to provide operators with the ability to produce goods and services that can

meet customers' needs. In the quality planning stage, an organization must determine who the customers are and what they need, develop the product or service features that meet customers' needs, develop

processes which are able to deliver those products and services, and transfer the plans to the operating forces. If quality planning is deficient, then chronic waste occurs.

Quality control is used to prevent things from getting worse. Quality control is the inspection part of the Quality Trilogy where operators compare actual performance with plans and resolve the differences. Chronic waste should be considered an opportunity for quality improvement, the third element of the Trilogy. Quality improvement encompasses improvement of fitness-for-use and error reduction, seeks a new level of performance that is superior to any previous level, and is attained by applying breakthrough thinking.

While up-front quality planning is what organizations should be doing, it is normal for organizations to focus their first quality efforts on quality control. In this aspect of the Quality Trilogy, activities include inspection to determine percent defective (or first pass yield) and deviations from quality standards. Activities can then focus on another part of the trilogy, quality improvement, and make it an integral part of daily work for individuals and teams.

The Juran Trilogy Diagram: The three processes of the trilogy are indicated in the diagram, which is a graph with time on the horizontal axis and cost of poor quality on the vertical axis. The planners are responsible for the product and process design to meet the customer needs; and the job of the operating forces is to run the process and produce the products. . We will see that the process cannot achieve 100 percent quality and 20 percent rework has to be carried out. Quality control prevents from the situation getting worse and also putting off the fires such as the sporadic spike. In


due course we will see that the chronic problems have come down by the application of the quality improvement process. The Alligator Analogy: The distinction between Quality Planning and Quality Improvement is brought out by the alligator analogy. This is a fable of a manager who is up to his waist in alligators; and each live alligator is a metaphor for chronic waste. Each completed quality improvement project results in a dead alligator and when all alligators are terminated the quality improvement is considered complete for the moment; but that doesn't happen as long as the quality planning process has not changed. A changed and improved planning process will only help complete improvement and sustain the same.

3.4 JURAN'S QUALITY PLANNING ROAD MAP. Juran's Quality Planning Road Map can be used by individuals and teams throughout the world as a checklist for understanding customer requirements, establishing measurements based on customer needs, optimizing product design, and developing a process that is capable of meeting customer requirements. The Quality Planning Roadmap is used for Product and Process Development and is shown in Figure.

Juran's Quality Trilogy and Quality Roadmap are not enough. An infrastructure for Quality must be developed, and teams must work on improvement projects. The infrastructure should include a quality steering team with top management leading the effort, quality should become an integral part of the strategic plan, and all people should be involved. As people identify areas with improvement potential, they should team together to improve processes and produce quality products and services.

Under the "Big Q" concept, all people and departments are responsible for quality. In the old era under the

concept of "little q," the quality department was responsible for quality. Big "Q" allows workers to regain pride in workmanship by assuming responsibility for quality.

3.5 Juran's ten steps to quality improvement are: 1. Build awareness of opportunities to improve. 2. Set goals. 3. Organize to reach goals. 4. Provide training. 5. Carry out projects to solve problems. 6. Report progress. 7. Give recognition. 8. Communicate results. 9. Keep score. 10. Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the systems and processes of the

company.


The Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) considered Juran's vision of top-to-bottom quality management even more important to their quality turnaround than Deming's insights. JUSE asked Juran if it could name its top-level award, a 'super-Deming award' after him, but he declined. This medal is called the Japan Quality Control Medal.

3.6 Quality Progress Spiral’

A useful framework to understand the positioning of these developments is available in the ‘Spiral of Progress in Quality’ given by Dr. Juran. Some of the concepts and methodologies have expanded in their scope and coverage, as they evolved and practitioners learnt to apply them to different aspects of working of an organisation and found to be beneficial. It will be of interest to find out, to what extent such organisations have changed their 3Ss and 3 Ps (Strategy, Structure and Systems and Purpose, Process and People) to get the full advantage of these developments.

Most of the concepts, methodologies, tools and techniques can be assigned to (a) or (b), described earlier; also they are seen to make an impact on the whole or parts or aspects in Juran’s ‘Quality Progress Spiral’.


4.0 PHILIP CROSBY (1926–2001) (Wheeling, June 18, 1926 - Winter Park, August 18, 2001)

Philip Crosby: The Fun Uncle of the Quality

Revolution "Do It Right the First Time"

4.1 INTRODUCTION Philip Bayard Crosby was born June 18, 1926 in

Wheeling, West Virginia. His parents were Mary and Dr. Edward K. Crosby. His father was a Podiatrist. He had one brother, David. He attended public schools in Wheeling, graduating from Triadelphia High School in 1944. He joined the Navy and became a hospital

corpsman. In the fall of 1946 Mr. Crosby entered the Ohio College of Podiatric Medicine in Cleveland. After

graduation he returned to Wheeling and practiced podiatry with his father. He soon discovered this was not his field.

