University of Nigeria Research Publications

OKEKE, Ogonna Blessing

Aut

hor

PG/MBA/95/18841

Title

Critical Factors Influencing Brand Choice of Toothpastes in Enugu Metropolis

Facu

lty

Business Administration

Dep

artm

ent

Marketing

Dat

e

September, 2003

Sign

atur

e

CRITICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING BRAND CHOSE OF TOOTHPASTES

IN ENUGU METROPOLIS

OKEKE, OGONNA BLESSING

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR AWARD ~ , ~ ~ ~ E R OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Cn;n,x) &L&EE IN MARKETING

DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

UNNERSITY OF NIGERIA ENUGU CAMPUS

SUPERVISOR: PROF. IKECHUKWU E. NWOSU, Ph.D.

SEPTEMBER, 2003.

CERTIFICATION

OKEKE, OGONNA BLESSING, a postgraduate student of the

Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business Administration, University of

Nigeria, Enugu Campus with Registration Number PG/MBA/95/1884 1, has

satisfactorily completed the requirements for research work for the award of

Master of Business Administration (MBA) Degree in Marketing. b

I confirm that the work is original and has not been submitted in full

y institution as a research project.

. . . . . . . . . . .'

(Project Supervisor)

iii

DEDICATION

To my Family

Especially to the memory of my late father, Mr. Daniel 0. C. Okeke,

whose love and pieces of advice were inexpressible. The blessings you b

pronounced on me before your death is gradually being fulfilled.

To my mother, Mrs. F. 0. Okeke, and my brothers, Wilson, Dozie,

Ugochukwu and Chibuike.

And also to my sisters, Ifeyinwa and Chiamaka. For all your love and

patience.

Since I cannot direct the wind, I better learn how to adjust the sails.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Writing this piece of work is not an easy task. I was initially

overwhelmed but later sailed through. Many hands had worked behind the

scene to see that this work is a success. I must not fail to express my sincere

appreciation t o all whose effort, comments and pieces of advice helped me

in one way or the other towards completing this project.

My profound gratitude goes to my supervisor and lecturer, Prof. b

Ikechukwu E. Nwosu, who made this work possible by painstakingly

reading through every piece, made useful suggestions and insisted on high

professional and ethical standards and because of this, a new vista in the

quest for knowledge was sincerely opened to me, courtesy of this research

work. I thank you once again for the opportunity of growth presented to me.

My special thanks also go to my friends, Mrs. Nonye Obianuko and

Mr. Victor Onyebueke who made this research possible through all manner

of encouragement and support that boosted my morale during the trying

periods. I thank these two great friends for their invaluable contributions.

May God bless you both.

I also appreciate greatly the input made by Mrs. Geraldine Ugwuonah

of REMS KONSULT who provided a guide on the appropriate analytical

methods employed in data analysis.

I cannot forget all the encouragement and prayers given by my

brethren at the Nigerian-Christian Graduate Fellowship, Enugu Chapter.

I also owe a lot of thanks to my family - my mother, Mrs. F. 0.

Okeke, my brothers, Wilson, Dozie, Chibuike and my sisters, Ifeyinwa and

Chiamaka for making the environment conducive when I was writing this

work and for all their love q d effort which they gave in their very special

ways towards making this research work possible. b

My appreciation also go to my friends, Mrs. Tonia Eze, Mrs. Tina

Ozoekwem, Mrs. Oby Chukwuemerie, Mr. George Nwozor, Mr. Israel

Monyei and many others too numerous to mention, who made this research

possible through their numerous contributions. I also thank immensely,

Nkechi Osondu and staff of REMS KONSULT that typed this project for

me.

Finally, I want to appreciate the love and support given to me by my

husband, Dr. Sam Nkachukwu Uwaemoke who apart from providing the

needed succour, painstakingly proohad this work. May the good Lord

reward you all in Jesus Name, Amen.

Above all, my immeasurable thanks goes: to God Almighty who had

given me the immense grace, knowledge and strength throughout the period

I embarked on this work. To Him be all the glory forever and ever, Amen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page . . . Certification. 11

Dedication . iii

Acknowledgements iv

Table of Content; . vi

List of Tables ix

List of Appendices. xi

Abstract . xii ,

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction. 1

1.1 Statement of Problem . 3

1.2 Goal and Objectives . 4

1.3 Statement of Research Hypotheses . 5

1.4 Significance of the Study. 6

1.5 Limitations of the Study . 7

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Review of Related Literature . 10

2.1 Quantity and Quality of Available Literature.

2.2 Foci of Available Literature . 2.2.1 Identi%ing Consumer Needs and Motivation.

2.2.2 Models of Consumer Behaviour

2.2.3 The Decision-Making Process . 2.2.4 Product Differentiation and Branding .

vii

2.2.5 Theoretical Framework . 27

2.3 Summary . 32

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Research Design and Methodology . 38

3.1 The Study Area . 38

3.2 Brands Covered . 38

3.3 Type of Data Used. 39

3.3.1 Prirnm; Data 39 b

3.3.2 Secondary Data . 40

3.4 Population and Sample Size Determination . 40

3 -5 Sampling Procedure . 41

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Presentation and Analysis of Data . 43

4.1 Introduction. 43

4.2 Consumer Survey Results 44

4.3 Discussion of Results . 67

4.3.1 Brand Choice and Attribute Influence . 67

4.3.2 Brand Perception with Respect to Attribute . 68

4.3.3 Brand Choice and Socio-Economic Status . 69

CHAPTER FIVE:

5.0 Summary, Implications, Recommendations, Areas for Further Studies and Conclusion . 72

5.1 Summary of Findings . 72

5.2 Implications of the Study and Recommendations . 73

... V l l l

5.3 Areas for Further Research

5.4 Conclusion . Bibliography

Appendices .

Consumers ranking of brands with respect to Price

Consumers resporises on socioeconomic Indicators . Influence of occupation on consumers choice of toothpaste brand

Influence of income on consumers choice of toothpaste brand

Influence of education on consumers choice of toothpaste

Consumers Responses on Attribute Influence

Consumers Responses on Brand Influence . Consumers Responses on Brand Influence according to Occupation . Consumers Responses on Brand Influence according to Income . Consumers Responses on Brand Influence according to Educational Attainment .

LIST OF TABLES

Table

4.1 Response ratio of survey questionnaires . 4.2 Usage ratio of returned questionnaires.

4.3a Degree of attribute influence on consumers in their choice of toothpaste brands

4.3b ANOVA Table for Means of Attribute.

4.4 Consumers responses on attribute influence . 4.5 Consumers overall preference ranking of

toothpaste brand . 4.6 Multiple comparisons of means of preference

of toothpaste brand

4.7a Consumers perception of toothpaste brand . 4.7b Anova table for Means of toothpaste brand. . 4.8 Consumers ranking of brands with respect

to attributes . 4.8a Consumers ranking of brands with respect

toBrandName . 4.8b Consumers ranking of brands with respect

to Protective Strength . 4 . 8 ~ Consumers ranking of brands with respect

to Foaming. . 4.8d Consumers ranking of brands with respect

to Taste . 4.8e Consumers ranking of brands with respect

to Fresh Breath. . 4.8f Consumers ranking of brands with respect

to Whitening Effect

4.8g Consumers ranking of brands with respect to Colour .

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

Appendix 1 A: Consumer Survey Questionnaire 85

Appendix 1I:Testing of Lypotheses . 89

Appendix IIA: Testing of Hypothesis I . 89

Appendix IIB: Testing of Hypothesis 111. 91

xii

ABSTRACT

This study is about the influence of toothpaste attributes on consumers'

brand choice.

Given the background of the problems, this study sought to:

1. Determine the common attributes of toothpaste (taste, colour,

price, foaming, brand name, protective strength, whitening effect,

and fresh breath) which influence consumers' brand choice. 0

2. Verify how the product attributes vary between the common

brands of toothpaste in the market.

3. Determine whether there is any variation in brand choice between

socio-economic groups.

To achieve the above objectives, three working hypotheses were

formulated:

1. The choice of toothpaste (by consumers) is not significantly related

to the common product attributes such as taste , colour, foaming,

brand name, price, protective strength, whitening effect, and fresh

breath.

2. The common product attributes (taste, colour, foaming, brand

name, price protective strength, whitening effect, and fi-esh breath)

xiii

are not significantly different amongst major brands of toothpaste

in the market. .

3. There is no significant variation in brand choice of toothpaste

amongst different socio-economic groups.

Following an exploratory survey in the markets and other retail

outlets, the study was restricted to seven brands. These were Holdent,

CloseUp, Colgate, Macleans, Pepsodent, Dabur, and Aquafresh. Similarly, b

eight attributes (taste, colour, price, foaming, brand name, protective

strength, whitening effect, and fresh breath) were identified. With the aid of

computer, the data were analysed to attain the research objectives. The data

were collected through the use of questionnaires and personal interviews. A

total number of 250 respondents randomly selected were studied for the

testing of the hypothesis.

Accordingly, the key findings of the study were as follows:

1. Consumers of toothpaste are to a reasonable extent influenced by

the attributes in their brand choice.

2. Consumers consider the following attributes as more important, in

the following wder : whitening effect, fresh breath, and protective

strength (floride content).

Consumers of toothpaste are knowledgeable about the brands on

the shelves.

There was no relationship between the socio-economic status of

consumers and the extent of its influence on the choice of brands

they buy.

CloseUp appears to be the market leader inspite of comparatively

lower prices of other brands. This could be due to its high pand

awareness.

Consequently, the study has the following implications for decision-

markers :

1. Attributes vary in the degree to which they influence brand-choice

behaviour and as such do not deserve equal emphasis by

management in the marketing of a brand. Whitening effect and

fresh breath are the two most important attributes the firm must

manipulate.

2. To fruitfully exploit the relative advantage of a brand with respect

to any of the non-major attributes, the advantage must be glaring.

3. Owners of brands with whitening effect, protective strength or

fresh breath advantages may not concentrate on the high socio-

economic status consumers since this class is no more sensitive to

these three attributes than other classes of consumers.

4. Since even loyal consumers are sensitive to price differences due

to the economic hardship in the country, excessive hiking of brand

prices may not be a sound marketing decision by brand managers.

5. To encourage the purchase of highly priced toothpaste, other

mechanisms such as a modified advertising campaign or 9 new

definition of the target group have to be created.

6. Since consumers are knowledgeable in their favourite brands, and

are not naYve as advertisers would want us to believe, it will be

futile for managers to operate on that premise that they are likely to

take literally any message presented.

It is the belief of the researcher that this study will provide the participants in

the industry the necessary illumination and guidelines on increasing and

sustaining their market share based on the recommendations that were made

towards the improvement of the quality of the products and level of media

exposure to create greater awareness.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Like many other basic goods, the toothpaste market in Nigeria has

witnessed a massive expansion in the last two decades. This is not only due

to the considerable increase in the number of users but also in the

multiplication of new brands on the retail stand. Competitions are now

stiffer than ever before as the market, which used to be dominated by fewer @

than about 4 (four) brands, are now flooded with a variety of other local and

imported toothpastes.

