University of Nigeria Research Publications

KALU, Boniface IK.

Aut

hor

PG/M.Sc/97/24101

Title

Nigerian Foreign Policy in the Post Cold War Era: A Study of Nigeria’s Role in Shaping African Responses to Conflicts in Africa

Facu

lty

Social Sciences

Dep

artm

ent

Political Science

Dat

e

February, 1999

Sign

atur

e

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

i

T I T L E P A ~ E

NIGERIAN FOREIGN POLICY I N THE POST

COLD WAR ERA: A STUDY OF NIGERIA'S ROLE

I N SHAPING AFRICAN RESPONSES TO CONFLICTS

I N AFRICA

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMI'I'TED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF POLITlCAL SClENCE

UNIVERSITY OF I ~ I G E R I A ,

NSUKKA

I k PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF' THE HEQU IREMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER

OF S C I E K E . (IWTERiiATlui\lAL RELATIONS),

FEBRUARY, 1999,

CERTIFICATION

T h i s i s to c e r t i f y t h a t Ka lu B o n i f a c e Ik., a

P o s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n c i n t h e D e p a r t m e n c of P o l i t i c a l

S c i e n c e w i t h r e g i s c r a t i o n number , PG/MSc/97/24101

h a s s a t i s f a c c o r i l y c o m p l e t e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

c o u r s e a n d r e s e a r c h w o r k s f o r t h e Award of D e g r e e

of M a s t e r s i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s (M.SC. ) i n

P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e .

The work e m b o d i e d i n c h i s c h e s i s / p r o j e c c r e p o r t

is o r i g i n a l and h a s n o t b e e n submitted i n p a r t or f u l l

f o r a n y o c h e r d i p l o m a o r d e g r e e of c h i s or a n y o t h e r

u n i v e r s i t y . ,

PROF. M. IKEJIANI-CLARK HEAD OF DEPAHTI'~ENT),

To God A l m i g h t y , t h e Author and

F i n i s h e r of our f a i t h ; i n whom we l i v e ,

move and h a v e our b e i n g .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

G r a ~ t i t u d e , t h e y s a y , is c h e mark of a g e n t l e s o u l .

I t t h e r e f o r e becomes i m p e r a t i v e f o r m e to e x p r e s s my

g r a t i t u d e to a l 1 , w h o i n o n e way or t h e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t e d

i n m a k i n g c h i s work a s u c c e s s .

My s p e c i a l t h a n k s g o to A l m i g h t y God for H i s a b u n d a n t

g r a c e a n d l o v e . To my s u p e r v i s o r , Nduba E c h e z o n a , w o r d s

a re n o t e n o u g h to a r t i c u l a t e my s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e fo r c h e

w o n d e r f u l way h e d i r e c t e d a n d g u i d e d the w r i c i n g of

c h i s work. A l s o , I am i n d e b c e d t o t h e Head o f D e p a r t m e n t

a n d t h e L e c c u r e r s of Deparcmenc of P o l i C i c a l S c i e n c e ,

U n i v e r s i cy o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka.

My gratitude g o e s co my m o c h e r , Vero Omocho, t h e

f a m i l y of Engr. C h i e f 0. K. C h i o b a , my b r o t h e r J a m e s ,

Gab, F r a n c i s , Machew, Chukwuemeka a n d C h i n e m e r e arid my

s is c e r s O l u c h i a n d H e l e n , f o r t h e i r moral a n d f i n a n c i a l

s u p p o r t s a n d k i n d g e s c u r e s . I a l s o remember my

r e l a t i v e s , Nwanne, Emeka, K a l u , N j i d e k a , P r i s c i l l i a ,

Aruma, U c h e c h i , Agnes , C h i n y e r e , C y n c h i a a n d o c h e r s ,

~ l s o , my w a r m e s c r e g a r d s g o co my f r i e n d s a n d

c o l l e a g u e s ; O l i v e r , C h i n y e r e , N k e n c h o r , O l e h , Asadu,

C h f n y e r e , Tambi , S t a n l e y , Ezechukwu, Makaca, Ugwu,

E j oor a n d Ohuabunwa.

