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UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu RMSA-TCA [email protected] Shashiranjan Jha RMSA-TCA [email protected] Prof. Keith Lewin University of Sussex [email protected]

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Page 1: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN

PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITYGaurav Siddhu

[email protected] Shashiranjan Jha

[email protected] Prof. Keith Lewin

University of [email protected]

Page 2: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Purpose

This presentation presents preliminary findings  from the  research on planning secondary education expansion in India.  The main aim of the research is to demonstrate how existing secondary  education  expansion  policies  may  create  an  inefficient  and  unsustainable system. This presentation:

• Identifies recent patterns of growth• Discusses  the  implications  for  efficiency,  effectiveness  and  equity  of  changes  in  the composition of types of secondary schools  

• Investigates effects related to school size• Projects the impact of demographic transition on demand• Illustrates how school mapping can inform decision making on school location• Presents policy relevant conclusions

Page 3: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Growth of Small Schools and Implications

• First Secondary Education Commission (1952-53): school size criteria for setting up new schools

• Subsequent shift to use of distance as criteria 

• More recently Joint Review Missions, Government of India 12th Five Year Plan express concern re: proliferation of small schools –implications for teacher deployment, resourcing; costs. 

“The new schools that have been established have tended to be small in terms of the number of pupils. Small schools find harder to offer a full range of curriculum options – both general and vocational – to students. In the siting of secondary schools, therefore, consideration should be given to increasing the average size of schools” (5th JRM).

• Small secondary schools (< 150 in grades 9 and 10) are expensive to operate; difficult to attract specialist teachers; difficulty offering full curriculum; may not be academically successful.   

Page 4: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Expansion of Secondary Education

• Rapid expansion: • GER 31% in 1995-96 to 72% in 2013-14. • GERs vary between states.• Some large enrolment states - less than 50% of children complete secondary school

• Gender gap declining: near parity 0.98 in 2013-14, from 0.65 in 1995-96  

• Overall increase – but regional and social inequality in retention persists

• Share of private enrolment  increased from 26% (2009) to 33% (2014)

Page 5: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Growth of Small Schools2013-14: 65% of secondary schools had fewer than 150 students. 

Between 2009-10 and 2013-14 percentage of small government schools declined marginally

Marginal increase in % of districts with high concentration of small schools between 2009 and 2013

Percentage of small schools increased in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka during RMSA period

Kerala UP Orissa WB Andhra Pardesh

Assam Gujarat Maharastra MP Punjab Karnataka Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Haryana Bihar0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

2009-10 2013-14

Percen

tage of S

mall Schoo

ls

Small Schools IncreasingSmall Schools Decreasing

Page 6: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Vast majority of schools, government or private, established after 2011 are very small

Of all government schools established since 2011: 35% have average enrolment <25 

<25 26-50

51-75

76-100

101-125

126-150

151-175

176-200

201-225

226-250

251-275

276-300

301-325

326-350

351-375

376-400

<25 26-50

51-75

76-100

101-125

126-150

151-175

176-200

201-225

226-250

251-275

276-300

301-325

326-350

351-375

376-400

Government Private

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Schools established between1951-2000 Schools established between 2001-2011 Schools established 2012 onwards

Percen

tage of S

choo

ls

Page 7: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Provision of Resources• Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR): range 4 to 38

• Rural-urban difference in PTR widens with increase in school size

• Student classroom ratio (SCR): range 8 and 75 

• Government schools are better resourced in terms of teachers; private schools have lower SCRs

• 7% smallest schools have all core facilities; 11% in largest school category

<25 26-50

51-75

76-100

101-125

126-150

151-175

176-200

201-225

226-250

251-275

276-300

301-325

326-350

351-375

376-400

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Government Aided Private

Pupil Teacher Rati

o

<25 26-50 51-75 76-100

101-125

126-150

151-175

176-200

201-225

226-250

251-275

276-300

301-325

326-350

351-375

376-400

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Government Aided PrivateStud

ent C

lassroom

 Rati

o

Page 8: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

33% schools have all four core subject teachers; increases to 45% in schools with 376-400 pupils

16% teachers in smallest schools have no professional qualification; 11% in largest school category

<25 26-50 51-75 76-100 101-125 126-150 151-175 176-200 201-225 226-250 251-275 276-300 301-325 326-350 351-375 376-40025

30

35

40

45

50

Government Aided Private

Percen

tage of S

choo

ls with

 Fou

r Core Teache

rs

Page 9: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Efficiency of Schools by Size