Though the benefits of such a market development can be

enumerated, its effects on quality control, administration, consumer

satisfaction and well being are critical. For this reason, marketing managers,

particularly those dealing in product categories represented by numerous

brand with low margins but keen competition, must have an impressive

knowledge of their consumers in order to determine what lies behind the

decision to convert money and effort into purchases.

How can marketing managers predict which specific products

consumers will buy and in what quantities? Why does a consumer choose a

particular product or one brand of a product as against another? According

to Morden (1987:269) the individual consumer is a problem solver who is

influenced by psychological variables, social influences and the purchase

situation making it difficult for the marketer to understand consumer

behaviour.

Consumers, as agreed by many authors, determine the sales and

profits of a firm by their purchasing decisions and as such their motives and

actions determine the economic viability of the firm. Unfortunately

managers of business firms were not always concerned with consumer b

motives and actions. There was a time when firms only focused on sales

results with little concern for why consumers do what they do. Today,

however, as noted by Assael (1984:1), business managers realize that they

must gain an understanding of consumers if their marketing strategies are to

be successful. This awareness has created a new and more efficient focus in

developing marketing strategies.

Consumer behaviour has been thoroughly investigated and such can

be predicted with reasonable certainty over time and space. Although these

studies have been done successfully in Nigeria using a wide range of studies

from agricultural produce to manufactured products, the use of toothpaste in

such measures has been rather limited. Hence the underlying need to

understand the mechanisms of this particular market (the toothpaste market).

Such knowledge will throw more light on the exact nature of the market

3

itself and the attitudes of the toothpaste consumers with implication for

consumer protection and. marketing.

1 . STATEMENT 01: PROBLEM

Sometime ago, the Nigeria Dental Association expressed worries over

the high number of substandard toothpaste in the market (Guardian, August

1998). This alarm call raises further questions about consumer welfare and b

how it is or can be protected in the system. But beyond these, there are the

more fundamental issues of consumer behaviour in the toothpaste market.

In a sector that can only be described as a buyer's rather than a seller's

market, one cannot but pose the question on the determinants of consumer's

choice of product. How do common product attributes or variables affect

the consumer's predisposition towards specific brands as against the others?

In a Post-structural adjustment programme era when the purchasing

power of the average Nigerian is very low, it may appear on face value that

price is the only determinant factor but experiences and empirical studies

have shown that other variables such as taste, colour, brand name, protective

strength and fresh breath are also important factors. There is therefore the

need to clariG the relative importance of each attribute in the determination

of consumer choice.

4

Accordingly, the specific problems to be addressed in this study are:

1. The need to b o w how the following product attributes rate as

factors influencing consumers in their brand choice of toothpastes:

taste, colour, foaming, brand name, price, protective strength, fresh

breath and whitening effect.

2. How the consumers perceive the existing brands with regards to

the identified toothpaste

3. How the influence of

incomes of consumers.

attributes. b

the identified factors vary in terms of

1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES

The goal of the study is to determine the critical factors that influence

the consumers' preference of toothpaste brands in Enugu metropolis with a

view to providing better marketing information. Moreover such findings can

also be usehl to dental health officers.

Based on the above goal, the study will pursue the following

objectives.

1. To determine the common attributes of toothpaste (taste, foaming,

colour, price, brand name, protective strength, fresh breath and

whitening effect, which influence consumers brand choice.

5

2. To verifL how the product attributes vary amongst the common

brands of toothpaste in the market.

3. To determine whether there is any variation in brand choice

amongst socio -- economic groups.

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Three major null hypotheses are formulated and they are as follop:

The choice of toothpaste (by consumers) in not significantly

related to the common product attributes (as defined by taste,

colour, foaming, brand name, price , protective strength, fresh

breath and whitening effect.

The common (product) attributes taste, colour, foaming, brand

name, price , protective strength, fresh breath and whitening effect

are not significantly different amongst major brands of toothpaste

in the market.

There is no significant variation in brand choice of toothpaste

between different socio- economic moups.

, 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study will be of immense value to the producers in the toothpaste

industry. Facts about consumer preferences and attitudes make for better

product planning, marketing and enhanced consumer satisfaction. In

advanced economies, such consumer indicators are useful for defining

company policies, as well as its immediate and distant goals. In other

words, such feedbacks enable the firm to identi@ their target customers, b

what their needs are, their preferences, where, when and how the product is

needed and of course, those factors that motivate a consumer to buy.

This study will also be of great benefit to those companies seeking to

introduce new products. With the identification of existence or non-

existence of brand loyalty among consumers and the factors contributing to

it, the company can now find out a suitable unique selling proposition (USP)

to use and appeal to their desired target market. This will also enable them

decide whether to enter the market competing with the leaders or be a

follower or even nichers in the industry.

Also to benefit fiom this study are the advertising agencies, the print

and electronic media whose input in the promotion of those products

depends so much on consumer perception and choice (response).

7

Finally, it is also expected that this study will be of immense help to

Dental Health Practiti~ners. If consumer attitudes as regards brand choice

are known, dental heal;:h workers would be even in better positions to offer

useful advice either to their patients or to the government. The consumers

really need some expert advice for the overall dental health care especially

given to such wide variety of products, many of which are suspected to be

substandard. b

1.5 LIMITATlONS OF THE STUDY

This study is limited to the examination of how the common product

attributes affect the consumers predisposition towards specific brands of

toothpaste as against the others in Enugu Urban and since brand choice is

more of an attitude and behavioural measurement, the factors which will

require specialist knowledge or testing like dental impact and chemical

allergy will not be considered.

Scope of Study

Even though the expected findings will reveal some clues for the

rationality or irrationality of consumer perception and choice, the study does

not plan to probe into the fact of whether such perception or responses are

real or imagined. Since the emphasis of the study is to isolate the

8

determinant factors of consumer choice of toothpaste, it may be necessary

within the scope of this .~tudy to comment on but not to question the validity

upon which this choice is made.

The researcher encountered a number of daunting problems, which

tended to militate against the scope of the study. These constraints ranged

from personal, environmental, institutional cum technical factors. The most

significant among them are those relating to time, finance, attitude of b

respondents, and sampling limitations.

9

REFERENCES

Assael, Henry (1984). Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Action. znd Edition (Bodon: Kent).

Morden, A. R. (1987). gements of Marketing. 2"' Edition (ELBS).

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The literature related to the subject are discussed under the following

sub-headings: quantity and quality of available literature, foci of the

available literature and the summary.

2.1 QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF AVAILABLE LITERATURE 0

The volume of literature dealing with the subject under consideration

and other related issues is enormous. This is not surprising considering the

important role trade and commerce play in the modern economy. In all,

about 40 (forty) literature materials were reviewed. A disproportionate

portion (about 70%) of this number are from western sources because of

their consistent dominance in the fields of behavioural sciences and

business. The literature with a local or Nigerian treatise are mainly text

books, degree thesis and dissertations, and articles. Even then, their

optimum usage was seriously hampered by the inherent poor information

and documentation in the country.

A good number of the foundation theories of consumer behaviour

were based on empiricd studies carried in western societies. Since most are

based on fundamental reflexes of a rational man, their worldwide

11

. applicability is not in doubt. However the prevalence of socio-economic and

cultural differences calls for certain caution in the application of some of

these theories and models. Fortunately, the Nigerian experience which was

drawn from the available local works helped to balance these distortions.

The fact that most of these studies are based on a single or few products

analysis and that they have very narrow area (survey) coverage are serious

limiting factors. b

2.2 FOCI OF AVAILABLE LITERATURE

The entire literature can be classified into five subgroups for the sake

of clarity. They are as follows:

2.2.1 Identifying Consumer Needs and Motivation

A varied number of psychological factors (learning rate and pattern,

perception, motivation, beliefs and attitudes) influence a person's buying

choice. While it is true that a combination of these factors interact to

determine consumer behaviour, it is the motivational process that is critical

to the consumer in the determination of the final consumption decision

(Sanford and Wrightsman, l970:24O; Kotler, 1986: 177; Assael, l992:7O).

Kotler (1986) refers to motive as "a need that is sufficiently pressing

to direct the person to seek satisfaction of the need". In a more picturesque

12

language, Sandford and Wrightsman (1970) had explained a motive as "a

restlessness, a lack, a yearn and a force". Once the consumer is gripped by a

motive, he or she is compelled to act in such a way as to "reduce the

restlessness, remedy the lack, alleviate the yearn and mitigate the force".

Hence this explains why the satisfaction of such needs reduces tension.

Although human beings have many needs at any given time, these

needs do not all constitute motives at the same time. Only those of them that

are stimulated or activated become motives. This line of thought is also

shared by Kotler et a1 (1992: 116) when they opined that "a consumer is

motivated when his system is energized or made active and the behaviour is

directed towards some type of goal. This motivation can be thought of

simply as the force that activates goal - oriented behaviour. However, this

does not in any way suggest that motivation - behaviour relationship is a

simple one. In fact, it incorporates a complex interplay of physical,

economic, socio-culturd and psychological factors, as indicated earlier on

leading to motivation in a person's buying behaviour.

Though economic factors are dominant, age plays an equally

outstanding role in consumer need determination. Age differentiation of a

population is a key to a better understanding of the structure and dynamism

of consumer needs as well as motivation (Reinecke, 1964:60; Goldstein,

1968:62; Business Week, l976:74; Onyebuagu, l996WO).

Marketing management is highly interested in needs. One of the basic

assumptions in marketing is that consumer needs are the starting points of all

logical plans and strategies because customers - whether they are acting as

personal consumers or as buying agents for organization - experience all

kinds of needs. ' An appreciation of the nature of such needs would offer a

valuable aid to the study of motivating influences in buying behaviour.

Similarly, the way in which consumer motivation changes with varying b

situation make it necessary to focus on the motives behind consumer actions

rather than on the actions themselves (Hawkins et al, 1989:384). The motive

gives us an insight into the needs of the consumer. In this respect,

commentators like Larnont (1 974:427) and Fennel (1 978:47) contend that

marketing research should be based on the 'need' structure rather than on the

'product attribute' structure. The inherent weakness in using product

attribute structure is that, such analysis tend to compare competing brands

instead of the specific needs being satisfied.

The differences between the two emphases were illustrated by Fennel

(1978) in her comparison of the choice and need pattern of three motorists

and three facial cleanser users. Even though both groups quoted 'power'

and 'complexion' care respectively as the major attribute factor in their

respective choices, there occurred a wide differentiation within each group

MIP

14

as soon as their actual needs were queried. For instance, even though all

made allusion to 'poweq', motorist 'A' associated power with fast - moving

vehicles, motorist 'B' saw it as a masculine symbol, while motorist 'C'

loved the sensory experience of driving a powerfbl machine. For the facial

cleaner consumers, she suggested that the following reasons might be

responsible for their high rating of 'complexion care'. Consumer 'A' for

instance believed that sun and central heating dried her skin; 'B' believed b

that a skin that is well cared for is part of her feminine self - expression,

while the third consumer 'C' enjoyed the appearance and feel of a lovely

skin.