F i n a l l y , I am v e r y much i n d e b t e d to a l l

whose names are s u p p o s e co , b u t d i d n o t a p p e a r

h e r e f o r wanc o f s p a c e . You a r e a l l f o u n d l y

remembered.

K a l u Ik, B o n i f a c e ,

ABSTRACT

C o n f l i c t i s a n i n e v i t a b l e a s p e c t of human

i n t e r a c t i o n , a n u n a v o i d a b l e c o n c o r n i c a n t of c h o i c e s

a n d d e c i s i o n s , A 1 chough "conf l i c c is i n h e r e n t i n

d e c i s i o n e v e n when t h e r e is o n l y o n e p e r s o n , soc ia l

c o n f l i c t , , , is n e c e s s a r i l y b r o u g h c o n b y c h e

p r e s s u r e of s e v e r a l a c t o r s a n d compounded b y s e v e r a l

choices", 1

T h e p r o b l e m , c h e n , is n o t to c o u r c c h e f r u s c r a c i o n s

of s e e k i n g t o r e m o v e a n i n e v i t a b i l i c y b u t r a t h e r of

c r y i n g co k e e p c o n f l i c t u n d e r c h e c k s , T h i s is

p r e d i c a t e d o n c h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g c h a c c o n f l i c c c a n be

p r e v e n t e d o n some o c c a s i o n s a n d managed o n o c h e r s , b u t

r e s o l v e d o n l y i f t h e term is t a k e n co mean c h e

s a t i s f a c t i o n of a p p a r e n t demands r a t h e r t h a n t h e t o t a l

eradication of u n d e r l y i n g s e n t i m e n t s , memories and

i n t e r e s t s , T h u s , o n l y t i m e r e a l l y r e s o l v e s c o n f l i c t s

a n d e v e n t h e wounds i t h e a l s l e a v e t h e i r scars fo r

f u tu i -e r e f e r e n c e ,

However, s h o r t of s u c h u l t i m a t e h e a l i n g , much

c a n be d o n e c o r e d u c e c o n f l i c c a n d t h e r e b y c h a n n e l t h e b

r e l e a s e d e n e r g i e s to s o m e t h i n g more p r o d u c t i v e ,

p o s i t i v e a n d r e w a r d i n g . Hence, t h i s work; N i g e r i a n

F o r e i g n P o l i c y i n t h e P o s t C o l d War Era: A s t u d y

of N i g e r i a ' s Role i n S h a p i n g A f r i c a n R e s p o n s e s to

C o n f l i c t s i n A f r i c a i s v e r y much a d rem. T h i s i s

i m p e r a t i v e if t h e d i s a s t r o u s , h a r r o w i n g a n d t r a u m a t i c

eff e c c s of c o n f l i c c o n t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t , w h i c h

h a s p u n c t u a t e d e v e r y e f fo r t t o w a r d s e c o n o m i c , p o l i c i c a l

s c i e n f i c c e c h n o l o a i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t e tc i n c h e c o n t i n e n c ,

a r e to be c u r t a i l e d and m i n i m i z e d .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

T i t l e P a g e

~ e r t i f i c a t i o n D e d i c a t i o n

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t

Abstract

able of C o n t e n t s

CHAPTER ONE :

1.1.

CHAPTER TWO:

CHAPTER THREE :

i

ii

iii

i v

INTRODUCTION rn

STATENENT O F PROBLEM - 0

THE OBJECTIVE O F STUDY 0 .