He was recalled to military service during the Korean conflict, this time he served as a Marine Medical Corpsman.

In 1952 Mr. Crosby went to work for the Crosley Corporation, (Richmond, Indiana) as a junior electronic test technician. He was asked to join the American Society for Quality Control, the Richmond section, and this is where his early concepts concerning "quality" began to form.

In 1955 he moved to South Bend, Indiana, and went to work for Bendix Corporation as a reliability technician. Bendix and the U.S. Navy were developing and testing the TALOS missile. As a quality engineer, Mr. Crosby was to investigate defects found by the testers and inspectors. As time passed, it became evident that if he was going to "make things happen" he needed to become an executive and Bendix was not where it was going to happen.

In 1957 he was offered a job as a senior quality engineer with Martin Marietta Company in Orlando, Florida. During his eight years with Martin Marietta Mr. Crosby developed his "Zero Defects" concepts, began writing articles for various journals, and started his speaking career.

In 1965 ITT, International Telephone and Telegraph, hired Mr. Crosby as a vice president in charge of corporate quality. During the fourteen years with ITT Mr. Crosby worked with many of the world's largest industrial and service companies, implementing his pragmatic management philosophy, and found that it worked.

In 1979 he founded Philip Crosby Associates, Inc., with headquarters in Winter Park, Florida. Over the next ten years it grew into a publicly traded corporation with 300 employees around the world and $80 million dollars in revenue. Philip Crosby Associates taught management how to establish a preventive culture to get things done right the first time. General Motors, Chrysler, Motorola, Xerox, many hospitals, and hundreds of corporations worldwide came to Philip Crosby Associates to understand quality management.

In 1991 he retired from Philip Crosby Associates and founded Career IV, Inc., a company that provided lectures and seminars aimed at helping current and prospective executives grow. In 1997 he purchased the assets of Philip Crosby Associates and established Philip Crosby Associates II, Inc. with offices at 1954 Howell Branch Road, Winter Park, Florida. Philip B. Crosby died August 18, 2001.

After a number of years in industry, Crosby established the Crosby Quality College in Winter Park, Florida. He is well known as an author and consultant and has written many articles and books. He is probably best known for his book Quality is Free (1979) and concepts such as his Absolutes of Quality Management, Zero Defects, Quality Management Maturity Grid, 14 Quality Improvement Steps, Cost of


Quality, and Cost of Nonconformance. Other books he has written include Quality Without Tears (1984) and Completeness (1994).

Philip Crosby, author of Quality is Free, founded the Quality College in Winter Park, Florida. Crosby emphasized meeting customer requirements by focusing on prevention rather than correction. He claimed that poor quality costs about 20 percent of the revenue; a cost that could be avoided by using good quality practices. He pushed for zero defects. His "absolutes" are: (1) quality is defined as conformance to requirements, not goodness; (2) the system for achieving quality is prevention, not appraisal; (3) the performance standard is zero defects, not that's close enough; and (4) the measure of quality is the price of non-conformance, not indexes.

Crosby's method does not dwell on statistical process control and problem solving techniques that the Deming method uses. He stated that quality is free because prevention will always be lower than the costs of detection, correction and failure. Like Deming, Crosby had fourteen points: Attention to customer requirements and preventing defects is evident in Crosby's definitions of quality and "non-quality" as follows: "Quality is conformance to requirements; non-quality is nonconformance." Mr. Crosby authored 13 books on quality that have been translated into 17 languages and have sold millions of copies in both hard and soft cover. Some of his most important books include:

Cutting the Cost of Quality, 1967 Quality Is Free: The Art of Making Quality Certain, 1979 Quality Without Tears: The Art of Hassle-Free Management, 1984 Running Things: The Art of Making Things Happen, 1986 The Eternally Successful Organization, 1988 Let’s Talk Quality, 1989 Leading: The Art of Becoming an Executive, 1990 Completeness: Quality for the 21st Century, 1992 Reflections on Quality, 1995 Quality Is Still Free, 1996 The Absolutes of Leadership, 1997 Quality and Me: Lessons of an Evolving Life, 1999

Possible Strengths: clarity recognition of worker participation rejection of a tangible quality problem, acceptance of the idea of solutions Crosby’s metaphors - vaccine (integrity; dedication to communication and customer satisfaction;

companywide policies and operation which support the quality thrust) and maturity Crosby’s motivational style

Perceived Weaknesses: danger of misdirected effort from blaming workers (in question) emphasis on marketing more than recognition of barriers the management and goal orientation of the 14 step programme as failing to free workers from

externally generated goals potential for zero defects to be interpreted as zero risk ineffectiveness in coercive power structures charismatic/evangelical style - lack of substantial underpinning?