Fennel then reasoned that the knowledge that the consumer desired

'power' and 'complexion care' does little other than scratch the surface of

consumer wants. It therc:fore, underscores the need to probe beyond answers

expressed in the context of product attributes in the search for consumer

wants or what factors influence his brand choice. In other words, they

should enquire W e r into those conditions that lead them (consumers) to

ask for attributes like 'power' and 'complexion care'. Such shift in focus

from what the consumers ask for, to the conditions that lead them to want

what they ask for, places marketers in a far better position to understand

consumers wants. It enables them find a "common motivational ground for

15 + all goods and services" (Fennel, l978:39). In this way also, they overcome

the problem of motivational ambiguity.

Nevertheless, some researchers still favour the use of product

attributes as pointers to derived benefits (Howard and Sheth, 1970; Engel,

Kollat and Blackwell, 1968; Folikwe and Uduakwumo, 1986). This

approach has two implicit assumptions:

i. that the consumer is guided by the desire to satisfy personal or b

individual needs; and

ii. the he or she has a prior ability to perceive alternative products or

services capable of satisfying those needs.

This means that product attributes, despite its limitation is still a very

useful tool for analyzing and predicting consumer choice and preferences

(Scott and Lamont, 1973:427). It is on this basis that the approach was

adopted by the present smdy.

2.2.2 Models of Consumer Behaviour

Consumer behaviour is defined as "those acts of individuals directly

involved in obtaining and using economic goods and services including the

decision process that precede and determine these acts" (Kollat et al; 65) or

as 'buying habits or paitems of behaviour of consuming public either in

general or in specific groups'. (Hart and Stapleton:42). The important

attributeslfactors influencing consumers in their choice of toothpaste brands

are invariably related to *e socio-graphic circumstances of the consumers.

Thus the knowledge of how and why the consumer chooses will be usefbl in

any attempt, to predict what he is likely to choose. This in turn enables us to

present only those products and services that are likely to coincide with the

consumers' choice. Kotler (1980; 37 - 45) has identified five behavioural

models for analyzing buyers, namely, the Marshallian (Economic) model, b

the Pavlovian (Learning) model, the Freudian (Psycho-analytic) model, the

Veblenian (Socio-psychological) model and the Hobbessian (Organizational

factor) model. Of most relevant to this study are the Marshallian, Pavlovian

and Freudian Models' discussed as follows:

a. The Marshallian (Economic) Model

The model proposes that purchasing decisions are the result of largely

rational and conscious economic calculations. The consumer seeks to spend

his income on those goods and services that will deliver the greatest utility

according to his taste and relative prices. This he does by carefblly

calculating and weighing the expected pleasure and pains of every

contemplated action. Thus he is always trying to maximize satisfaction with

his limited resources. The factors that influence the consumer therefore are

likely to be price, income and durability.

17

An obvious deduction from this model is that a man faced with two

brands of toothpaste, which are identical on all respect, would definitely buy

the cheaper brand. This consumer can only buy the brand that cost more if

and only if the later has any attribute or quantity, which justifies the extra

expenditure on it. This is purely an economic consideration and does not

take into consideration other psychological variables, which may motivate

the consumer to buy the more costly brand even though the content and b

other conceivable attributes are the same.

The basic assumptions of this model include:

i. The lower the price, the higher the sales and vice versa.

ii. The lower the price of a substitute 'A', the lower the sales of 'By

and vice versa.

iii. The higher the real income, the higher the sales, and vice versa.

Both previous and recent studies have corroborated the Marshallian

hypothesis. Memmers (1962: part 11) reports that demand equations (based

on price) have often fitted to a wide variety of products such as beer,

chemical and fertilizers. Massey (May, 1985: 1 7 1 - 1 85) also concluded that

economic variables have significant influence on brands such as coffee,

orange juice and margarine.

18

However, economic consideration alone cannot explain the behaviour

of the consumer. The" first assumption (stated above) ftom this model

implies that a reduction in price may lead to a fall in sales and vice versa.

This is not always true and this is why the model is criticized for ignoring

the fundamental questions of how product and brand preferences are formed.

It fails to explain the mystery of consumer choice. It is rather ambiguous

when it says that the consumer acts in his own best interest since such an b

assumption is too wide in scope and as such is neither here nor there.

b. The Pavlovian (Learning) Model

This model which comprises classical and instrumental conditioning

was pioneered by Pr-.vlov, a Russian psychologist who performed

experiments on dogs. The model is based on the conditioned reactions of

dogs to bells, rang before they were fed. A variant of classical conditioning

(instrumental conditioning) by B. F. Skinner, involves introducing an

aversive stimuli of electric shocks to the food-bell response of the dog.

Both Pavloc and Skinner concluded that learning is an associative

process-based on four learning concepts.

i. Drives, motives or needs

These refer to strong internal stimuli or dis-satisfaction to the individual

which impels action.

19 . . 11. Cues

These are weaker stimuli in the environment and/or in the individual which

determine when, where and how the subject reacts. For example, a

toothpaste advertisement can serve as a cue because it stimulates the health

drive in a housewife. But her response will depend on this cue and other

cues - time of day and cue intensity.

iii. Response b

This is the persons reaction to the configuration of cues. It depends on the

degree to which the experience is rewarding that is drive reducing.

iv. Reinforcement

If the experience is rewarding, a particular response is reinforced or

strengthened, and there is a tendency for it to be repeated when the same

configurations of cues appear again, otherwise, the response is not

reinforced and the strength of the habit diminishes and may be extinguished

eventually.

He therefore hypothesized that the consumer does not have to be

rational in all his purchase decisions. There is rather a greater tendency for

the consumer to purchase by habit. This is a direct contrast of the

Marshallian model of the economic rational man.

20

There are many marketing implications of this model. There is a need

for strong cues (such .as free samples, advertisement) in the toothpaste

market and other such products where competition is keen. However,

sufficient product quality is necessary to serve as reinforcement and a build-

up habit in the consumers. Firms introducing new brands can as well

identify those cues that have helped in building up such brand preferences

since consumers are likely to transfer allegiance to similar brands. b

Again the model provides justification for repeat advertising to

generate repeat purchase, fight foregoing and dissonance. It also provides

useful guidelines to ad~~ertising practitioners and copywriters by helping to

identify product drives that must be emphasized. In toothpaste, for instance ,

drives like healthy gum, and fresh breath may be suggested as strong product

related drives.

c. The Freudian (Psycho-analytic) Model

Sigmund Freud, based on his study of child behaviour, hypothesized

that a child enters the world with instinctive needs that cannot be satisfied by

the immediate environment. According to him, the mind consists of three

parts, namely:

i. The Id:-house3 the basic instinctual drives, most of them, anti-

social.

ii. The ego - a conscious, rational control centre that maintains a

balance betwe~n the uninhibited instincts of the Id and social

oriented super-ego.

iii. The super-ego - the conscience accepts moral standards and

directs instinctive drives into acceptable channels.

The basic implication of the above model to marketing is that the real

motive of a consumer for buying a specific product or brand may well be b

hidden. Consumers should also be provided with socially acceptable

rationalizations for their purchases. Brand appeal can as well be directed to

the sub-conscious: to the consumers' dreams, hopes and fears.

d. A Contingency View

The above models clearly show that there is no single explanation for

certain consumer behaviour. In buying a product, the consumer seeks to

satisfl a variety of needs, psychological, social and even spiritual needs. In

any case he may be ratio.~al or irrational.

It is possible that in one case a consumer purchases out of habit those

products perceived to possess the highest utility value based on his limited

resources. It is also possible that the consumer's preference is a complex

function of that Lewinian dictum;

B = F (P, E)

meaning that behaviour B is a function of the interaction of the person P,

with the environment E, The expectancy models implicit in the assumption

of a value structure as a description of P and a belief as an environmental

measure of E can no lonser be accepted as adequate in explaining consumer

behaviour. The expectancy theory posits that motivational efforts of an

individual to select one behaviour from a large set are a function of the

perceived likelihood that behaviour will result in the attainment of various b

outcomes weighted by the desirability (Valence) of these outcomes to the

person.

Other evidences now abound that there are significant influence of

psychological variables in the behavioural pattern of the consumers (see

Berelson and Steiner, 1964 and Bindra, 1959). Therefore a clearer

understanding of consumer behaviour requires a combination of both

conscious rational hypot,lesis and the psychological related hypothesis.

2.2.3 The Decision-Making Process

Many models of consumer decision making exist. Researchers have

explored the factors that determine the choice of a particular information

processing strategy. Prominent among them, Oshvalsky and Richards

(1985:3 - 29) proposed that the eventual strategy employed is contingent

upon characteristics of the consumer, the market place, the social

23

environment and the physical environment. Given that the above

proposition explains the. factors influencing choice of information processing

strategy, a relevant question becomes:

How does the consumer go about making up his mind to buy a brand

in the first place, and how does he narrow this decision to a particular brand?

According

decided to spend

(say toilet soap)

to Udcagha and Okeke (1993:192), a consumer who has

a particular proportion of his income on a consumer good b

will soon discover that many brands of the product and

sources of purchase are in competition for his patronage. There are over a

thousand brands of bathing soap in the market and these could be bought

from any of the ubiquitous neighbourhood kiosks, supermarket, department

stores, specialty stores, and shopping centres around, just to mention a few.

He cannot buy all the brands and from all the sources at any one given time.

This is because he does not need so many and the satisfaction each gives

differs somehow from others. The consumer has to choose one of the brands

and buy from one of the sources.

Traditional decision making theorists posit that the consumer is an

active problem solver. He recognizes a need, searches for information,

evaluates alternatives and then makes a choice, and reacts to the outcome of

that choice. This search for information is assumed to be intensified under

*conditions of high risk, high price, or low degree of experience with the

potential satisfiers (brmds) (Assael, 1984). Supporting the above model,

Lutz and Bettman (1977: 137 - 149) added that to reach a purchase decision,

the consumer actively weighs alternatives and expends a great amount of

cognitive effort.

The above views however, contrast the 'Low Involvement' posture of

some consumer theoristslresearchers who particularly argue against an b

across-the-brand generalization of the models of decision-making. To them,

many purchase decision-making can best be approached using models of

passive learning. The basis of their argument explains Solomon (1980:209)

is that consumers "conserve cognitive effort when choosing fiom among

products not central to their belief system or having little risks or value".

The phenomenon of impulse purchase lends credence to this view.

One cannot say yet if toothpaste is a "low involvement" or "high

involvement" product. But because only a small portion of income is

expended on them, and because there seem to be little functional differences

in the brand, the indication is that the product may not be a 'high

involvement' one.