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY .. LITERATURE REVIEW

THEORETICAL FRAWWORK

HYPOTHESES

METHODOLOGY

REFERENCES

CONFLICTS AND CONFLICT MANAGElYENT AND RESOLUTION I N AFRICA . . 47

SOURCE O F CONFLICT I N AFRICA 48

EFFECTS OF CONFLICT I N AFRICA 6 2

CONFLICT RESOLUTION I N AFRICA 69

REFERENCES

N I G E R I A ' S ROLE I N CONFLICT RESOLUTION I N AFRICA I N THE POST COLD WAR ERA 7 9

N I G E R I A ' S FOREIGN P O I J C Y I N THE POST COLD WAR ERA 8 2

v i i

PAGE

CHAPTER THREE (CONTD. 1

CHAPTER FOUR:

CHAPTER F I V E :

5.10

5.2,

NIGERIA'S ROLE I N THE POST COLD WAR ERA a o

NIGERIA I N L I B E R I A . NIGERIA I N SIERRA LEONE

RE FE RE NCE S

ANALYSIS O F NIGERIA'S C A P A B I L I T I E S I N SHAPING AFRICAN RESPONSES TO CONFLICTS I N AFRICA

THE NATURE OF NIGERIA'S ECONOMY a. a.

NATURE OF THE DOMESTIC P O L I T I C S

NIGERIA MILITARY CAPABI- L I T Y a 0.

RE FE RE NCE S

CONCLUSION

EVALUATION 0.

SUGGESTIONS AND RECOIYMENDATIONS . . ..

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

I t i s a t r u i s m c h a t ~ f r i c a c o n t a i n s t h e l a r g e s t

number o f t h e l eas t d e v e l o p e d a n d p o o r e s t c o u n c r i e s f n

the w o r l d ; a t t h e same t i m e , i t is t h e a r e n a for some

of e h e w o r 1 d . s w o r s c c o n f l i c c e l Hence, =he c o n t i n e n t

h a s b e e n r h e s c e n e of several c i v i l wars a n d domescic

c o n f l i c t s t h a t h a v e d i s p l a c e d m i l l i o n s of W r i c a n s a n d

e x p o s e d them to extremely cruel and f e r o c i o u s c a l a m i t ies ,

s o m e c h i n g c h a t h a s o b s t r u c t e d t h e m o b i l i s a t i o n of efforts

t o w a r d s social a n d e c o n o m i c p r o g r e s s . In i c s World

Deve lopment R e p o r c of 1989, t h e World Bank e s c i r n a t e d t h e

a v e r a g e a n n u a l g r o w t h of real GNP i n Sub-Sahara ~ f r i c a

b e t w e e n 1982 a n d 1988 a t a b o u c o n e p e r c e n t . T h i s is

b e c a u s e u n d e r t h e a b v v e m e r ~ t i u r t e d si c u a t i u r l , A f r i c a n

c o u n t r i e s a r e u n a b l e to meet t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d s

c h e i r p e o p l e s , And c h e i r b u r d e n s w i l l e v e n m u l t i p l y i n

a f e w y e a r s , cnus i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s c r i c c i o n s h i n d e r i n g

t h e d e s i r a b l e e c o n c m i c r e n a i s s a n c e fo r t h e A t r i c a n

p e o p l e who are h u n g r y f o r a tomrllorrow f u l l of security,

p e a c e and p r o s p e r i ty.

As s t a t ed ab i n i t i o , kf r ica is a c o n f l i c t l a d d e n

c o n t i n e n t , Hence, s i n c e c h e 19uOs, t h e c o u n c r i e s o f

2

Africa S o u t h a n d Maghreb , h a v e b e e n w r a c k e d b y more

d e a d l y c o n f l i c t t h a n a n y o t h e r w o r l d r e g i o n e x c e p t

S o u t h e a s t Asia, T h u s , s i n c e 19b0, 18 f u l l f l e d g e d c i v i l

ware; h a v e b e e n f o u g h t i n Afr ica i n a d d i t i o n to c h e

p r o t r a c c e d p r o t o - r e v o l u c f o n a r y c o n f l i c c i n S o u t h A f r i c a ; n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d of a l l o v e r t m i l i t a r y i n c e r v e n t l i o n

between 19b0 a n d 1 9 8 5 (53 o u c 1 7 1 ) w a r targeted a t

A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s c o n t r a r y to common wisdom, 55 of t h e