4.2 CROSBY'S COST OF QUALITY. In his book Quality Is Free, Crosby makes the point that it costs money to achieve quality, but it costs more money when quality is not achieved. When an organization designs and builds an item right the first time (or provides a service without errors), quality is free. It does not cost anything above what would have already been spent. When an organization has to rework or scrap an item because of poor quality, it costs more. Crosby discusses Cost of Quality and Cost of Nonconformance or Cost of Nonquality. The intention is spend more money on preventing defects and less on inspection and rework.

4.3 CROSBY'S FOUR ABSOLUTES OF QUALITY. Crosby espoused his basic theories about quality in four Absolutes of Quality Management as follows:

1. Quality means conformance to requirements, not goodness. 2. The system for causing quality is prevention, not appraisal. 3. The performance standard must be zero defects, not "that's close enough." 4. The measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance, not indexes.

To support his Four Absolutes of Quality Management, Crosby developed the Quality Management Maturity Grid and Fourteen Steps of Quality Improvement. Crosby sees the Quality Management Maturity Grid as a first step in moving an organization towards quality management. After a company has located its position on the grid, it implements a quality improvement system based on Crosby's Fourteen Steps of Quality Improvement.

4.4 FOURTEEN STEPS OF QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

Crosby's Absolutes of Quality Management are further delineated in his Fourteen Steps of Quality Improvement as shown below:

Step 1. Management Commitment

Step 2. Quality Improvement Teams

Step 3. Quality Measurement

Step 4. Cost of Quality Evaluation

Step 5. Quality Awareness

Step 6. Corrective Action

Step 7. Zero-Defects Planning

Step 8. Supervisory Training

Step 9. Zero Defects

Step 10. Goal Setting

Step 11. Error Cause Removal

Step 12. Recognition

Step 13. Quality Councils

Step 14. Do It All Over Again

The fourteen steps

1. Management Commitment: the need for quality improvement must be recognised and adopted by management, with an emphasis on the need for defect prevention. Quality improvement is equated with profit improvement. A quality policy is needed which states that '… each individual is


expected to perform exactly like the requirement or cause the requirement to be officially changed to what we and the customer really need.'

2. Quality Improvement Team: representatives from each department or function should be brought together to form a quality improvement team. These should be people who have sufficient authority to commit the area they represent to action.

3. Quality Measurement: the status of quality should be determined throughout the company. This means establishing quality measures for each area of activity that are recorded to show where improvement is possible, and where corrective action is necessary. Crosby advocates delegation of this task to the people who actually do the job, so setting the stage for defect prevention on the job, where it really counts.

4. Cost of Quality Evaluation: the cost of quality is not an absolute performance measurement, but an indication of where the action necessary to correct a defect will result in greater profitability.

5. Quality Awareness: this involves, through training and the provision of visible evidence of the concern for quality improvement, making employees aware of the cost to the company of defects. Crosby stresses that this sharing process is a - or even - the - key step in his view of quality.

6. Corrective Action: discussion about problems will bring solutions to light and also raise other elements for improvement. People need to see that problems are being resolved on a regular basis. Corrective action should then become a habit.

7. Establish an Ad-hoc Committee for the Zero Defects Programme: Zero Defects is not a motivation programme - its purpose is to communicate and instil the notion that everyone should do things right first time.

8. Supervisor Training: all managers should undergo formal training on the 14 steps before they are implemented. A manager should understand each of the 14 steps well enough to be able to explain them to his or her people.

9. Zero Defects Day: it is important that the commitment to Zero Defects as the performance standard of the company makes an impact, and that everyone gets the same message in the same way. Zero Defects Day, when supervisors explain the programme to their people, should make a lasting impression as a 'new attitude' day.

10. Goal Setting: each supervisor gets his or her people to establish specific, measurable goals to strive for. Usually, these comprise 30-, 60-, and 90-day goals.

11. Error Cause Removal: employees are asked to describe, on a simple, one-page form, any problems that prevent them from carrying out error-free work. Problems should be acknowledged within twenty-four hours by the function or unit to which the problem is addressed. This constitutes a key step in building up trust, as people will begin to grow more confident that their problems will be addressed and dealt with.

12. Recognition: it is important to recognise those who meet their goals or perform outstanding acts with a prize or award, although this should not be in financial form. The act of recognition is what is important.