From another dimension, Vroom (1964) identified three conditions in

choice behaviour. First, the consumer must have high 'expectancy' that the

, f I

brand w ill ahhieve the desired objective. In other words, the product

characte&ti~$ as perceiyed by the consumer must be seen as sufficient to

faciliat, e the attainment of the objectives. Secondly, the objective must be

perceive >d to have 'instrumentality', that is must be seen as resulting in the

attaim, mt of desired end-goals. Finally, there is the 'valence' which refers

to fie preference for attaining one outcome over another. Thus, valence

implied that there exist for the individual consumer a meaningful preference b

hiqFirchy (scale). Agair. Solomon (1980:210) argues that this may not be I

m e for "low involvement" products earlier on discussed.

The C O ~ ~ ~ O V ~ ~ S Y notwithstanding, there is no doubt that before making

a (:hoice of a particular brand from alternative brand, the aroused consumer I

bpcornes alert to, or sometimes actively searches for information bearing on

his need mci its gratification.

2.2.4 Pnwluct Differentiation and Branding

The extent of product differentiation affects its acceptability.

Products can be differentiated on packaging basis such as family size brands,

low 'edition, colour, or taste.

P.T. Bauer (1954: 52 - 64) found that the salt marketed by a partitular

wthem Nigerian based merchant were more acceptable to customers

bet awe he supplied them in sacks of slightly heavier material to those of

26

another since heavier sacks make for better shirts. He also observed that the

brand name influences product acceptability because acceptability is a

recognition of the reliability of quality from a particular source.

A.R. Morden (1937:269) agrees with Bauer that the potential

influence a brand n&e can have is enormous. According to him the use and

promotional support of brand names is a major factor in sustaining

manufacturer capacity to identi@ and market his own consumer goods in the 0

face of pressure from retailers and their preference for retail own brands.

Consumer recognitions and perception of different products are affected by

their response to brand names. Different brand names will cause them to see

broadly similar products or services in different ways. People regard

Kellogg's cornflakes or Nescafe as better than their competitors and will pay

more for them. The Nigerian consumer has no easy means of testing and

comparing the different p;roducts. He therefore prefers the brand which has

performed satisfactorily for him.

Marketing firms have traditionally been interested in customer

satisfaction. Consumers continue to purchase those products with which

they are satisfied and they may influence the brand perception of those

whom they communicaca. Richins (1 983 :68) observed that potential

responses to customers' dissatisfaction may include:

i. Switching brands or refusing to re-patronize the offering store,

ii. Making a complaint to the seller or to a third party, and

iii. Telling others .?bout the unsatisfactory product or retailer.

2.2.5 Theoretical Framework

The consumer sees a product as a bundle of product attributes and has

his expectation about the attributes of a particular brand given the product

class. For example, some research findings suggest that the following 0

attributes are of intere:t to buyers in some familiar product classes and

influence their brand choices for such products. (Kotler, 1980:157, Ibe,

1984; Kotler, 1986: 193).

Beer - Taste, alcohol content and price.

Toothpaste - Taste, foaming, price, dental protection (Fluoride

content) and colour.

Cocoa Based - Milk and sugar contents, dissolvability, Nutritive Food driik value, taste and price

Cameras - Picture quality, ease of use, camera size, price.

Hotels - Location, cleanliness, atmosphere, cost.

Tyres - Safety, tread life, ride quality, price.

Consumers attach different importance weights to the relevant

attributes and this normally vary fiom consumer to consumer. Kotler

28

. (1986: 193) reports that the consumer develops a "set of brand beliefs about

where each brand stand8 on each attribute" constituting what is known as the

brand image.

It seems then tha? it is that brand image that the consumer may bring

into his 'choice'set' or 'evoked set' from which he makes his final purchase

decision. As defined by Campbell (1978:49), an evoked set is the set of

alternative brands of a product, which the buyer actually considers when b

making a specific brand choice. Asking consumers to list say, five brands

they know of a product class may well give an idea of their evoked set.

Kotler (1986:193) however cautions that the consumer's beliefs may be at

variance with the true attributes due to his particular experience and the

effect of selective perception, selective distortion, and selective retention.

The phenomenon has an important implication in the definition of

product quality. Product quality is often defined or measured in terms of the

purity or the grade of materials used, the technical perfection of design, and

exacting standards of production. The quest for this kind of product quality

on the part of technically trained and oriented people is understandable, and

within limits, highly laudable. However, thinking of product quality simply

as a fbnction of the colnmercial grade of materials used or the technical

perfection of design and manufacture without adequate consideration of

additional attributes, real or imagined is a denial of consumer orientation.

29

Consumers do not make chemical or physical analysis of the products

they buy. In reality, &hey have little knowledge of, or concern for the

technical standards established by chemists, physicists, and engineers in its

manufacture. In fact, considerable evidence supports the allegation that

consumers may 'prefer products made with certain lower cost ingredients

while management is equating higher cost with higher quality (Kuehn,

1982: 10 1 - 1 10). In t t 3 final analysis, the quality of a product depends on b

the situation in the market place, vis-A-vis consumer perception.

However, the above argument does not suggest that quality in the

technical sense is unimportant. Rather, consumers generally wish to be

reassured that they are not getting inferior materials or shoddy workmanship.

In truth, lack of consistency in the product characteristics, which they regard

as important, may alienate consumers (Kuehn and Day discussed this

phenomenon extensively). By implication, therefore, there are always basic

characteristics which consumers of a product class must find in a brand

before additional featurzs may make the difference. Thus consumers may

not be as gullible and as they are apparently believed to be especially by

critics of advertising.

To be sure, Keuhn and Day ( I 982: 10 1) and other researchers have

established that it is only when brands are characterized by minor product

. differences, or differences in unimportant attributes, that advertising and

other marketing prograws (such as heavy emphasis on brand name) can

precondition the consumer's feelings and attitudes towards a particular

manufacturer or brand and thereby influence his evaluation of, and reaction

to a product. ?his power of brand names and marketing programmes to

make the difference in consumer brand choice decision when there are no

significant functional difc'erence in brands is very crucial to this study, and b

based on this line of thought, the second hypothesis was formulated:

Hii The common (product) attributes (taste, colour, foaming, brand name, <

price, protective strength (floride content) whitening effect and fresh

breath do not vary significantly amongst major brands of toothpaste in

the market.

However, as noted earlier on, consumers' judgment of product

attributes may be based on grounds that differ from those of laboratory tests.

Their perception is based on brand name associations derived fiom

advertising and social stimuli. In fact authors like Kotler (1980), Levitt

(1960), Keuhn and Day (1982) have recognized that consumers are not

perfectly consistent in their choice behaviour. Keuhn and Day particularly

reported instances when housewives had chosen two different brands of a

product as their choices in two different trials under paired comparison.

3 1

, Evidence however indicate that the ability to recognize preferred brand is an

inverse function of the Pistance between the preferred brand and alternative

brands (Assael: 1 15). Because of the allegation of little or no functional

differences in the attributes of toothpaste brand therefore, the first hypothesis

was formulated.

Hi The choice of toothpaste (by consumers) is not significantly related to

the common product attributes (as defined by taste, colour, foaming, b

brand name, price, protective strength (floride content), whitening

effect and fresh breath).

Research on brand loyalty and brand switching has shown some

general trends in the area though there is no sure way to predict consumer

behaviour in a given situation. One trend suggests the conditions in the

market are often more influential than the features of a particular product.

When one product dominates a market, consumers are more likely to remain

loyal to that brand despite the introduction of attractive alternatives (Oslon,

1993:295). Another observation is that whether or not consumers tend to be

brand loyal seems to be unrelated to their personality characteristics and

socio-economic status (Oslon, 1993:285). Consumers may be bored with

familiar products, may want a change or may just want to try something

different. They may then switch to another brand or variety. This behaviour

. happens even in stable markets with established competitors as Oslon (1 993)

indicated. It is therefore .dong this line of reasoning that the third hypothesis

was advanced;

Hiii There is no significant variation in brand choice of toothpaste amongst

different socio-economic groups.

It is expected that the research findings will help answer these

hypotheses and enable l;s to determine the critical factors which influence b

brand choice of toothpaste,

2.30 SUMMARY

Toothpaste is one of the most important household products in

Nigeria. This is because 3f its increased usage in the country over and above

other methods of oral hygiene like chewing stick, saline (salt) water and

charcoal. Today, the market is flooded with so many different brands of

both imported and locally produced toothpastes that a good number of them

are feared to be substandard (Akanbi &Olusanya, 1996). A few of the

common ones are close-up, colgate, macleans, flourish, Angola, Holdent,

Dentoclean, Pepsodent and Dentex. It is therefore imperative to understand

the toothpaste market in Nigeria, especially as it affects the factors that

influence the consumer choice and preferences.

This study is crucial in view of the over concentration of research on

such products as toilet soaps, detergents, cosmetics soft drinks and beer in

Nigeria. The few studies on toothpaste like Onyemauche (1989) are

concerned more about comparisons of consumer preference between two

competing brands. Stdies of this nature do not accommodate the users of

unpopular brands or brands that are not selected for the study. This

underscores the need to cover a wider spectrum of the product in order to b

verify the determinants of toothpaste preference in the country.

REF'ERENCES

Akanbi, F. and Olusmya 0. (1996). "Consumer shift," Business Times (Monday, fdarch 1 1).

Assael, Henry (1993). Consumer Behaviow and Marketing Action: 4'h Edition (Boston: Kent).

Bauer, P. T. (1954). West African Trade. (London: Cambridge University Press, 1954).

Berelson, B. and Steincr, G.A. (1964). Human Behaviour. (New York: Harcourt, Lrace and World Inc).

$

Bindra, D. (1959). Motivation: A systematic Reinterpretation. (New York: Ronald).

Campbell, F, M. (1978). "Towards Behavioural Behaviouristic Models". Behavioural and Management Science in Marketing. (eds.) N.L Davies and A.J. Silk (New York: John Wiley and Sons).

Chisnall, Peter M ( 1 97.':). Marketing: A Behavioural Analysis. (London: McGraw-Hill Book Company Ltd).

East, Robert (1993). Changing Consumer Behaviour. (Cassel Educational Limited).

Egekwu Stanley C (1985). Market Acceutance of Soft Drinks in Imo State. (MBA Thesis Unpublished, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, April).

Engel, J; Kollat, D. and Blackwell, R (1978). Consumer Behaviour. (New York: Holt, Richard and Winston).

Fennel, Geraldine (1978). "Consumers Perception of the Product Use Situation". Journal qfMarketing. (April).

Folikwe, Bunrni Peter (1989). Consumers Assessment of the Marketing o f JOY Toilet Soap and Elephant Blue Detergent: A Case Study o f

Paterson Zochonis (PZ) Nineria Ltd. Lanos. (Enugu: UNN. Dept. of Marketing).

Goldstein, Sidney (1 9i5). "The Aged Segment of the Market, 1950- 1960": Journal o f Marketing. (April).

Hawkins, K.I.; Best, k.J; and Kenneth, A. (1970). Consumer Behaviouc Implications for Marketing Stratem. (Boston, IRWIN).