81 interveners w e r e o t h e r A f r i c a n s ta tes , c o m p a r e d wi+h

2b i n t e r v e n t i o n s b y former c o l o n i a l p o w e r s , E l e v e n

g e n o c i d e s a n d p o l i c i c i d e s o c c u r e d i n Africa b e t w e e n

1960 a n d t h e l a t e 19809, c o m p a r e d w i ch 24 e l s e w h e r e i n +kc

w o r l d . 2

T h i s s t a c e of a f f a i r s h a s become a matter of g r e a t

c o n c e r n to b o t h A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e international

communicy. T h i s is e v i d e n c e d b y t h e number of peace-

k e e p i n g , p e a c e m a k i ng, p e a c e e n f o r c e m e n t o p e r a t i o n s etc,

t h a t t h e c o n t i n e n t , i n i t s s h o r t h i s t o r y , h a s w i t n e s s e d ,

However , w i t h t h e d e m i s e of c h e sov i e t u n i o n a n d t h e

c o n s e q u e n t e n d of t h e cold w a r , most of t h e a t t e n t i o n of

t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l communicy h a s s h i f t e d to t h e West, AS

a s e s u l t of t h i s , t h e r e is a c a l l fo r t h e es c a b l i s h m e n t

of a n O.A.U. mechan i sm whose d u t y w i l l I n t e r a l i a ,

i n c l u d e t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of p e a c e a n d s e c u r i c y , a n d

t h e r e s o l u r i o n of c o n f l ic ts o n c h c c o n t i n e n t , B e t h a c

a s i t may, before s u c h a lof t y d ream, w e s h o u l d n o t

a b a n d o n t h e c o n t i n e n t to t h e i n c e s s a n t e r r u p c i o n of

c o n f l i c t s w h i c h i f l e f t u n h e a l e d may blossom to f u l l

f l edged c i v i l w a r s c h a t w i l l l e a v e on i ts wake u n c o l d

s u f f e r i n g a n d h a r d s h i p o n t h e vict ims, ~ f r i c a n

c o u n t r i e s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e o n t h e a l e r t to r e s p o n d

to d i s t r e s s c a l l s from sister c o u n t r i e s .

I t is a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k d r o p c h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r

e m b a r k s o n t h i s work , w h i c h is a s t u d y of N i g e r i a ' s

role i n s h a p i n g A f r i c a n r e s p o n s e s co c o n f l i c c s i n Africa,

T h i s scudy w i l l be carried o u t c h r o u g h t h e p e r s p e c t i v e

of N i g e r i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n t h i s p o s c c o l d w a r era.

T h e q u e s t i o n t h e n i s , g i v e n t h e circumstances a r o u n d u s ,

w h a t role w i l l N i g e r i a p l a y to a d d r e s s , manage , p r e v e n t

o r e v e n r e s o l v e t h e i n c e s s a n t c o n f l icts w h i c h h a s

a p p e a r e d to be t h e " trade markn of t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t ,

T h i s i s d o n e to alleviate t h e s u f f e r i n g s of t h e m i l l i o n s

of A f r i c a n t u r n e d r e f u g e e s i n t h e i r own so i l a n d

f a g h e r l a n d ,

q, q STATEPIENT OF' THE PROBLEM

AS s t a t e d e a r l i e r , t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t h a s

w i t n e s s e d more u p s u r g e of crisis a n d c o n f l ic ts t h a n

a n y o t h e r c o n c i n e n t o f t h e w o r l d . Hence, t h e c o n t i n e n t

for t h e p a s t d e c a d e s h a s b e e n s u b j e c t e d to series o f

c o n f l i c t s t h a t i t h a s b e e n b r a n d e d t h e "danger -zone"