13. Quality Councils: the quality professionals and team-leaders should meet regularly to discuss improvements and upgrades to the quality programme.

14. Do It Over Again: during the course of a typical programme, lasting from 12 to18 months, turnover and change will dissipate much of the educational process.

It is important to set up a new team of representatives and begin the programme over again, starting with Zero Defects day. This 'starting over again' helps quality to become ingrained in the organisation. Looking at the history of quality management, we see several stages of development. The first was quality control, which involved setting up product specifications and then inspect the product fore for leaves the


plant. The second state is quality assurance, which involved identifying the quality characteristics and procedures for quantitatively evaluating and controlling them. The next phase is the true total quality control, a term actually coined by Feingenbaum in 1983. At this stage the quality became a total organization effort. It effected production, profit, human interaction and customer satisfaction. The fourth stage is total quality management. In TQM the customer is the center and quality is an organization-wide effort.

4.5 His seisC and three T, which are: THE SIX C CROSBY:

1. Understanding 2. Competition 3. Commitment 4. Communication 5. Correction 6. Continuity

THE THREE T CROSBY

Time – Talent – Treasure Crosby gives us further that all work is a process. This concept implies that each job or task should be considered not in isolation, but as part of an interrelated network in which it is multiplying the following trilogy: Store of purchase and supplies they provide. • Process work done by each person. · Customers or users who receive the product or service. To help you get the quality that is required inputs, labor and services or products will meet the requirements to ensure proper operation at all. Quality, defined as «meeting the requirements», is one of the principles proposed by Crosby.

Later work In his 1984 book, Quality without Tears, Crosby developed the idea of a Quality Vaccination Serum with

the following ingredients:

Integrity for the Chief Executive Officer, all managers and all employees.

Systems for measuring conformance, and educating all employees and suppliers so that quality,

corrective action and defect prevention become routine.

Communications for identifying problems, conveying progress and recognising achievement.

Operations so that procedures, products and systems are proven before they are implemented and

are then continually examined.

Policies that are clear, unambiguous and establish the primacy of quality throughout the

organisation.

In The Eternally Successful Organisation (1988), a broader approach to improvements is reflected, and

Crosby identified five characteristics essential for an organisation to be successful:

1. People routinely do things right first time.

2. Change is anticipated and used to advantage.

3. Growth is consistent and profitable.

4. New products and services appear when needed.

5. Everyone is happy to work there.


4.6 In perspective

Throughout his work, Crosby's thinking was consistently characterised by four absolutes:

1.The definition of quality is conformance to requirements.

2.The system of quality is prevention.

3.The performance standard is zero defects.

4.The measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance.

The major contribution made by Crosby is indicated by the fact that his phrases 'zero defects', 'getting it

right first time', and 'conformance to requirements' have now entered not only the vocabulary of quality

itself, but also the general vocabulary of management.

When Crosby's name is not mentioned in the very same sentence as the best-known quality thinker,

Deming, then it would certainly be mentioned in the next. Crosby's practical and easy-to-read books on

quality became - and remain - bibles to many, demystifying some of the jargon formerly associated with

quality. His timing was perfect for the quality movement, and his writing has marketed quality to a wide

audience.


5.0 DR. KAORU ISHIKAWA (1915–1989) (July 13, 1915 - April 16, 1989)\ Kaoru Ishikawa developed the concept of Quality Circles and Cause and Effect (Fishborne)Diagram.

5.1 INTRODUCTION Kaoru Ishikawa was born in

1915 in Tokyo. He graduated from Tokyo University in 1939 with an engineering degree in applied chemistry. Following a short time in the military he worked for the Nissan Liquid Fuel Company from 1941 – 1947 before becoming an associate professor at the University of Tokyo. In

1978 he became president of the Musashi Institute of Technology. Ishikawa wanted to change the way people think about work. He challenged managers who were

content to merely improve a product’s quality, instead insisting that quality improvement can always go one step further. He promoted the concept of company wide quality control that called for continued customer service. This level of service would extend throughout the company, including all levels of management and indeed even reaching into the every day lives of those involved. According to Ishikawa the process of continuous quality improvement can ALWAYS be taken one step further.

In 1960 Ishikawa, in conjunction with JUSE, developed the concept of Quality Circles, and in close association with Nippon Telephone & Telegraph, he experimented on what effect the “leading hand” could have on quality. Quality Circles soon became very popular and formed an important link to Total Quality Management systems (TQM) in over 50 countries. Ishikawa subsequently published two books on Quality Circles; QC Circle Koryo and How to Operate QC Circle Activities. Ishikawa is also credited with developing the Cause and Effect Diagram, also known as the Ishikawa Diagram or more simplistic Fishbone Diagram. With the use of this diagram the user can see all the possible causes of any given result, and hopefully identity the root process of imperfections, thusly allowing quality improvement to be driven from the “bottom up”.