Hart, N.A. AND Stapleton, J., Glossav o f Marketing Terms. (2"* Edition), (London).

Howard, John A. and Sheth Jagdish, N. (1970). The Theory o f Buver Behaviour. (New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc). '

"How the Changing A6e Mix Changes Markets." Business Week. (January 12, 1976).

Ibe, L. 0. (1984). Consumer Usage and Attitude Towards Powdered Milk in Port Harcourt. (B.Sc. Thesis Unpublished, Rivers State University of Science and Technology).

Kotler, Philip (1 986). M a r k t i n Management, Planning, Analvsis, Control and Implementation. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Prentice Hall).

Kotler, Philip (1980). Principles o f Marketing (4m Edition), (N. J. USA, Prentice Hall).

Kuehn, Alfred and Day, Ralph (1982). "Strategy of Product Quality," Harvard Business Review. Vol. 40, No. 6, (Dec).

Lamout, Laurence M. and Scott, Jerome E; "Relating Consumer value to Consumer Behaviour: A Model and method for investigation". A paper presented at the fall conference, American marketing Associatio:~ 1973, as reported in Stanton and Lawenhar. "A Congrauerse model of Brand Preference: A theoretical and Empirical Study", Journal o f Marketing Research. Vol. XI (1 974).

Levitt, Theodore (1980). "Marketing Myopia". Harvard Business Review. (July - August).

Lutz Richard J. and Bettman James R (1977). "Multi-Attribute Models In Marketing: A Bicentinnialo Review," Consumer and Industrial Buvina Behcviour. (eds.) Arch G. Woodside, Jegdish N.Sheth and Peter i'. Benneth (New York: Noth-Holland Publishing COY),

Massey, William and Frank, Ronald (1985). "Short Term Price and Dealing effects In Selected Market Segments," Journal o f Marketing Research. Vol. 2 (May).

Mernmers Erwin E (1982). Managerial Economics. Part I1 (New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc). b

Morden, A. R (1 987). Ekments o f Marketing. (2"" Edition), (ELBS).

Onyemauche, C.U. (1 989). Comvarative Analvsis o f Consumer purchase preference for Close-uv versus Macleans: A Case studv o f Beemcham Limited and Lever Brothers Nigeria Limited. (An Unpublished B .Sc. Thesis, Department of Marketing University of Nigeria)

Oslon, Peter (1993). Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Stratem. (Boston, Richard Irwin Inc).

Osvalsky S. and Rich~rd W. (1985). "Perceived Quality in Consumer Decision-making: An integrated Theoretical Perspective" in Perceived Oualiiv: How Consumers View Stores and Merchandise. (eds), J. Jacoby and C. Oslon (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1985).

Renecke, John A (1984). T h e Older Market-Fact or Fiction?" Journal o f Marketing. (January).

Richins, L.M (1983). "Negative Word of Mouth by Dissatisfied Consumers.' Apilot study in the Journal o f Marketing. American Marketing Association. Vo1.47, No.1 (1983).

Sanford, F.H and Wrightsman, L.S. (1970). Psycholoay. (Belmont Callit, BrooWCole Publishing Co).

Solomon Micheal R. (1'980). "The missing link: surrogate Consumers in Marketing Chains". Journal o f Marketing. Vo1.50 (October).

Technical Assistance Research Programmes ( 1 979).

Undeagha, A.O. and Okke 0. (1963). Principles qf Marketing. (Enugu: New Generation Books).

Vroom, Victor H (1964). Work and Motivation. (New York: John Wiley Inc. and Sons).

b

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 THE STUDY AREA

Enugu has remained a capital city in the south eastern part of Nigeria

since the 1960s. It is currently the capital of Enugu State. With a population

of 509,192, about three institutions of higher learning, government offices

and some industries, the city is the most important administrative centre East B

of the River Niger. The inhabitants of the city are people with diverse ethnic

background and different social, educational and income classes.

Enugu was chosen as a case study because it is a typical Nigerian city.

It has similar characteristics like dense population, diverse socio-economic

attributes and a well-developed market structure with other big Nigerian

cities.

3.2 BRANDS COVERED

An exploratory consumer survey was carried out at various retail

outlets (including supermarket and open market) to ascertain the number of

brands in the market on a significant scale. Based on this, 7 (seven) brands

have been chosen for this study and they are:

i. Closeup.

. . 11. Macleans.

iii. Pepsodent. .

iv. Aquafresh.

v. Colgate.

vi. Holdent.

vii. Dabur

3.3 TYPE OF DATA USED:

Primary and secondary data were used for the study.

33.1 Primary Data

The primary data was collected through an exploratory survey,

questionnaire survey and personal interview. The exploratory survey

yielded information on the different retail outlets in Enugu and the different

brand names available. The questionnaire was structured with both

multiple-choice and open-ended questions in order to obtain the

respondent's opinions and views on a number of issues like teeth-cleaning

habit, toothpaste preferexe and the reasons for such preferences among

other things.

Personal interview was conducted with some sales executive. The

information obtained were helpful in clarifying certain areas of inquiry

relating to their companies' marketing policies and strategies.

40

3.3.2 Secondary Data

The secondary sGurces are articles, textbooks, journals, magazines,

weeklies and dailies, unpublished theses as well as materials on related

subject.

3.4 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

The population is defined to include all adults who use toothpaste. 4

The respondents were sdected across different categories of neighbourhood

to achieve a representative sample, which is made up of mainly housewives,

bachelors, spinsters, students who play a definite role in the purchase of the'

toothpaste consumed in their homes. The population size cannot be

estimated precisely and hence its standard deviation and other characteristics

are as well difficult to ascertain. An appropriate technique which gives the

highest possible sample size irrespective of the tolerable limit of error and

level of confidence is therefore used, At a confidence level of 95% and

tolerable limit of error of 5% the sample size is determined using,

where n = sample size.

Z = value of standard deviation of the desired confidence

level (in this case 1.96).

P = proportion of success. (0.8)

q = proporti~n of failure (0.2)

e = limit of tderable error i.e 5% (0.05)

Therefore,

3.5 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

A combination of cluster and simple random sampling were

employed. The different neighbourhoods in the metropolis were considered

as separate clusters. The xwious neighbourhoods or clusters were assigned a

number of questionnaires based on 2% of their population. The

questionnaires were then distributed randomly in the selected buildings. The

choice of respondents in each house was based on the willingness of the

respondents.

42

REFERENCE

National Population Commission, Enugu State: 1996 Projection of Population Census of Nigeria.

43

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Presented in this shapter is the primary data generated for this study

through consumers' survey.

Of the 250 questionnaires administered on consumers through the

field survey, 232 were returned giving a response rate of 92.8%. However, 0

14 questionnaires out of this number which represents 6.03% could not pass

the validity and reliabiky tests after editing. This is either because of non-

completion or contradictory information. Thus we were left for this study

with 2 18 valid questionnaires representing a usage rate of 87.2% of the total

survey questionnaires or 93.97% of the returned questionnaires.

It is pertinent to note however that the data presented here and

analyzed subsequently are those considered relevant to the main objectives

and hypotheses of this study.

Presented below are summaries of the overall response ratio in tables

4.1 and 4.2.

" Table 4.1: Response Ratio of Survey Questionnaires

1 Returned I 232 I 92.8% 1 Number Percentage

Not Returned

Table 4.2: Usage Ratio of Returned Questionnaires

I

Total I

250

18

100.00%

7.2%

I 1 Rejected

L

Accepted

Number

218

.4.2 CONSUMER SURVEY RESULT

One of the major objectives of this study

Percentage,

Total I

I 232

was to determine those

1 00.00%

attributes that have the greatest influence on consumers in their choice of

toothpaste brands. Bawd on this, consumers were asked to rank each of the

eight attributes namely, Taste, Colour, Foaming, Brand name, Price,

Protective strength (Fluoride content), Fresh breath and Whitening effect to

the degree it influences

(three points).

them which ranged fiom low (one point) to high

45

Table 4.3 contains the mean scores of consumers' ratings. The table

thus presents in descending order the relative importance of those attributes

or factors influencing consumers choice of toothpaste brands.

Table 4.3a: Degree of Attributdnfruence on Consumers' Choice of AmibutT Brands. Tom1 Score

Taste

Foaming 1 475

463

Colour

Brand name 1 464

414

Price 458

Protective strength 5 13 I

Table 4.3b: ANOVA Table

Fresh breath

Whitening effect

NI I Mean Score

495

516

Relative Position

I Source 1 Sum of Squares I Degrees of Freedom I Mean Squares I F-ratio I I A = between p u p s j SA = 29 26.2989 j A - I = 7

I I

1 418.04 1 63.73 I I I I

E = within groups I SE = 1 1,381 1 N - A = 1736 1 6.56 I I I 1

Total 1 ST = 14307.298 1 N - 1 = 1743

Whitening effect is rated highest (2.37)' followed by Protective

strength - fluoride content (2.35)' Fresh breath (2.27)' Foaming (2.18)'

Brand name (2.13)' Tast, (2.12), Price (2.10) and Colour is lowest (1 .go).

Hypothesis 1

The choice of to~thpaste is not significantly related to the common

product attributes (as defined by taste, colour, foaming, brand name,

price, protective strength, fresh breath and whitening effect).

The choice of a prticular brand of good is believed most of the time

to be based on product attributes. This belief was corroborated by the result

of the consumer survey. b

Table 4.4: Consumer Responses on Attribute Influence ,

Number

Notwithstanding that more than half (65.14%) of the respondents

claim to be influenced by a particular attribute in their brand choice of

Percentage

toothpaste, for the hypothesis to be accepted or rejected, it has to be shown

that the two values (percentages for those influenced by attribute and those

not influenced by attribute) are not comparable.

To establish this, the results of Table 4.4 are subjected to a X* test for

mutually exclusive proportions. The unequal percentages were found to be

significantly different at both 5% and 1% levels of significance (see

Appendix IIA).

Total

218

Influenced by . Attribute

142

65.14%

Not Influenced by Attribute

76

34.86% 100%

Therefore, having found the two proportions to be significantly

different, hypothesis I was accordingly rejected.

Furthermore, the consumer ranking of the degree of each attribute

influence in their brand choice shows a significant difference in the means of

the attributes. This result was subjected to an Analysis of Variance with the

F-ratio as the test statistic. The unequal mean scores of the attributes was

found to be significant at both the 5% and 1% levels of significance. This is b

presented in Table 4.3.

From the statistical tables, the critical value of F at 0.05 level of

significance is 2.01 and at 0.01 is 2.64. Since the computed value of 63.73

is greater than the critical values of 2.01 and 2.64, we reject the null

hypothesis. The choice of toothpaste brand therefore is related to the

common product attributes.

Hypothesis I1

The common attributes are not significantly different between major

brands of toothpaste in the market.

Another major outlook of this study is to ascertain the extent that the

attributes - colour, taste, foaming, brand name, price, protective strength,

fresh breath and whitwing effect influence the choice of a particular

toothpaste. Therefore, the import of hypothesis I1 is that for each of those

48

need satisfying attributes mentioned above, consumers' perception of the

ability of any brand to satisfy that need does not differ from brand to brand.