of t h e world. ~ l s o , t h e s e e n d e m i c c o n f l i c t s a n d wars

always seem co c a k e t h e c o n c i n e n t u n a w a r e s . T h i s i s

b e c a u s e t h e r e i s no s t a n d i n g r e g i o n a l mechanism to

address s u c h c o n f l i c t s , to n i b them a t t h e b u d before

t h e y d e g e n e r a t e i n t o a f u l l b l o w n c i v i l war. And

w h e r e s u c h o u t f i ts e x i s t ( a s i n t h e case of ECOMOG) , i t s o p e r a t i o n a l s u c c e s s is m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t b y p o o r

l o g i s tics l a c k of a d e q u a t e f u n d i n g , l e g a l cum p o l i t i ca l ,)

i s s u e s e tc, Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e q u e s t i o n

is: What role c a n N i g e r i a p l a y i n c o n f l i c t p r e v e n t i c n ,

management and r e s o l u t i o n i n A f r i c a w i t h i n o u r i d e n t i f i e d

p e r i o d of s t u d y ?

T h e a b o v e q u e s t i o n i s i m p e r a t i v e g i v e n t h e power

c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e p o s t c o l d w a r s y s t e m ; t h e n e a r

n o n c h a l l a n t a c t i c u d e s of t h e West to c o n f l i c t s i n

Africa w i c h i n c h i s p e r i o d i n t h e name of p r o c e c c i n g

t h e i r n a c i o n a l i n c e r e s c ( e v e n when s u c h l n t e r e s c s are

c o n t r a r y to c h e w e l l - b e i n g of ~f r i c a n s ) . T h i s p r o b l e m

i s c o n f o u n d e d b y t h e .face ehac N i g e r i a h e r s e l f s c i l l

o p e r a c e s a d e p e n d e n t economy, A g a i n , N i g e r i a h e r s e l f

a p p e a r s to be s i c c i n g o n a "time-bombw g i v i n g h e r

u n s c a b l e domes t i c p o l l t i c a l , soc ia l a n d e c o n o m i c

s c r u c t u r e s .

Yec , a g a i n , t h e r e is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y c h a t m o s c

A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s may s t a r t v i e w i n g N i g e r i a t s role w i c h

s u s p i c i o n , T h e y may s t a r t l o o k i n g a t t h e w h o l e a d v e n t u r e

as N i g e r i a ' s way of i m p o s i n g h e r hegemoni sm o n c h e w h o l e

c o n t i n e n t .

F u r t h e r m o r e , N i g e r i a w i l l h a v e a l o t of f o r c e s to

c o n t e n d w i t h i n t h e b id to e n s u r e c o n f l i c t - free ~ f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . T h e s e obstacles may come from t h e

i m p e r a l i s t c o u n t r i e s o f t h e West. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s

p r e d i c a t e d o n t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t most c o n f l i c t s i n

Af r 4 c a a r e Wes t e r n - o r i e n t e d . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e

h e g e m o n i c p o w e r h a s and s t i l l t r y to i m p o s e p o l i t i c a l

s c o o g e s o n many A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . T h e s e

6

s t o o g e s a r e t h e r e to p r o t e c t c h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t of

t h e s e Powers o n ~ f r i c a . T h e y a r e m a i n l y p e o p l e who

w i l l n o t r o c k t h e " i m p e r a l i s c b o a c " e v e n a t t h e

d e t r i m e n t of t h e u n i t y , c o h e s i o n etc. of t h e i r own

p e o p l e . H e n c e , a n y e f f o r t b y N i g e r i a to restore

peace, s e c u r i c y a n d order i n s u c h ~ f r i c a n c o u n ~ r i e s

w i l l be met w i t h s t i f f r e s i s t a n c e from t h e w o r l d

h e g e m o n i c p o w e r s i n question.

I c i s c h e r c f o r e from the f o r e g o i n g t h a t t h e

r e s e a r c h e r posi c s t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :

What role w i l l N i g e r i a l i k e l y p l a y I n c o n f l i c t

r e s o l u t i o n i n Af r i ca d u r i n g c h i s e r a , a n d w h a t

s t r a t e g i e s of a c t i o n are a v a i l a b l e to h e r ?

