universalising secondary education in india: seeking efficiency, effectiveness and equity in...
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UNIVERSALISING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: SEEKING EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN
PLANNING ENHANCED ACCESS AND IMPROVED QUALITYGaurav Siddhu
[email protected] Shashiranjan Jha
[email protected] Prof. Keith Lewin
University of [email protected]
Purpose
This presentation presents preliminary findings from the research on planning secondary education expansion in India. The main aim of the research is to demonstrate how existing secondary education expansion policies may create an inefficient and unsustainable system. This presentation:
• Identifies recent patterns of growth• Discusses the implications for efficiency, effectiveness and equity of changes in the composition of types of secondary schools
• Investigates effects related to school size• Projects the impact of demographic transition on demand• Illustrates how school mapping can inform decision making on school location• Presents policy relevant conclusions
Growth of Small Schools and Implications
• First Secondary Education Commission (1952-53): school size criteria for setting up new schools
• Subsequent shift to use of distance as criteria
• More recently Joint Review Missions, Government of India 12th Five Year Plan express concern re: proliferation of small schools –implications for teacher deployment, resourcing; costs.
“The new schools that have been established have tended to be small in terms of the number of pupils. Small schools find harder to offer a full range of curriculum options – both general and vocational – to students. In the siting of secondary schools, therefore, consideration should be given to increasing the average size of schools” (5th JRM).
• Small secondary schools (< 150 in grades 9 and 10) are expensive to operate; difficult to attract specialist teachers; difficulty offering full curriculum; may not be academically successful.
Expansion of Secondary Education
• Rapid expansion: • GER 31% in 1995-96 to 72% in 2013-14. • GERs vary between states.• Some large enrolment states - less than 50% of children complete secondary school
• Gender gap declining: near parity 0.98 in 2013-14, from 0.65 in 1995-96
• Overall increase – but regional and social inequality in retention persists
• Share of private enrolment increased from 26% (2009) to 33% (2014)
Growth of Small Schools2013-14: 65% of secondary schools had fewer than 150 students.
Between 2009-10 and 2013-14 percentage of small government schools declined marginally
Marginal increase in % of districts with high concentration of small schools between 2009 and 2013
Percentage of small schools increased in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka during RMSA period
Kerala UP Orissa WB Andhra Pardesh
Assam Gujarat Maharastra MP Punjab Karnataka Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Haryana Bihar0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2009-10 2013-14
Percen
tage of S
mall Schoo
ls
Small Schools IncreasingSmall Schools Decreasing
Vast majority of schools, government or private, established after 2011 are very small
Of all government schools established since 2011: 35% have average enrolment <25
<25 26-50
51-75
76-100
101-125
126-150
151-175
176-200
201-225
226-250
251-275
276-300
301-325
326-350
351-375
376-400
<25 26-50
51-75
76-100
101-125
126-150
151-175
176-200
201-225
226-250
251-275
276-300
301-325
326-350
351-375
376-400
Government Private
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Schools established between1951-2000 Schools established between 2001-2011 Schools established 2012 onwards
Percen
tage of S
choo
ls
Provision of Resources• Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR): range 4 to 38
• Rural-urban difference in PTR widens with increase in school size
• Student classroom ratio (SCR): range 8 and 75
• Government schools are better resourced in terms of teachers; private schools have lower SCRs
• 7% smallest schools have all core facilities; 11% in largest school category
<25 26-50
51-75
76-100
101-125
126-150
151-175
176-200
201-225
226-250
251-275
276-300
301-325
326-350
351-375
376-400
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Government Aided Private
Pupil Teacher Rati
o
<25 26-50 51-75 76-100
101-125
126-150
151-175
176-200
201-225
226-250
251-275
276-300
301-325
326-350
351-375
376-400
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Government Aided PrivateStud
ent C
lassroom
Rati
o
33% schools have all four core subject teachers; increases to 45% in schools with 376-400 pupils
16% teachers in smallest schools have no professional qualification; 11% in largest school category
<25 26-50 51-75 76-100 101-125 126-150 151-175 176-200 201-225 226-250 251-275 276-300 301-325 326-350 351-375 376-40025
30
35
40
45
50
Government Aided Private
Percen
tage of S
choo
ls with
Fou
r Core Teache
rs
Efficiency of Schools by Size
Input-output model: to establish efficiency of school size in converting four inputs (PTR, SCR, toilets and seven key facilities) into learning output (measured by pass % in board examination)
<25 25-50
50-75
75-100
100-125
125-150
150-175
175-200
200-225
225-250
>250 <25 25-50
50-75
75-100
100-125
125-150
150-175
175-200
200-225
225-250
>250 <25 25-50
50-75
75-100
100-125
125-150
150-175
175-200
200-225
225-250
>250
All Boys Girls
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
Composite Standalone
Efficie
ncy Score
In terms of cost, per child recurrent cost in smallest schools is seven times that of schools with over 150 children. Marginal gains are minimal after enrolment size of 150.