To test this hypothesis, consumers were asked to rank the brands

according to their order of preference. The means for the various brands and

the relative positions of the brands based on the consumers' overall

judgment were as follows:

Table 4.5: Consumers Overall Prejerence Ranking of Toothpatte Brand

95 % Confidence Interval for Mean

I I

Close up 1 7 1 33.6571 I

Colgate 1 7 1 16.66714 I I

Macleans 1 7 1 13.8429 I I

Pepsodent 1 7 1 7.0143 I I

Dabur 1 7 1 6.2286 1 I

Aquafresh 1 7 1 7.14229 I I

Total 1 49 1 14.2878

Stcl. Deviation Std. Error

18.1332 6.8537 --

j2.0728 4.563 1 - 3.2750 3.5056

4.3239 1.6343

2.9151 1.1018

9.5878 3.6238

9.0454 3.4188

Lower Bound Upper Bound

-1.3132 32.2275 +

Close up emergel? first followed by Colgate while Dabur among the

seven brands was the least preferred. At 5% confidence level, this ranking

was found to be significant.

These means were also subjected to multiple comparison to give us

the result in Table 4.6.

49

Table 4.6: Multiple Comparisons of Means of Preference of Toothpaste Brand

I 95% Confidence

(1) Type of tooth paste

Holdent

Close up

Colgate

Pepsodent

Dabur

Aquafiesh

(J) Type of tooth paste

Close up Colgale Macleans Pepsodent Dabur Aquafresh - Holdent Colgate Macleans Pepsodent Dabur Aquafresh

Holdent Close up Macleans Pepsodent Dabur Aquafresh - Holdent Close up Colgate Pepsodent Dabur Aquafresh

Holdent Close up Colgate Macleans Dabur Aquafresh

Mean difference 1 Std. (I-J) I Error - 18.2000 I 5.575

I Interval Sig. I Lower I Upper

I Bound 1 ~ o u n d .I27 I -39.0187 I 2.6187

Holdent -9.2286 ,5575 ,836 -30.0473 Close up -27.4286* 5.575 .003 -48.2473 Colgate -10,4429 5.575 .740 -31.2616 Macleans -7.61 43 5.575 .928 -28.4330 Pepsodent -.7857 5.575 1.000 -21.6044 Aquafresh -.9143 5.575 1.000 -21.7330 Holdent -8.3 143 5.575 .893 -29.1330 Close up -26.5 143* 5.575 .004 -47.3330 Colgate -9.5286 5.575 .814 -30.3473 Macleans -6.7000 5.575 .960 -27.5187 Pepsodent . 1286 5.575 1.000 -20.6901 Dabur .9143 5.575 1.000 -19.9044

The result shows there is a significance difference at 5% level of

significance.

50

The choice of the various brands of toothpaste actually in relation to

the attributes gave meqs that may be significantly different by inspection.

However to accept or reject the null hypothesis the means were further

subjected to ANOVA test as shown in Table 4.7b below.

Table 4 . 7 ~ : Consumers Perception of Toothpaste Brand

Brand Name 14 2:8 Holdent

Closeup

Colgate

Macleans

Mean

15.4571

I I I

Table 4.76: AN0 VA Table

Relative Position

3rd

218

218

218

Pepsodent

Dabur

Aquafies h

The F-ratio shows that there is a significant difference in the means of

the various brands. The null hypothesis is consequently rejected.

33.6571

16.6714

13.8429

218

218

218

A lSt I

2"d

4th

Source

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

7.0 143

6.2286

7.1429

Sum of squares

3859.269

4569.186

8428.453

df

6

42

6th

7th

5th

Mean square

643.211

108.790

F

5.912

Sig.

.OOO

To check for consistency, the respondents were asked to rank the

individual brands with respect to each of the attributes.

Table 4.8: Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Attributes

Table 4.8a: Consumer.;' Ranking of Brands with respect to Brand Name

I Brand Name I Brand I Frequency I Percentage

I I

I Colgate 1 63 I 28.9

Holdent

45.4 b I

15

Close up

Macleans

6.9

99

I I

1 Aquafresh I 4 I 1.8

25

Pepsodent

Dabur

11.5

Table 4.86: Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Protective

10

2

Total

Strength I Protective Strength I

4.6

0.9

218 100.0

Brand

Holdent

Close up

Colgate

Macleans

Frequency

15

64

49

14

27.5

2.3

100.0

Dabur 60

Percentage

6.9

29.3

22.5

6.4

Pepsodent I 11

Aquafiesh

Total

5.0

5

218

Table 4 .8~: Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Foaming

Foaming

Brand Frequency

Holdent

1 Colgate

Percentage

15.1

Close up

I Macleans I 43

63 29.9

Pepsodent

Dabur

Aquafresh

Table 4.8d: Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Taste

Total

Taste

28

4

2

12.8

1.8 b

0.9

218 100.0

I

Brand L

Holdent

I Colgate I 38

I I

Frequency

18

1 Pepsodent I

Percentage

8.3

43.1 Close up

Macleans

1 Dabur I 5 I

94

31 14.2

Aquafresh 20 9.2

Table 4.8e: Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Fresh Breath

Fresh Breath

I Close up I

I

Brand

Colgate

Frequency

I I

Percentage

26

Macleans 18

Pepsodent

1 Aquafresh I 1 1

11.9

8.3

I L

1 1

Table 4.8fi Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Whitening Enect

5.0

18.8 8 Dabur

Total

Whitening Effect I

41

218 100.0

Brand I 1 Frequency

Close up

Percentage

Holdent 29

Colgate

I I

Pepsodent J 12 I 5.5

13.3

Macleans

Dabur I 7 I 3.2 I

40 18.3

17 7.8

4.1 Aquafresh

Total

9

218 100.0

Table 4.8g: Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Colour

Colour I

Holdent

I Brand

Colgate

Frequency

34.4 I

Percentage

Close up

Macleans

75

Pepsodent

Aquafresh I 59

27

Dabur

12.4

15

Table 4.8h: Consumers' Ranking of Brands with respect to Price

6.9

9

Total

Price I

4.1 b

218 100.0

Brand I i Frequency

Close up

Percentage I

Holdent I

123

Colgate

56.4

Macleans I I

38

Pepsodent

Dabur 1 9

Aqua fresh I I 4

17.4

4.1

1.8

18 8.3

A close look at the percentages of the various brands for each attribute

shows that close up is .ranked consistently high in all the attributes (By

Inspection). Since one brand at least shows a significant difference in the

attributes according to the ranking of the respondents, it will be wrong then

to conclude that there is no significant difference between the brands in

terms of the attributes. Hypothesis I1 is therefore rejected.

Hypothesis 111 I

The choice of twthpaste is likely to be inconsistent among various

economic and social classes. This is believed to be so because toothpaste is

a low involvement product, which does not involve so much commitment

from the consumer. It was in an effort to resolve this that we postulated

hypothesis 111.

There is no significant variation in brand choice of toothpaste amongst

the socio-economic groups.

The level of consumer preference was therefore sought for each brand

across various occupations, educational attainment and income levels. The

percentages of the corasumers ranking of each brand across various

occupation, income and educational levels are as presented below:

56

TABLE 4.9 CONSUMER RESPONSES ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS TABLE 4.9a: Influence of Occupation on Cons

DCCUPATION

TOTAL

PE'ITY TRADERS Count %within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

ARTISAN Count %within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

PROFESSIONAL Count %within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

CIVILPUBLIC Count SERVANT %within

OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

UNEMPLOYED Count %within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

Count % within OCCUPATION % within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

ners Choice of Tooth paste Brand IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT,

HOLDENT 1

14.3%

2.3%

1

12.5%

2.3%

5

31.3%

11.6%

16

28.6%

37.2%

20

29.4%

46.5%

43

27.7%

100.0%

MENTION BRAND(S) CLOSEUP

5

7 1.4%

6.7%

4

50.0%

5.3%

2

12.5%

2.7%

33

58.9%

44.00/0

3 1

45.6%

41.3%

COLGATE

1

12.5%

9.1%

5

3 1.3%

45.5%

MACLEANS

57

1 IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT,

OCCUPATION

TOTAL

I MENTION BRAND@)

BRAND(S) ARTISAN Count

%within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

PETTY TRADERSCount %within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

BRAND@) PROFESSIONAL Count

%within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

PEPSODENT

BRAND(S) UNEMPLOYED Count

BRAN D(S) CIVILIPUBLIC Count SERVANT %within

OCCIJPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

%within OCCIJPATlON %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

Count % within OCCUPATION % within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

I

1.8%

33.3%

DABUR

5 8

IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY

BRAND(S) Count

DCCUPATION

%within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND@)

PROFESSIONAL Count %within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

PETTY TRADERS Count %within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

BRAND(S) CIVILIPUBLIC Count SERVANT %within

OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS

1 BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND@)

I UNEMl%OYED Count % within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT. MENTION

I BRAND(S) TOTAL Count

%within OCCUPATION %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRANLl(S)

CONSISTENT, L

TOTAL 7

100.0%

4.5%

8

100%

5.2%

16

100.0%

10.3%

68

100.0%

43.9%

155

100.0%

100.0%

. TABLE 4.9b INFLUENCE OF INCOME ON CONSUMERS CHOICE OF TOOTH PASTE BRAND

I IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT,

INCOME (PER MONTH)

4BOVE Count 25000 %within

INCOME (PER MONTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND@)

20000 - 25000 Count %within INCOME (PER MONTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(5)

15000 - 20000 Count %within INCOME (PER MONTH) % within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION

HOLDENT F

BRAND(S) 1 0000 - 1 5000 Count I 2

MENTION BRAND@)

%within INCOME (PER MONTH) %within lr CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAWS)

5000 - 10000 Count % within MCOME (PER MONTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

CLOSEUP 7

38.9%

13.5%

10

62.5%

19.2%

13.3%

6.7%

4

22.2%

13.3%

INCOME (PER MONTH)

TOTAL

BELOW - SO00 Count % within INCOME (PER MONTH) % withir, 1F ' CHOICE HAS BEEN V.

- CONSlSENT, MENTION BRAND(S) Count % within INCOME (PER MONTH) % within IF CHOlCE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRANrqS)

IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

HOLDENT 10

CLOSEUP 12

COLGATE MACLEANS 7 PEPSODENT

I IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT.