Input-output model: to establish efficiency of school size in converting four inputs (PTR, SCR, toilets and seven key facilities) into learning output (measured by pass % in board examination)

<25 25-50

50-75

75-100

100-125

125-150

150-175

175-200

200-225

225-250

>250 <25 25-50

50-75

75-100

100-125

125-150

150-175

175-200

200-225

225-250

>250 <25 25-50

50-75

75-100

100-125

125-150

150-175

175-200

200-225

225-250

>250

All Boys Girls

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

Composite Standalone

Efficie

ncy Score

Page 10: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

In terms of cost, per child recurrent cost in smallest schools is seven times that of schools with over 150 children. Marginal gains are minimal after enrolment size of 150.

Costs: per child recurrent cost in smallest schools 3 x that of schools with 150 students

If resourced as per RMSA norms: cost of smallest schools 6 x cost of schools with >150 pupils

Marginal gains are minimal after enrolment size of 300.

25 75 125

175

225

275

325

375

425

475

525

575

625

675

725

775

825

875

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

Estimates based on actual distribution of resources

Per child recurrent cost Per child fixed cost

School size

Per s

tude

nt co

st

Steeply Rising Costs per Student

Diminishing Eco-nomies of Scale

25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 32512000

32000

52000

72000

92000

112000

132000

152000

172000

192000

212000

Estimates based on distribution based on RMSA norms

Per child recurrent cost Per child fixed cost

School sizePe

r stude

nt ann

ual cost

Page 11: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Effectiveness of Small SchoolsSmallest schools: lower exam scores than schools with >100 students. 

Private schools: performance increases with size above this level; but not for government schools

Students in private secondary schools perform better than students in government schools

Composite schools outperform stand-alone schools; irrespective of size

Children from Scheduled Caste and Tribes perform better in large and composite schools

<25 26-50

51-75

76-100

101-

125

126-

150

151-

175

176-

200

201-

225

226-

250

251-

275

276-

300

301-

325

326-

350

351-

375

376-

400

<25 26-50

51-75

76-100

101-

125

126-

150

151-

175

176-

200

201-

225

226-

250

251-

275

276-

300

301-

325

326-

350

351-

375

376-

400

<25 26-50

51-75

76-100

101-

125

126-

150

151-

175

176-

200

201-

225

226-

250

251-

275

276-

300

301-

325

326-

350

351-

375

376-

400Overall Schedule Caste Schedule Tribe

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

Standalone Schools Composite Schools

Pass Percentage

Page 12: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Student Demographics

Demographic transition: number of 6-year-olds is already declining, most states

Population of 14 & 15-year-olds (secondary school ages) will start to decline before 2020, almost all States

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 20250

1,000,000

2,000,000

3,000,000

4,000,000

5,000,000

6,000,000

7,000,000

0

10,000,000

20,000,000

30,000,000

40,000,000

50,000,000

60,000,000Secondary School Age (14&15) Population

Assam Bihar MP Odisha KarnatakaRajasthan Tamil Nadu Meghalaya All India

State Le

vel P

opulati

on (A

ge 14 & 15)

All Ind

ia pop

ulati

on (A

ge 14 & 15)

Page 13: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

The population of 14 & 15-year-olds (secondary school ages) will start to decline before 2020 in almost all Indian States.

Demand for public secondary education will plateau between 2020-2025, then decline 

Following RMSA expansion policies & norms, without accounting for demographic change, will generate surplus capacities

This will happen across most States including those that now have acute resource shortage

Page 14: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

GIS Case Study on School Size and Population

Map shows that catchment areas of government secondary schools severely overlap the 5 km norm which indicates that most, but not all, of these schools are closer to each other than 5 km.

Page 15: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

There appears to be no relationship between the distribution of secondary school age population and the availability of government secondary schools.

School capacity utilisation was less that 50% in a selected region of Assam

Page 16: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Conclusions

• Policies  for  secondary  education  expansion  has  resulted  in  inequitable  distribution  of  resources  and creation of large number of small secondary schools

• Small schools are inefficient, as compared to large schools, in converting resources into learning outcomes and are highly cost inefficient

• Expansion of secondary education without consideration to demographic changes may result in generating surplus capacity

• Apparent  absence  of  linkage  between  school  location  and demand  for  secondary  education,  in  the  case study district

Page 17: UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITY Gaurav Siddhu

Thank you