Does N i g e r i a h a v e t h e human a n d ma te r i a l r e s o u r c e s

to u n i t e A f r i c a n s a g a i n s t c h e i r common enemy - c o n f l i c t ?

H o w p r e p a r e d i s N i g e r i a to a c c o m o d a t e a n d combat

t h e fears of d o m i n a t i o n b y many A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s ?

How f a r i s N i g e r i a b a t t l e r e a d y to combat t h e

diplomatic, ideological a n d p o l i t i ca l war-f a r of

t h e p o s t c o l d war s y s t e m ?

1.- 2 OBJECTIVE OF bTUUY

I n a r e s e a r c h work of t h i s n a t u r e , t h e o b j e c t i v e s

of s t u d y i n c l u d e t h e p u r p o s e s , aims a n d intentions of:

t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n u n d e r t a k i n g s u c h a s t u d y ,

N i g e r i a i s claimed to be o n e of t h e most p o p u l o u s

b l a c k n a t i o n i n c h e w o r l d , T h i s c o u p l e d w i t h N i g e r i a ' s

r e s o u r c e s a n d " b i g - b r o t h e r " c o n c e r n c o many s ister

~ f r i c a n countries h a v e e n t h r u s t e d o n h e r pa lm t h e ro le

of l e a d e r s h i p o n the: c o n t i n e n c . . And t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of

p e a c e a n d s e c u r i c y w i t h i n t h e c o n t i n e n t h e s b e e n o n e o f

N i g e r i a ' s g r e a t e s t c o n c e r n , H e n c e , o t h e r A f r i c a n

c o u n t r i e s l o o k u p to h e r to prov ide t h e much n e e d e d

p e a c e a n d s e c u r i cy (of both l i v e 5 ?,mi p r o p e r t y ) o n t h e

c o n t i n e n t . And N i g e r i a , i n most cases h a s l i v e d u p

to t h e e x p e c t a t i o n , T h i s f a c t c o u l d e a s i l y be g l e a n e d

from Nige r i a ' s role i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n many

A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e

Economic Communi ty of West ~ f r i c a n S t a t e s - M o n i t o r i n g G r o u p ( E c O N O ~ ~ ) , w h o s e o p e r a t i o n s a n d a c t i v i t ies h a v e

b e e n f e l t i n L i b e r i a , S ierra Leone . However , n o t much

h a s b e e n d o n e a n d a c h i e v e d , T h e c o n t i n e n t is s t i l l

e x p e r i e n c i n g c o n f l i c c s a l l o v e r c h e p l a c e , I t

c h e r e f ore becomes i m p e r a t i v e c h a t N i g e r i a - " t h e G i a n c of Af r i caM s h o u l d d e v i c e effective m e a n s to

c h e c k m a c e a n d combac a n y e v e n c u a l i c y c h a t c o u l d lead

to war or d i s c r u c c i o n a n d b r e a c h of s e c u r i t y a n d

peace i n t h e c o n t i n e n t ,

F u r c h e r m o r e , c h c A f r i c a n c o n c i n e n c , as s t a c e d

ab i n i t i o , i s b e d r i d d e n w i t h c o n f l i c c s . Some of c h e s e

c o n f l i c t s a r e a s a r e s u l c of l o w G W caused a n d s u s t a i n e d

b y u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n c a n d d e p e n d e n c y . T h i s low GNP i s

t r a n s l a c e d i n t o p o v e r cy , h u n g e r a n d d i s e a s e s , T h e

c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s is c h a t p e o p l e s c r u g g l e c o make

e n d s m e e c e v e n co t h e p o i n c of c a k i n g u p arms to w r e s c

p o w e r from t h e d e f a c c o g o v e r n m e n t : i n order to g a i n

c o n c r o l of t h e economy,

From w h a t h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h e ob j e c c i v e s

of c h i s s c u d y are as f o l l o w s :

?. To reveal c h e best s c r a c e g i e s of a c t i o n o p e n fo r

' N i g e r i a i n e n s u r i n g a c o n f l i c c - f ree Africa. 2. ' T o d e t e r m i n e c h e b e s c means of c o n f l i c t t h a t c a n

be e m p l o y e d by N i g e r i a .