LNCOME FER UONTH)

DARBUR

ABOVE Count 1 25000 %within

INCOME (PER 5 5 % MONTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, 25.0% MENTION BRAND(S)

20000 - 25000 Cowt % within IN( r3ME (PER M'JNTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

15000 - 20000 Count %within INCOME (PER MONTH) %within IF CHDICE HAS BECN V. CO WS'rENT, W!NTION BRAND(S)

10000 - 1 5000 Count 1 %within INCOME (PER 6.7% MONTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, 25.00! MENTION

% within INCOME (PER hdNTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

MENTION BRAND(S)

ANGOLA

T FLOURISH

IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT, 1 INCOME (PER MONTH)

TOTAL

BELOW - 5000 Count % within INCOME (PER MONTH) % within IF Cl M C E HAS BC'M V. Cc:NSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S) Count % within INCOME (PER MONTH) %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BP+ND(S)

DARBUR

MENTION BRAND(S) AQUA FRESH

1

ANGOLA FLOURISH

6 3 TABLE 4 . 9 ~ INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION ON CONSUMERS CHOICE OF TOOTHPASTE

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

OTHER Count HIGHER %within DEGREEEDUCATIONAL.

A'ITAINMENT %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

NCWOND Count %within EDUCATIONAL A'ITAINMENT %within IF CHOlCE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

SSCWGCE Count %within EDUCATIONAL A'ITAINMENT % within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND@)

PRIMARY Count SCHOOL %within

EDUCATlONAL A'ITAMMENT %within 1F CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

TOThL Count %within EDUCATIONAL AlTAINMENT % within IF CHOlCE MAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTlON BRAND(S)

AND IF CHOlCE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT,

CLOSEUP

27

44.3%

36.0%

15

48.4%

20.0'3'0

28

52.8%

37.3%

5

55.6%

6.7%

75

48.7%

100.0%

COLGAT E

5

8.2%

45.5%

4

12.9%

36.4%

2

3.8%

18.2%

PEPSODEN T

64

IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT,

OTHER Count HIGHER %within DEGREEEDUCi. TIONAL

ATTAINMENT %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRhND(S)

NCUOND Count %within EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

SSCWGCE Count % within EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

PRIMARY Count . - -.

SCHOOL %within EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT % within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

TOTAL Count %within EDUCATIONAL A'ITAINMENT %within IF CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

DABUR

3

4.9%

50.0%

MENTION BRAND(S)

AQUA FRESH ANGOLA FMURlSH 4

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

OTHER Count HIGHER %within DEGREEVXICATIONAL

ATTAMMENT %within IF CHOlCE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

NCEIOND Count %within EDUCATIONAL ATTMNMENT %within 1F CHOlCE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

SSCEIGCE Count %within EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT %within IF CIIOlCE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTlON BRAND(S)

PRIMARY Count SCHOOL %within

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT %within 1F CHOICE I-lAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

TOTAL Count %within EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT %within 1F CHOICE HAS BEEN V. CONSISTENT, MENTlON BRAND(S)

IF CHOICE HAS BEEN VERY CONSISTENT, MENTION BRAND(S)

CLEANOL 1

1.6%

TOTAL 61

100.0%

66

The obvious observation is that for some brands such as close up, the

preference of consumeG presented as percentages varies across different

economic groups. This mnges from 38.9% for the higher income group to

66.7% for the middle income class (Pi1 5,000 - W20,000) and finally drops to

40% for the low income group (below 345000.00).

This however is not the same trend for all the other brands. In the

case of other brands such as Colgate, holdent, etc, the percentage b

presentation of their prefkences across various income group does not show

any much variation between income groups. This is the same observation

for the different educational attainment and occupations. That most of the

brands does not show any significant variation in consumer preferences

across the different socio-economic groups is not a sufficient condition to

conclude that hypothesi~ 111 be accepted. It has to be proved that there is a

significant variations in brand choice for each of the socioeconomic

indicator - occupation, income and educational attainment used for this

study.

To establish this, the results of table 4.9 are subjected to chi-square

test for mutually indepmdent variables. This refers to the idea that one

variable is not in any way affected by or related to another variable.

67

The unequal values were found to be significantly different at both

5% and 1% levels o[ significance for both income and educational

attainment and to be dependent at both 5% and 1% levels of significance for

occupation. Therefore having found two of the three indicators to be

significant, the condition is thus satisfied for the hypothesis to be accepted

and accordingly, hypothesis I11 was accepted (see details in Appendix IIB).

b

4.3 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

In the Presentation and Analysis of Data, the objective was mainly to

subject the raw data derived from the consumer survey to statistical tests.

Consequently, it was possible to draw statistical inferences from such tests.

This section however seeks to add hrther clarification to the result of

the research work discussed so far.

4.3.1 Brand Choice and Attribute Influence

One of the major focus of the study is to find out the extent consumers

considered attributes in the choice of particular brands of toothpaste. As a

low involvement product, consumers are believed to make choices without

much commitment i.e. without considering seriously the attributes of the

various brands.

This however was proved false when the first null hypothesis;

68

"The choice of toothpaste is not significantly related to the common

product attributqs (as defined by taste, colour, foaming, brand name,

price, protective strength, fresh breath and whitening effect)

was rejected. By implication the attributes of the various brands of

toothpaste play significant roles in consumers choice of toothpaste brands.

This result is corroborated by literature. Scott and Lamout believe

that despite its limitations product attributes is still a very useful tool for #

analyzing and predicting consumer choice and preferences. Theoretical

support can also be derived from some other authors who had concluded that

the consumer is guided by the desire to satisfl personal or individual needs

and that she had a prior ability to perceive products or services capable of

satisfying those needs !.Engel, Kollat and Blackwell, 1968). Brand managers

should therefore ensure that their products have the right attributes

incorporated in them.

4.3.2 Brand Perception with Respect to Attributes

Brand name may be seen as a condensation of many other product

sub-features. It is more than a mere alphabetical arrangement. Rather, it

consists of the brands typography, colour, package design, promotional

slogans and general image of the brand. It was in order to find out the

consumers perception of the brands with respect to the attributes that

hypothesis I1 was posited.

Hii The common attrhtes are not significantly different amongst major

brands of toothpagte in the market.

This hypothesis was tested and rejected. The implication of this result

is that consumers perceive the various brands as having different attributes.

Consumers are general1;l reputed to have a set of brand beliefs - beliefs

where each brand stands on each attribute.

The import of this hypothesis is that though some brands are better in b

some attributes than in others, it will be fbtile for a brand manager to

concentrate marketing efforts on those attributes on which his brand enjoys a

comparative advantage.

It is a logical conclusion therefore that brand beliefs being a major

determinant of consumers choice should not be down played by marketing

managers.

4.3.3 Brand Choice and Socio Economic Status

Socio-economic status of consumers (level of edvcation, income and

occupation) is generally a pointer to consumers attitude to products and price

changes. Hypothesis 111 sought to find how consumers of different socio

economic groups respond to brand choice.

Hiii There is no significant variation in brand choice of toothpaste amongst

socio-economic qroups.

70

This hypothesis was wcepted. One would expect that consumers of

different economic groqp should choose brands that are deemed to be of

better quality irrespective of the prices. However the findings of this

research shows that the brand choice of all consumers of toothpaste are not

influenced by their socio economic status. This result is likely as a result of

the consumers level cP involvement with the product. Being a low

involvement product, the consumer is not willing to search for alte atives, T purchases the easiest way while buying the familiar brand and seeks not the

optimal but only the satisfactory solution (Kraetke, 2000).

Product managers of toothpaste should therefore be aware that a good

product cuts across various socio-economic groups.

REFERENCES

Engel, J; Kollat, D. and Blackwell, R. (1978). Consumer Behaviour. (New York: Holt, Richbd and Winston).

Kraetke, Viviane, (2000). "Analysis of a Toothpaste Brand - Colgate Total - A Low Involvement Product." Journal of Consumer Research. August, 2000.

Lamout, Laurence M. d d Scott, Jerome, E. (1974). "Relating Consumers Value to Consumer Behaviour: A Model and Method for Investigation." A paper presented at the Fall Conference, American Marketing Association, 1973, as reported in Stanton and Lawenhar. Journal of Marketing Research. Vol. XI. B

72

CHAPTER Fn7E

5.0 SCiMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMJMENDATIONS, AREAS FOR FURTHER

STUDIES AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The major findings of this study can be summarized as follows:

1. This study established that consumers of toothpaste are to a

reasonable extcnt influenced by the attributes in their brandrchoice.

2. It was identified that consumers consider the following attributes

more important in the following order; whitening effect, protective

strength (fluoride content) and fresh breath.

3. Consumers had beliefs about the brands of toothpaste they bought-

beliefs about where each brand stood on each of the attributes.

This finding suggests that consumers of toothpaste are

knowledgeable about the brands on the shelves.

4. There was no relationship between the socio economic status of

consumers and the extent of its influence on the choice of brands

they buy.

5 . Close-up appears to be the market leader inspite of comparatively

lower prices of other competing brands. This could be due to its

high brand awareness.

5.2 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study established the relative importance of toothpaste attributes

as factors influencing hand choice. An important implication drawn from

this result is that attributes vary in the degree to which they influence brand

choice behaviour and as such do not deserve equal emphasis by management

in the marketing of a brand. Thus, whitening effect, protective strength and

fresh breath are the three most important attributes the firm must m&ipulate

to elicit favourable consmer responses to its offer.

Other attributes namely, price, colour, taste, foaming not influencing

brand choice to any high degree can never the less be exploited by firms

whose brands enjoy a relative advantage in that regard. Be that as it may,

the indication however, is that for such an exploitation to be fruitfbl, the

relative advantage whim a brand enjoys with respect to any of the non-

major attributes must be very glaring.

The lack of correlation between consumers' level of socio-economic

status and the degree to which it influences their choice of toothpaste has an

obvious implication For managers who are contemplating market

segmentation based on these indicators - income, education and occupation.

It is futile for a manager whose brand apparently enjoys whitening effect,

74

. protective strength, or fnsh breath advantage to concentrate on the high

income consumers in ~e belief that being "need driven", this class of

consumers will respond more favorably to his offers.

Another equally important deduction from the study is that price plays

an important role in the decision - making of a poorly involved consumer.

The economic hardship in the country is biting hard across all the socio-

economic groups. A buyer of toothpaste might look after a familiar brand b

but will then choose the cheapest product as their favourite brands become

more expensive. As his or her perceived level of risk is very low, it is

unlikely that they will pay a higher amount for more quality. This explains

why there are so many new and cheap brands in the market now, though

these new brands may not constitute such a threat. The consumer already

associates quality with the close-up brand.

In order to encourage the purchase of highly priced toothpaste other

mechanisms have to bc created, for instance a modified advertising

campaign or a new definition of the target group i.e. target groups who may

have a general tendency to be more involved with the purchase of

toothpaste. For example, older people, whose teeth may have different

needs from those of younger people, may buy toothpastes, which meet their

needs. For instance, mkldle-aged women suffer from deficient calcium

75

stores. Toothpaste, which has a higher amount of calcium, may be

introduced for this target group. It is likely that these consumers will be

willing to pay a higher price for the additional feature.

The integration of the teeth expert - the dentist might be another way

of involving the consumer. On the one hand a "representative" of the

dentists could introduce the brand in the television advertisements and

announce that fiee small samples will be available at the consumer's next b

medical treatment. Then, the consumers will be informed about the

advantages of the product and the fiee samples will be provided.