In addition to his own developments, Iskikawa drew on, and expanded upon ideas and principles from other notable quality management gurus, even expanding Deming’s PDCA model into a six step plan

Determine goals and targets Determine methods of reaching goals Engage in education and training Implement work Check the efforts of implementation Take appropriate action Ishikawa’s relentless pursuit of taking quality improvement one step further guarantees his status as a

guru of continuous quality improvement, his legacy will remain within the TQM of businesses across the globe for many years to come.

A professor of engineering at the University of Tokyo and a student of Dr. W. Edwards Deming, Ishikawa was active in the quality movement in Japan, and was a member of the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers. He was awarded the Deming Prize, the Nihon Keizai Press Prize, and the Industrial Standardization Prize for his writings on quality control, and the Grant Award from the American Society for Quality Control for his educational program on quality control.

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Ishikawa's book, Guide to Quality Control (1982), is considered a classic because of its in-depth explanations of quality tools and related statistics. The tool for which he is best known is the cause and effect diagram. Ishikawa is considered the Father of the Quality Circle Movement. Letters of praise from representatives of companies for which he was a consultant were published in his book What Is Total Quality Control? (1985). Those companies include IBM, Ford, Bridgestone, Komatsu Manufacturing, and Cummins Engine Co.

Ishikawa believed that quality improvement initiatives must be organization-wide in order to be successful and sustainable over the long term. He promoted the use of Quality Circles to: (1) Support improvement; (2) Respect human relations in the workplace; (3) Increase job satisfaction; and (4) More fully recognize employee capabilities and utilize their ideas. Quality Circles are effective when management understands statistical techniques and act on recommendations from members of the Quality Circles.

5.2 ISHIKAWA'S MESSAGE-TECHNIQUES

As with the other Japanese quality gurus, such as Genichi Taguchi, Kaoru Ishikawa has paid particular attention to making technical statistical techniques used in quality attainment accessible to those in industry. At the simplest technical level, his work has emphasized good data collection and presentation, the use of Pareto Diagrams to prioritize quality improvements and Cause-and-Effect (or Ishikawa or Fishbone) Diagrams.

Ishikawa sees the cause-and-effect diagram, like other tools, as a device to assist groups or quality circles in quality improvement. As such, he emphasizes open group communication as critical to the construction of the diagrams. Ishikawa diagrams are useful as systematic tools for finding, sorting out and documenting the causes of variation of quality in production and organizing mutual relationships between them.

Other techniques Ishikawa has emphasized include Control Charts, Scatter Diagrams, Binomial probability paper and sampling inspection.

5.3 COMPANY-WIDE QUALITY

Turning to organizational, rather than technical contributions to quality, Ishikawa is associated with the Company-wide Quality Control movement that started in Japan in the years 1955-1960 following the visits of Deming and Juran. Under this, quality control in Japan is characterized by company-wide participation from top management to the lower-ranking employees. Further, all study statistical methods, as well as participation by the engineering, design, research and manufacturing departments, also sales, materials and clerical or management departments (such as planning, accounting, business and personnel) are involved.

Quality control concepts and methods are used for problem solving in the production process, for incoming material control and new product design control, and also for analysis to help top management decide policy, to verify policy is being carried out and for solving problems in sales, personnel, labor management and in clerical departments. Quality Control Audits, internal as well as external, form part of this activity.

Ishikawa built on Feigenbaum’s concept of total quality and suggested that all employees have a greater role to play, arguing that an over-reliance on the quality professional would limit the potential for

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improvement. Maintaining that a company-wide participation was required from the top management to the front-line staff. As every area of an organisation can affect quality, all areas should study statistical techniques and implement as required with internal and external Quality Audit programmes. Going on to name areas such as engineering, design, manufacturing, sales, materials, clerical, planning, accounting, business and personnel that can not only improve internally but also provide the essential information to allow strategic management decisions to be made concerning the company. To illustrate this viewpoint Ishikawa said, “The results of these company-wide activities are remarkable, not only in ensuring the quality of industrial products but also in their contribution to the company’s overall business”. Under the “company-wide” Ishikawa umberella are not just a company’s internal quality control activities but the company itself, the quality of management, human respect, after sales service and customer care. Therefore suggesting the following:

5.4 Company-wide Quality benefits: 1. Reduced defects. 2. Improved product quality is improved. 3. Quality improvement becomes the norm. 4. Increased reliability. 5. Reduced costs. 6. Increased quality of production. 7. Waste is identified and reduced. 8. Rework is identified and reduced. 9. Improvement techniques are established and continually improved.. 10. Inspection and after-the-fact expenses are reduced. 11. Contracts are rationalised. 12. Sales and market opportunities are increased. 13. Company reputation is inceased. 14. Interdepartmental barriers are broken down and communication becomes easier. 15. False and inaccurate data is reduced. 16. Meetings are more effective and focused. 17. Repairs and maintenance are rationalised. 18. Improvement in human relations. 19. Company loyalty is increased.

