unit xiv
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Unit XIV. Social Psychology. What is Social psychology?. scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Social Thinking. Attribution Theory - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Social Psychology
Unit XIV
scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
What is Social psychology?
Attribution Theory
tendency to give a causal explanation for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition
Fundamental Attribution Error tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s
behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
http://youtu.be/6c3uwOYnUfs
Social Thinking
Attitude
belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events
Social Thinking
How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we
react to it
Social Thinking
Negative behavior
Situational attribution“Maybe that driver is ill.”
Dispositional attribution“Crazy driver!”
Tolerant reaction(proceed cautiously, allowdriver a wide berth)
Unfavorable reaction(speed up and race past theother driver, give a dirty look)
Our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as
well as by external social influences
Social Thinking
Internalattitudes
Externalinfluences
Behavior
Attitudes
follow behavior
Cooperative actions feed mutual liking
Social Thinking
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request http://youtu.be/YzQnqZzPHDU
Social Thinking
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon
Festinger)
we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Social Thinking
Cognitive dissonance
Social Thinking
Conformity
adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
http://youtu.be/fQI8pZJiMe0 (Candid Camera)
http://youtu.be/TrNIuFrso8I (Info.)
Social Influence
The chameleon effect
Social Influence
Participant Participant rubs face shakes foot
Confederate rubs face Confederate shakes foot
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Numberof times
The effect other people have on usThe effect other people have on us
Conformity
this is the way in which our thoughts and actions are affected by the
presence of those around us.- conscious and unconscious behavior
Asch’s conformity experiments http://youtu.be/iRh5qy09nNw
Social Influence
Asch Aim – To see if social influence was as strong if the task was less ambiguous Method – Asked participants to match a test line to 3 different lines, one of which was clearly a good match. He used actors for most of the group and asked them to say the wrong line. He then recorded the response of the naive participant Results – Participants conformed saying the obviously wrong answer 32% of the time (1 out of 3 conformed)
Conclusion – social influence still occurs but is less strong with a less ambiguous task
Deutsch and
Gerrard suggested there
were 2 main reasons for social
influence
Informative social influence
Normative social influence
Informative social
influence
The ‘need to be right’
When we are in ambiguous situations we are unsure how to act so we look to see what other people are doing and copy them because we assume they are right. This is particularly true if we believe the people around us to have superior knowledge e.g. older more experienced
Normative social
influence
The ‘need to be liked’
When we are in a social situation we have a strong desire to be liked by the rest of the group and therefore do or say things to make this more likely. However, our desire to be liked may be higher for certain groups of people and therefore our need to conform may go up
Can you think of examples when you have experienced
a) Normative social influence
b) Informative social influence
• Wearing the same style of clothes as your friends • Answering a difficult question the same as someone else because you don’t know the answer • Walking past a screaming child because everyone else is • Joining a queue without checking what it is for• Wearing your tie half undone • Saying ‘in-it’ at the end of a sentence• Copying a spelling mistake made on the powerPoint• Starting to wear make up in year 8
What type of conformity do these instances show?
Do you think all culture conform to the same extent?