Efforts should be increased on the local sourcing of raw materials so

that prices of these products can be kept at affordable levels and thereby

encourage brand loyalty.

Finally, an interesting conclusion drawn from this study is that the

belief which consumers hold about brands regarding some of their attributes

are real. This conclusion has much to do with the nature and type of

promotional appeal that can be employed meaningfdly to win brand

patronage. For general promotions, brands could use television

advertisements. Although the different products of the brand are introduced,

the main effect is the ttwareness and the familiarity with the brand. As

toothpaste is a low involvement good, the consumer is drawing very little

76

. attention to the advertisements as long as they are not exceptional.

Subconsciously his or her memory is stimulated as he or she keeps in mind

the brand. Therefore, the advertisement should be short, contain little

information, and often repeated especially during prime television time.

Since consumers are knowledgeable about the brand available in the

market place, it will be fbtile for a manager to operate on the wrong premise

that consumers are nahe and as such likely to take literally the pessage

presented.

5.3 AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Brand choice problem is a serious one and from the forgoing only a

fraction of it has been addressed. There are other issues that are yet to be

verified.

Firstly, there is need to clearly define what constitutes the "protective

strength" of toothpaste fkom the point of view of the consumers. If possible,

the contents of toothpaste should be identified and further analysed to give

the quality control anajyst a clearer understanding of what the consumer

wants. In this regmd, marketing research needs the expertise of

chemists/pharmacists and other relevant specialists.

77

Secondly, the v~tying roles of family members in the choice of

toothpaste brands need investigation. Depending on the role of any

individual, a different marketing appeal may be needed in order to win

favourable disposition towards the brand.

Thirdly, the influence of advertising and commercial sponsorship as a

reminder and building af loyalty needs to be clarified. As in the case of

Ipana, which was once a leading brand of toothpaste, when Procter & b

Gamble introduced Crest with fluoride to prevent cavities, sales of Ipana

began decreasing. Ipana's management decided to cut back on advertising

to reduce costs. This move intensified sales decline because consumers

quickly forgot that brani was on the shelf. The failure to meet competitive

improvements coupled with the decrease in advertising led to Ipana's demise

(Assael, 1 992).

Finally, the issue of the assumption of a low involvement concerning

toothpaste purchase could be verified, as well as the extent to which attitudes

and learning are playing important role for this low level of involvement.

5.3 CONCLUSION

This study has examined the critical factors influencing the brand

choice of toothpaste in Enugu metropolis. It has been a painstaking effort

78

. geared towards ensuring authentic results which have practical applications

in the toothpaste industry,

The study has validated the well founded marketing admonition that

"quality" is determined more by consumers' preferences than by age - long

family formulas.

There are also a number of recommendations made and it is believed

that if these recommendations among others are adhered to the task of b

marketing managers wouSd be more efficient and effective.

REFERENCE

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b

Bindra, D. (1 959). Motivation: A svstematic Reinterpretation. (New York: Ronald).

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Kraetke, Viviane, (2000), "Analysis of a Toothpaste Brand - Colgate Total - A Low Involven~ent Product." Journal of Consumer Research, August, 2000.

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APPENDIX I

CONSUMVR SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ENUGU CAMPUS

DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING ON QUESTIONIvTAIRE CONSUMER PREFERENCE OF

TOOTHPASTE PRODUCTS

The information requested below is for academic purpose and will be held in

utmost confidence. Please your cooperation is highly needed. Thankg for the

anticipated assistance.

PERSONAL DATA

Neighbourhood: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age of respondents:

a. <16yrs [ 1 b. 16-20yrs [ 1 c. 21 - 25 yrs [ 1 d. 26 -30 yrs [ 1 e. 31 -40yrs [ 1 f. > 40 yrs [ 1 Gender:

a. , male [ 1 b. female [ 1 Marital Status:

a. single [ ] b. married [ 1 c. divorced/separated[ ] d. widowed [ 1 Educational attainment:

a. primary school certificate[ 1 b. SSCE/GCE [ 1 c. NCE/OND [ 1 d. Other high 4zgree [ 1

Occupation:

a. unemployed [ ] b. civil/public servant [ ]

c. professional (in practice) 1 d. artisan (mama1 workers: skilled and unskilled [ 1

e. petty traderlbusiness [ 1

Income (per month):

a. < 445,000.00 [ ] b. 445,000 - N10,OOO [ 1

TEETH CLEANIP;G HABITS AND HYGIENE

How often do you use toothpaste?

a. regularly [ 1 b. occasionally [ 1

c. not at all [ 1

If occasionally or not at all, what other methods of teeth cleaning do

you use?

a. chewing stick [ ] b. toothpowder[ ]

c. salt water [ ................. 1 d. any other

Can you give reason(s) for your answer in 8b above:

...................................................................................

Have you had a serious tooth problem (decay, aches) in the past?

a. yes [ 1 b. no [ 1

b. If No, to what do you attribute this apparent dental heal?

a. tooth cleaning agent 1

b. frequent tooth cleaning C 1

c. natural endo w e n t (strong dentition) [ 1

C. TOOTHPASTE PREFERENCE

10a. How can you describe your choice (or purchase) of toothpaste in the

last 2 years?

a. very consistent (always stick to the same brand of toobpaste)

I 1

b. highly inconsistent (occasionally deviate fiom the preferred

brand) C 1

c. totally inconsistent or erratic (seldomly stick to the same brand

of toothpaste) [ 1

b. If your choice has been VERY CONSISTENT, can you mention the

particular brand(s) in question?

1 la. Are you influenced by a particular attribute in your choice of

toothpaste?

a. yes [ . 1 b. no I I

b. Please rank the following attributes according to how they affect or

influence your choice.

Attributes

1

I

3. 1 Foaming

Taste

2

4 1 Brand name

Colour of the paste.-

6 1 Protective strength (floride content)

5

7 1 Fresh breath (minty after effect)

Price

I

8 ( Whitening effect (moth cleaning strength)

9 1 Any other please indicate

Degree of Influence I

12a. Rank the following brands according to your choice of preference

(you can use Nos. 1 - 6 to indicate the most preferred to the least

preferred respectively).

a. Closeup [ 1 b. Macleans [ 1 c. Pepsodent [ 1 d. Aquafresh [ ]

e. Colgate [ 1 f. Holdent [ 1

g. Any other please indicate ..................................... b. Is your ranking above influenced by any attribute(s)?

a. yes [ 1 b. no [ 1 c. If yes, please list them

13. For the following question, tick the toothpaste brands (listed below)

that you have used. Assess which brand is the best in terms of the

attributes provided.

14. Does your choice of toothpaste depend on perceived attributes of the

brand?

a. yes [ I

SM

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Taste

.

Brand

Closeup

Macleans

Pepsodent

Aquafresh

Colgate

Holdent

Others

Colour I Foaming

i

I

Brand

name

Price Protective strengih

(floride content)

Fresh

breath

Whitening

effect

h

APPENDIX I1

TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

HYPOTHESIS I

Table A.1: Consumers Xesponses on Attribute Influence

I Influenced by I Not influenced I Total

Number

To test the hypothesis, tue respondents were asked if they were influenced

by a particular attributes in their choice of toothpaste. The responses gave

rise to two proportions of 65.14% for those influenced by an attribute and

Percentage

,34.86% for those not influenced by attribute.

attribute 142

I%, = The two proportions are not significantly different

65.14%

Hi . z The two proportions are not significantly different

by attribute 76

Decision Rule: Reject Ho if x2, > x2,

Using:

218

34.86% 100%

Since x~~ > x ~ ~ , at b o ~ 5% and 1% levels of significance, H, is rejected.

Hence hypothesis I is rejcted.

Note:

xZo is calculated x2 value, while xZ1 is theoretical x2 value from

statistical table.

APPENDIX IIB

Hypothesis I11

To test this hypotiesis, the level of consumer preference was sought

Table A.2: Consumers Responses on Brand Preference b

for each brand

income levels.

toothpaste brand

across various occupations, educational attainment and

The consumers were asked to describe their choice of

in the last 2 years.

I I I I

Percentage 1 7 1.10% 1 23.85% 1 5.05% I 1000/0

Number

This gives rise to three proportions of 7 1.10% for those that have been

very consistent in their brand choice, 23.85% for those who have been

highly inconsistent and 5.05% for the respondents who are erratic in their

purchase of toothpaste.

To be sure therefore that there is no significant variation in brand

choice of toothpaste amongst the socio-economic groups, the brand

preference for those con, umers who has been very consistent in their brand

choice was sought for across the various socio-economic parameters as

Very consistent

155

Highly inconsistent

52

Totally inconsistent or erratic

11

Total

218

indicated in this study and the responses are as presented in the following

tables.

Table A.3: Consumers Brand Preference according to Occupation

Occupation

Petty traded artisan

Civil servants

Selfimployed, professionals,

businessmen, unemployed

Total

Table A.4: Consumers Brand Preference according to Income

TableA.5: Consumers Brand Preference according to Educational

Total 36 1 60 1 14 1 13 1 7

Test of Hypotheses

: The choice of toothpaste brand by consumers is not dependent on

socioeconomic status.

10

Attainment

7 1 8 1 1 5 5

Educational attainment

Higher education

SSCEIGCE

Primary school & below

Total

Total

91

55

9

155

Toothpaste Brand

Holdent

26

14

2

42

Closeup

42

28

5

75

Colgate

9

2

0

I I

Macleans

7

2

I

10

Pepsodent

I

2

0

3

Dabur

4

2

0

6

Aquafresh

0

2

0

2

Others

2

3

1

6

93

Hi: The choice of toothpaste brand by consumers is dependent on

socioeconomic status.

Decision Rule

Accept Hi if &, the calculated x2 ratio is greater than the x2 critical value,

xI2.

Levels of significance

(a) = 5% (0.05) & 1% (0.01).

Degree of freedom

= (3- l )(8- 1)

i. Occupation

: The choice of toothpaste brand by consumers is not dependent on

their occupation.

Hi: The choice of toothpaste brand by consumers is dependent on their

occupation.

Expected frequencies

Chi-square, X' = Ei (oi ei)2 ei

By substitution, we have:

Since x2, > x',, at both 5% and 1% level of significance, H, is

rejected.

96

ii. Income

: The choice of too~lpaste brand by consumers is not dependent on

income.

Hi: The choice of toothpaste brand by consumers is dependent on income.

Expected frequencies

X2 = Xi (oi - ei)' ei

By substitution, we have

Since x ' ~ < x', at both 5% and 1% level of significance, H, is accepted. b

iii. Educational Attainment

Ho: The choice of toothpaste brand by consumers is not dependent on the

level of education attained.

&: The choice of toothpaste brand by consumers is dependent on the

level of education attained.

Expected Frequencies

X' = xi (oi - ei)2 ei

By substituting we have,

x2 (0.05, 14) = 23.685; X' (0.01, 14) = 29.141.

b Since xZo < x2, at both 5% and 1% level of significance, H, is consequently

accepted.