5.5 TO QUOTE ISHIKAWA: 'The results of these company-wide Quality Control activities are remarkable, not only in ensuring the quality of industrial products but also in their great contribution to the company's overall business. '

Thus, Ishikawa sees the Company-wide Quality Control movement as implying that quality does not only mean the quality of product, but also of after sales service, quality of management, the company itself and the human being. This has the effect that:

1. Product quality is improved and becomes uniform. Defects are reduced. 2. Reliability of goods is improved. 3. Cost is reduced. 4. Quantity of production is increased, and it becomes possible to make rational production

schedules.


5. Wasteful work and rework are reduced. 6. Technique is established and improved. 7. Expenses for inspection and testing are reduced. 8. Contracts between vendor and vendee are rationalized. 9. The sales market is enlarged. 10. Better relationships are established between departments. 11. False data and reports are reduced. 12. Discussions are carried out more freely and democratically. 13. Meetings are operated more smoothly. 14. Repairs and installation of equipment and facilities are done more rationally. 15. Human relations are improved.

5.6 ONE STEP FURTHER

Kaoru Ishikawa wanted to change the way people think about work. He urged managers to resist becoming content with merely improving a product's quality, insisting that quality improvement can always go one step further. His notion of company-wide quality control called for continued customer service. This meant that a customer would continue receiving service even after receiving the product. This service would extend across the company itself in all levels of management, and even beyond the company to the everyday lives of those involved. According to Ishikawa, quality improvement is a continuous process, and it can always be taken one step further.

With his cause and effect diagram (also called the "Ishikawa" or "fishbone" diagram) this management leader made significant and specific advancements in quality improvement. With the use of this new diagram, the user can see all possible causes of a result, and hopefully find the root of process imperfections. By pinpointing root problems, this diagram provides quality improvement from the "bottom up." Dr. W. Edwards Deming --one of Isikawa's colleagues -- adopted this diagram and used it to teach Total Quality Control in Japan as early as World War II. Both Ishikawa and Deming use this diagram as one the first tools in the quality management process.

Ishikawa also showed the importance of the seven quality tools: control chart, run chart, histogram, scatter diagram, Pareto chart, run chart and flowchart. Additionally, Ishikawa explored the concept of quality circles-- a Japanese philosophy which he drew from obscurity into worldwide acceptance. Ishikawa believed in the importance of support and leadership from top level management. He continually urged top level executives to take quality control courses, knowing that without the support of the management, these programs would ultimately fail. He stressed that it would take firm commitment from the entire hierarchy of employees to reach the company's potential for success.

Another area of quality improvement that Ishikawa emphasized is quality throughout a product's life cycle -- not just during production. Although he believed strongly in creating standards, he felt that standards were like continuous quality improvement programs -- they too should be constantly evaluated and changed. Standards are not the ultimate source of decision making; customer satisfaction is. He wanted managers to consistently meet consumer needs; from these needs, all other decisions should stem. Besides his own developments, Ishikawa drew and expounded on principles from other quality gurus, including those of one man in particular: W. Edwards Deming, creator of the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) model. Ishikawa expanded Deming's four steps into the following six:


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Determine goals and targets Determine methods of reaching goals Engage in education and training Implement work Check the effects of implementation Take appropriate action

5.7 QUALITY CIRCLE One major characteristic of Japanese Company-Wide Quality Control is the Quality Control Circle Movement started in 1962, with the first circle being registered with the Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation. Starting in industry in Japan, these have now spread to banks and retailing, and been exported world-wide. Success in the West has not been so extensive as in Japan, however, although even there have been limitations too. The nature and role of quality circles varies between companies. In Japan a quality circle is a typically voluntary group of some 5-10 workers from the same workshop, who meet regularly and are led by a foreman, assistant foreman, work leader or one of the workers. The aims of the quality circle activities are: 1. To contribute to the improvement and development of the enterprise. 2. To respect human relations and build a happy workshop offering job satisfaction. 3. To deploy human capabilities fully and draw out infinite potential. Strengths: emphasis on participation variety of quantitative and qualitative methods a whole system view QCC’s are relevant to all sectors of the economy