Studies have shown that Japanese cultures conform the most. The Japanese government are trying to reduce the conformity in their schools to try to increase the level of creative thinking and innovation
The French have a very low level of conformity and are well known for striking against things they do not like
Deindividuation
loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Social Influence
Participan
ts judged which person in Slide 2 was the same as the person in Slide 1
Social Influence
Difficult judgments
Easy judgments
Conformity higheston important
judgments
Low HighImportance
50%
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage ofconformity toconfederates’
wrong answers
Some individuals resist social coercion
Social Influence
Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment 1971
OBEDIENCE AND SOCIAL ROLES…
http://www.prisonexp.org/ (Info. site)
http://youtu.be/sZwfNs1pqG0(youtube video)
Social Facilitation
improved performance of tasks in the presence of others
occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered
Social Influence
Social Facilitation
Milgram’s follow-up obedience experiment
Social Influence
http://youtu.be/BcvSNg0HZwk
How could you test this at school? With your table, design a study and share
out in 2 minutes…
Social Loafing
Think about
The Task Performed
Size of Group
Culture
Bystander Effect
tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Social Relations
http://youtu.be/JozmWS6xYEw
http://youtu.be/tGaJrgi_SpE
Diffusion of responsibility poemEverybody, Somebody, Anybody, And Nobody
This is a little story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, and Nobody. There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it. Somebody got angry about that because it was Everybody's job. Everybody thought that Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn't do it. It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done
Obedience Following orders of someone in authority
Conformity Change in a persons behaviour or opinions as the result of group pressure
Deindividuation
The state of losing out sense of individuality and becoming less aware of our own responsibility for our actions
Social Loafing when people do not put in as much effort as a member of group as they do as an individual
Bystander Effect
People are less likely to help when they are in a crowd because responsibility is diffused
Group Polarization enhancement of a group’s prevailing
attitudes through discussion within the group
Groupthink mode of thinking that occurs when
the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives http://youtu.be/qYpbStMyz_I
Social Influence
If a group is
like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions
Social Influence
Prejudice an unjustifiable (and usually negative)
attitude toward a group and its members involves stereotyped beliefs, negative
feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate, but
often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
Social Relations
Socialization We are not born with stereotypes, but we grow to
imitate those who we respect
Realistic Group Conflict Theory When groups are forced to compete for scarce resources
(e.g., good jobs, nice homes, college educations), they threaten each other in a very negative manner
‘Our group is better than yours’ becomes justification for greater access to these positive resources
Origins of Prejudice
Does perception change with race?
Social Relations
If we use schemas to form overall
impressions of others because we are cognitive misers…
Stereotypes: group schemas, containing a set of beliefs about people in a particular social category
Stereotype Threat: http://youtu.be/nGEUVM6QuMg
Stereotypes
Americans today express much less racial and gender
prejudice
Social Relations
Vivid cases (9/11 terrorists) feed stereotypes
Social Relations
Allport’s Contact Theory
Under certain conditions, direct contact between members of different groups will improve relations
Contact must involve: Mutual interdependence A common goal Equal status of groups Informal, interpersonal contact Multiple contacts Social norms of equality
Ways to Reduce Prejudice
Ingroup
“Us”- people with whom one shares a common identity
Outgroup “Them”- those perceived as different or
apart from one’s ingroup
Ingroup Bias tendency to favor one’s own group
Social Relations
Scapegoat Theory theory that prejudice provides an outlet for
anger by providing someone to blame Just-World Phenomenon
tendency of people to believe the world is just
people get what they deserve and deserve what they get
http://youtu.be/a0jZzBEKIMc
Social Relations
Aggression any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or
destroy
Assertiveness
Behavior intended to express dominance or confidence
Assertiveness is not aggression
Frustration-Aggression Principle principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to
achieve some goal – creates anger, which can generate aggression
Social Relations
U.S. has highest murder rate in the
world among developed countries More than 15,000 murders every year More than 92,000 reported rapes More than 7 million reported violent acts overall Every 5 minutes a child is arrested for a violent
crime More than 50% of 5th graders report being a
victim of violence (70% of those have seen weapons used)
Guns kill an American child every 3 hours
Violence
Aggressive impulses may be hereditary
Twin studies: Correlations of aggression higher among
monozygotic twins than dizygotic pairs
Aggression is associated with Low levels of serotonin High levels of testosterone Activation of the amygdala can lead to aggressive
behaviors (though it still depends on situational factors)
Biological Theories
Men use more physical, direct forms of
aggression Men’s aggression is more likely to do physical
harm, and thus gets more attention
Girls and women use more indirect forms of aggression (e.g., spreading rumors).
There is no clear sex difference in reporting feelings of anger
Gender Differences in Aggression
Provocation: The great equalizer?
Men are more likely to attack physically when unprovoked than women
What happens when people are irritated, frustrated, or threatened by another person?