Costs: per child recurrent cost in smallest schools 3 x that of schools with 150 students
If resourced as per RMSA norms: cost of smallest schools 6 x cost of schools with >150 pupils
Marginal gains are minimal after enrolment size of 300.
25 75 125
175
225
275
325
375
425
475
525
575
625
675
725
775
825
875
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
Estimates based on actual distribution of resources
Per child recurrent cost Per child fixed cost
School size
Per s
tude
nt co
st
Steeply Rising Costs per Student
Diminishing Eco-nomies of Scale
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 32512000
32000
52000
72000
92000
112000
132000
152000
172000
192000
212000
Estimates based on distribution based on RMSA norms
Per child recurrent cost Per child fixed cost
School sizePe
r stude
nt ann
ual cost
Effectiveness of Small SchoolsSmallest schools: lower exam scores than schools with >100 students.
Private schools: performance increases with size above this level; but not for government schools
Students in private secondary schools perform better than students in government schools
Composite schools outperform stand-alone schools; irrespective of size
Children from Scheduled Caste and Tribes perform better in large and composite schools
<25 26-50
51-75
76-100
101-
125
126-
150
151-
175
176-
200
201-
225
226-
250
251-
275
276-
300
301-
325
326-
350
351-
375
376-
400
<25 26-50
51-75
76-100
101-
125
126-
150
151-
175
176-
200
201-
225
226-
250
251-
275
276-
300
301-
325
326-
350
351-
375
376-
400
<25 26-50
51-75
76-100
101-
125
126-
150
151-
175
176-
200
201-
225
226-
250
251-
275
276-
300
301-
325
326-
350
351-
375
376-
400Overall Schedule Caste Schedule Tribe
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
Standalone Schools Composite Schools
Pass Percentage
Student Demographics
Demographic transition: number of 6-year-olds is already declining, most states
Population of 14 & 15-year-olds (secondary school ages) will start to decline before 2020, almost all States
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 20250
1,000,000
2,000,000
3,000,000
4,000,000
5,000,000
6,000,000
7,000,000
0
10,000,000
20,000,000
30,000,000
40,000,000
50,000,000
60,000,000Secondary School Age (14&15) Population
Assam Bihar MP Odisha KarnatakaRajasthan Tamil Nadu Meghalaya All India
State Le
vel P
opulati
on (A
ge 14 & 15)
All Ind
ia pop
ulati
on (A
ge 14 & 15)
The population of 14 & 15-year-olds (secondary school ages) will start to decline before 2020 in almost all Indian States.
Demand for public secondary education will plateau between 2020-2025, then decline
Following RMSA expansion policies & norms, without accounting for demographic change, will generate surplus capacities
This will happen across most States including those that now have acute resource shortage
GIS Case Study on School Size and Population
Map shows that catchment areas of government secondary schools severely overlap the 5 km norm which indicates that most, but not all, of these schools are closer to each other than 5 km.
There appears to be no relationship between the distribution of secondary school age population and the availability of government secondary schools.
School capacity utilisation was less that 50% in a selected region of Assam
Conclusions
• Policies for secondary education expansion has resulted in inequitable distribution of resources and creation of large number of small secondary schools
• Small schools are inefficient, as compared to large schools, in converting resources into learning outcomes and are highly cost inefficient
• Expansion of secondary education without consideration to demographic changes may result in generating surplus capacity
• Apparent absence of linkage between school location and demand for secondary education, in the case study district
Thank you