Weaknesses: fishbone diagrams are systematic but most systemic problems are often interacting and far more

complex than the fishbone approach will reveal QCC’s depend upon management support - failure to listen to ideas there is a failure to address coercive contexts blame culture of the west rather than opportunity to

learn There does not emerge an overarching methodology which binds together and integrates all the different strands of his thinking


6.0 DR. GENICHI TAGUCHI (B. 1924)

Dr. Genichi Taguchi was a Japanese engineer and statistician who defined what product specification means and how this can be translated into cost effective production. He worked in the Japanese Ministry of Public Health and Welfare, Institute of Statistical Mathematics, Ministry of Education. He also worked with the Electrical Communications Laboratory of the Nippon Telephone and Telegraph Co. to increase the productivity of the R&D activities.

In the mid 1950s Taguchi was Indian Statistical Institute visiting professor, where he met Walter Shewhart. He was a Visiting Research Associate at Princeton University in 1962, the same year he received his Ph.D. from Kyushu University.

He was a Professor at Tokyo's Aoyama Gakuin University and Director of the Japanese Academy of Quality.

Taguchi was awarded the Deming Application prize (1960), Deming awards for literature on quality (1951, 1953, and 1984), Willard F. Rockwell Medal by the International Technologies Institute (1986).

Taguchi's contributions are in robust design in the area of product development. The Taguchi Loss Function, The Taguchi Method (Design of Experiments), and other methodologies have made major contributions in the reduction of variation and greatly improved engineering quality and productivity. By consciously considering the noise factors (environmental variation during the product's usage, manufacturing variation, and component deterioration) and the cost of failure in the field, Taguchi methodologies help ensure customer satisfaction.

Robust Design focuses on improving the fundamental function of the product or process, thus facilitating flexible designs and concurrent engineering. Taguchi product development includes three stages: (1) system design (the non-statistical stage for engineering, marketing, customer and other knowledge); (2) parameter stage (determining how the product should perform against defined parameters; and (3) tolerance design (finding the balance between manufacturing cost and loss).


ARMAND V. FEIGENBAUM

Feigenbaum was still a doctoral student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology when he completed the first edition of Total Quality Control (1951). An engineer at General Electric during World War II, Feigenbaum used statistical techniques to determine what was wrong with early jet airplane engines. For ten years he served as manager of worldwide manufacturing operations and quality control at GE. Feigenbaum serves as president of General Systems Company, Inc., Pittsfield, Massachusetts, an international engineering firm that designs and installs integrated operational systems for major corporations in the United States and abroad.

Feigenbaum was the founding chairman of the International Academy for Quality and is a past president of the American Society for Quality Control, which presented him its Edwards Medal and Lancaster Award for his contributions to quality and productivity. His Total Quality Control concepts have had a very positive impact on quality and productivity for many organizations throughout the industrialized world.

DR. H. JAMES HARRINGTON

An author and consultant in the area of process improvement, Harrington spent forty years with IBM. His career included serving as Senior Engineer and Project Manager of Quality Assurance for IBM, San Jose, California. He was President of Harrington, Hurd and Reicker, a well-known performance improvement consulting firm until Ernst & Young bought the organization. He is the international quality advisor for Ernst and Young and on the board of directors of various national and international companies.

Harrington served as president and chairman of the American Society for Quality and the International Academy for Quality. In addition, he has been elected as an honorary member of six quality associations outside of North America and was selected for the Singapore Hall of Fame. His books include The Improvement Process, Business Process Improvement, Total Improvement Management, ISO 9000 and Beyond, Area Activity Analysis, The Creativity Toolkit, Statistical Analysis Simplified, The Quality/Profit Connection, and High Performance Benchmarking.

DR. WALTER A. SHEWHART (1891–1967)

A statistician who worked at Western Electric, Bell Laboratories, Dr. Walter A. Shewhart used statistics to explain process variability. It was Dr. W. Edward Deming who publicized the usefulness of control charts, as well as the Shewhart Cycle. However, Deming rightfully credited Shewhart with the development of theories of process control as well as the Shewhart transformation process on which the Deming PDCA (Plan-Do-Check or Study-Act) Cycle is based. Shewhart's theories were first published in his book Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product (1931).

SHIGEO SHINGO (1919–1990)

One of the world's leading experts on improving the manufacturing process, Shigeo Shingo created, with Taiichi Ohno, many of the features of just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing methods, systems, and processes, which constitute the Toyota Production System. He has written many books including A Study of the Toyota Production System From An Industrial Engineering Viewpoint (1989), Revolution in Manufacturing:


The SMED (Single Minute Exchange of Die) System (1985), and Zero Quality Control: Source Inspection and the Poka Yoke System (1986).