3. To d e v i c e t h e best method f o r N i g e r i a to u n i t e

A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s to f i g h t t h e i r common e n e m i e s - p o v e r t y a n d c o n f l i c t .

4. To ou c l i n e t h e p o s s i b l e f a c t o r s t h a t may

m i l l t a t e a g a i n s t N i g e r i a ' s role to e n s u r e a

conf l i c t - free A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t .

2.3 S IGiJIk ICAIUCE OF STUDY

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of s t u d y f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h work

p r o v i d e s b o ~ h t h e p r a c t i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i o n a l e

f o r e m b a r k i n g o n s u c h a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a d v e n t u r e .

The f o c u s of t h i s s t u d y is N i g e r i a ' s ro le i n

c o n f l i c t p r e v e n t i o n , management a n d r e s o l u t i o n i n

Afr ica w i t h i n t h i s p o s t c o l d w a r d i s p e n s a t i o n . I t

i s v e r y much a d rem g i v e n t h e i n c e s s a n t c o n f l i c t s

t h a t h a v e e n g u l f e d t h e c o n t i r l e r ~ t f o r sometime now,

s t u l t i f y i n g , s t u n t i n g a n d d i s a r t i c u l a c i n g a l l p o s i t i v e

e f f o r t s t o w a r d s t h e t e c h r r o l o g i c a l improvement ,

s c i e n t i f ic a d v a n c e m e n t , e c o n o m i c e m a n c i p a t i o n ,

c u l t u r a l r e j u v e n a c i o n of t h e continent etc. Hence,

if A f r i c a i s to f o r g e a h e a d , t h e d e s i d e r a t u m t h e r e f o r e

is co d e v i c e a means of c h e c k m a t i n g a n d r e s o l v i n g

t h e s e c o n f l i c t s m I t i s i n t h i s r e g a r d t h a t t h i s work

w i l l be of g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c c to N i g e r i a as w e l l as

to t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t i n t h e i r b i d to e n s u r e t h a t

p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y (of b o t h l i v e s and p r o p e r t y ) r e i g n

s u p r e m e i n t h e c o n t i n e n t .

I n t h i s work, t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s

to e n q e n d e r a n d s t i m u l a t e academic and i n c e l l e c t u a l

d i s c o u r s e o n c h e s u b j e c c . T h i s i s p r e d i c a t e d on t h e

fact t h a t a seasoned a c a d e m i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c o u r s e

w i l l be o f immense! h e l p b e c a u s e , f t i s a x i o m a t i c to s ay

t h a t i d e a s rule t h e w o r l d . Thus t h e f r u i t a c c r u i n g

from s u c h i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e i n terms

of l e a r n i n g experiences, i f p u t i n t o p r a c t i c a l u s e ,

w i l l h e l p to p r o f e r s o l u t i c n f o r t h e incessant c o n f l i c t s

w h i c h h a v e r a v a g e d t h e continent for a l o n g t i m e .

Thus , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e t h e

f o l l o w i n g :

1 To p r o v i d e t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n of t h e

n a t u r e and d y n a m i c s of m o s t c o n f l i c t s i n A f r i c a .

2. To o u t l i n e t h e p r o s a n d c o n s f o r s h o u l d e r i n g t h e

r e s p o n s i b i l i cy of c o n f l . i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n Af rica. b

3. To e n g e n d e r a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e o n t h e best

s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o n f l i c t managemen t a n d r e s o l u t i o n .