Bettencourt & Miller (1996) Conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences in
aggression Found that when provocation is involved, the typical
gender difference in physical aggression is reduced or eliminated
Gender Differences in Aggression
Heat Humidity Pain Noxious fumes Poverty Crowding
Physical Discomfort & Aggression
Social Relations
More TV sets in United States than toilets
Media consumption is #1 pass-time among Americans, particularly youth
60%-70% of all TV programs contain violence 70%-80% show no remorse, criticism, or penalty for the
violence
By the time the average American child graduates from elementary school: More than 8,000 murders More than 100,000 other acts of violence (e.g., assaults,
rape)
Media Violence
More recently, video games have become kids’
favorite form of media
90% of kids age 2-17 play regularly
Majority of popular games are violent
Media Violence
Since at least 1970, researchers have
known of a link between violent media and aggression Weakened inhibitions against violent behavior Imitation of specific violent acts Aggression primed as a response to anger Desensitization to violence Overestimation of prevalence of violence in real
life
VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES: http://youtu.be/kH38gqvPUuA
Media Violence
Effects of VVGs(Bushman & Anderson, 2001)
Corr
ela
tion
wit
h
VV
G E
xp
osu
re
Findings from a meta-analysis
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Aggression Helping HostileThoughts
HostileAffect
Arousal
VIOLENCE AS BEHAVIOR:
From a psychological perspective, what “causes”
violence?
Conflict perceived incompatibility of
actions, goals, or ideas Social Trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
Social Relations
Social trap
by pursuing our self-interest and not trusting others, we can end up losers
Social Relations
Optimaloutcome
Probableoutcome
Person 1Choose A Choose B
Per
son
2C
ho
ose
B
Ch
oo
se A
ATTRACTION, LOVE, & RELATIONSHIPS
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“I knew we had a lot in common, I’m crazy too!”
Mere Exposure Effect repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking
of them Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture
Social Relations- Attractiveness
Mere Exposure Effect
Passionate Love an aroused state of intense
positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of
a love relationship Companionate Love
deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Social Relations
Relatively new to social psychology
Psychologists generally only focus on individuals
Romance and attraction isn’t a ‘scholarly’ thing to study
Relationships have a number of important health benefits.
Attraction and Relationships
What Leads to Friendship and
Attraction? Proximity
Interaction Mere exposure
What Is Love?
Passionate love A theory of passionate
love Two-factor theory of
emotion Variations in love:
Culture and gender Companionate love
http://youtu.be/KFmp3D1CZ14
Misattribution of arousal…
http://www.corriehunt.com/uploads/5/0/6/4/5064667/the_bachelor_.wmv
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Arousal=Love?
What leads to attraction?
Proximity Mere exposure
Physical attractiveness Similarity
Matching
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Overview
Equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give
Self-Disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to
others Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Social Relations
Social Exchange Theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Superordinate Goals shared goals that override
differences among people and require their cooperation
Social Relations
Prosocial Behavior
Any act that helps or is meant to help others
It doesn’t matter what the helper’s motivation is
Prosocial Behavior (a.ka. Altruism)
People are more willing to help when they
are in a good mood Isen & Levin, 1972
84% of those who found dime helped, only 4% of those who did not find dime helped
Why do good moods increase helping? Interpret events sympathetically Mood-maintenance Good moods increase self-attention
People in a bad mood will help under certain conditions Negative-state relief hypothesis
People help to alleviated their own sadness and distress
Mood & Helping
8080
6060
2020
00
4040
Smoke-Filled Room Study
Percent who report smoke
Alone With 2 other real subjects
With 2 calm confederates
Graduated and Reciprocated
Initiatives in Tension-reduction (GRIT) a strategy designed to decrease
international tensions one side announces recognition of mutual
interests and initiates a small conciliatory act
opens door for reciprocation by other party
Social Relations
Central RouteCentral Route: Persuasion occurs when : Persuasion occurs when
interested people interested people focus on the focus on the arguments arguments and respond with favorable and respond with favorable thoughts.thoughts.
Peripheral RoutePeripheral Route: Persuasion that results : Persuasion that results when people are when people are influence by incidental influence by incidental cues cues such as the speakersuch as the speaker’’s attractiveness.s attractiveness.
Two Routes to Persuasion: Two Routes to Persuasion: How do we get How do we get people to change their attitudes?people to change their attitudes?
Computer Ad from 1989Computer Ad from 1989
Cigarette Ad: Low on Cigarette Ad: Low on Substance High on ImageSubstance High on Image
Can you imagine an ad for a cigarette Can you imagine an ad for a cigarette
that would look like the ad for the that would look like the ad for the computer? Is that a ludicrous idea?computer? Is that a ludicrous idea?
Which Which ““peripheralperipheral”” cues are being used cues are being used in the cigarette ad?in the cigarette ad?
Can you imagine such peripheral cues Can you imagine such peripheral cues in the computer ad?in the computer ad?
Comparing the two Comparing the two AdsAds