Shingo's greatness seems to be based on his ability to understand exactly why products are manufactured the way they are, and then transform that understanding into a workable system for low-cost, high quality production. Established in 1988, the Shingo Prize is the premier manufacturing award in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. In partnership with the National Association of Manufacturers, Utah State University administers the Shingo Prize for Excellence in Manufacturing, which promotes world class manufacturing and recognizes companies that excel in productivity and process improvement, quality enhancement, and customer satisfaction.

Rather than focusing on theory, Shingo focused on practical concepts that made an immediate difference. Specific concepts attributed to Shingo are:

Poka Yoke requires stopping processes as soon as a defect occurs, identifying the source of the defect, and preventing it from happening again.

Mistake Proofing is a component of Poka Yoke. Literally, this means making it impossible to make mistakes (i.e., preventing errors at the source).

SMED (Single Minute Exchange of Die) is a system for quick changeovers between products. The intent is to simplify materials, machinery, processes and skills in order to dramatically reduce changeover times from hours to minutes. As a result products could be produced in small batches or even single units with minimal disruption.

Just-in-Time (JIT) Production is about supplying customers with what they want when they want it. The aim of JIT is to minimize inventories by producing only what is required when it is required. Orders are "pulled" through the system when triggered by customer orders, not pushed through the system in order to achieve economies of scale with the production of larger batches.

FREDERICK TAYLOR (1856–1915)

An industrial (efficiency) engineer, manager, and consultant, Frederick Taylor is known as the Father of Scientific Management. In 1911, he published The Principles of Scientific Management. Taylor believed in task specialization and is noted for his time and motion studies. Some of his ideas are the predecessors for modern industrial engineering tools and concepts that are used in cycle time reduction.

While quality experts would agree that Taylor's concepts increase productivity, some argue that his concepts are focused on productivity, not process improvement and as a result could cause less emphasis on quality. Dr. Joseph Juran said that Taylor's concepts made the United States the world leader in productivity. However, the Taylor system required separation of planning work from executing the work. This separation was based on the idea that engineers should do the planning because supervisors and workers were not educated. Today, the emphasis is on transferring planning to the people doing the work.


TOM PETERS (1942 - )

Tom Peters was born in 1942 in Baltimore, USA and residing in "crazy Northern California" from 1974-2000, Tom now lives on a 1,600-acre Vermont working farm with his wife, the artist and entrepreneur Susan Sargent. He studied engineering at Cornell University(B.C.E., M.C.E.) and is a business graduate of Stanford (M.B.A., Ph.D.).

He holds honorary doctorates from several institutions, including the State

University of Management in Moscow (2004). In the U.S. Navy from 1966-1970,

he made two deployments to Vietnam (as a Navy Seabee) and survived a tour in

the Pentagon. He was a senior White House drug-abuse advisor in 1973-74, and

then worked at McKinsey & Co. from 1974 to 1981, becoming a partner and

Organization Effectiveness practice leader in 1979. He left the firm to work

independently prior to the publication of 'In Search of Excellence'.

What distinguishes Peters is that he is not tied to a particular perspective. If there is a consistent strand

through his work, Peters believes it is 'a bias for action'. Forget the theorising, get on with the job.

Other bestsellers:

A Passion for Excellence (1985, with Nancy Austin

Thriving on Chaos (1987)

Liberation Management (1992: acclaimed as the "Management Book of the Decade" for the '90s)

The Tom Peters Seminar (1993)

The Pursuit of WOW! (1994)

The Circle of Innovation (1997).


MASAAKI IMAI (1930 - )

Masaaki Imai was born in Tokyo in 1930. In 1955, he received his bachelor's degree from the University of Tokyo, where he also did graduate work in international relations. In 1962, he founded Cambridge Corp., an international management and executive recruiting firm. As a consultant, he assisted more than 200

foreign and joint-venture companies in Japan in fields including recruiting, executive development, personnel management and organizational studies. From 1976 to 1986, Imai served as president of the Japan Federation of Recruiting and Employment Agency Associations.

In 1986, Imai established the Kaizen Institute to help Western companies introduce kaizen concepts,

systems and tools. That same year, he published his book on Japanese management, Kaizen: The Key to

Japan's Competitive Success. This best-selling book has since been translated into 14 languages.

Imai's new book, Gemba Kaizen: A Commonsense, Low-Cost Approach to Management, was published by

McGraw-Hill .

unit ii evolution of tqm

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