1.4 LITERATURE R E V I E W

T h e r e v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e s f o r t h i s work ( w i c h i n

o u r i d e n c i f i e d p e r i o d of i n t e r e s t ) w i l l be d o n e u n d e r

t h e f o l l o w i n g h e a d i n g s t

I. America's role i n c o n f l i c c r e s o l u t i o n i n s p e c i f i c

p l a c e s a l l over t h e w o r l d , e s p e c i a l l y i n hfrica.

ii. U n i t e d N a t i o n ' s role i n c o n f l i c c r e s o l u c i o n i n

A f r i c a a n d o t h e r p a r t s of t h e w o r l d .

iii. N i g e r i a ' s ro le i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n ~ f r i c a .

iv. N i g e r i a n F o r e i g n P o l i c y i n t h e p o s t cold w a r era

w i t h r e g a r d c o peace and s e c u r l c y i n ~ f r i c a .

i. U N I T E G STATES OF AMERICA'S ROLE I N

CONFLLCT RESOLUTION

Smock ( 1995: 313 observes t h a t t h e U n l t ed S t a t e s

o f ~ m e r i c a h a s made s i g n i f i c a n c c o m m i t m e n t to peace-

m a k i n g i n A f r i c a . And t h a t c h i s i n v o l v e m e n r , h a s g r o w n

o v e r t h e p a s t 1 5 y e a r s . T h e U t ~ i t e d S t a t e of ~ m e r i c a , b

a c c o r d i n g c o Smock, cook t h e lead i n t h e m e d i a t i o n

p r o c e s s t h a t g a v e Namibia i ts i n d e p e n d e n c e a n 0 r emoved

C u b a n a n d S o u c h A f r i c a n t r o o p s f r o n Angola . A l s o , t h e

U n i t ed S c a t e s of America h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y e n g a g e d

i n p e a c e m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s i n Zimbabwe, Mozambique ,

A n g o l a , E t h i o p i a , ~ r i t rea a n d S o u c h A f r ica . Uni t e d

S ta tes of America's a s s i s t a n c e h a s also h e l p e d s u s t a i n

t h e p e a c e k e e p i n g and m e d i a t i o n efforts of t h e ELOWAS

( t h r o u g h E ~ W I O G ) i n L i b e r i a . Alld recently, l a r g e - scale A m e r i c a n I n v o l v e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e u s e of

A m e r i c a n troops, o c c u r e d i n Soma1 i a a n d Rwanda.

However , i n h e r e n t i n Smock ' s a n a l y s i s of Us role

i n c o n f l l c t r e s o l u t i o n i n t h e above c o u r ~ t r i e s i s *he

dear* of d e c a i l e d a c c o u n t of w h a t t h e US d i d i n s u c h

p l a c e s .

S u p p l y i n g t h e i n h e r e n t w e a k n e s s e s i n Smock,

4- RO t c h i l d ( l 995 :4 l ) h o l c j s t h a t i n t h e p o s t c o l d w a r

s y s t e m , US P o l i c y m a k e r s , c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o m o t i n g a

a t a b l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r i n w h i c h d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e s ,

e c o n o m i c t r a d e a n d i n v e s t m e n t c a n be n u r t u r e d , h a v e f o u n d

t h e m s e l v e s w i t h l i t t l e c h o i c e b u c to become i n v o l v e d i n

i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t s i n A f r i c a . AS t h e sole r e m a i n i n g b

g r e a t p o w e r ( i n m i l i t a r y terms a t l e a s t ) , t h e US c a n n o t

s t a n d aside as t h e r a t h e r b e l a c e d a n d l i m i t e d

r e s p o n s e co t h e 1994 Rwandan cr is is s h o w e d , w h i l e

d e s t r u c t i v e c o n f l i c c g e o p a r d i s e s e f f e c t i v e g o v e r n a n c e .

G o i n g f u r t h e r , R o c c h i l d s a i d t h e US i n v o l v e m e n t

i n f a c i l i c a c i n g a r e s o l u t i o n o f Afr ica ' s c o n c e m p o r a r y

c o n f l i c t h a s c a k e n many f o r m s s u c h as: Conf l i c i

p r e v e n c i o n ( i n f o r m a c i o n g a t h e r i n g , m e a s u r e s o f

reconciliation a n d p r e v e n c i o n , p r e s s u r e s f o r human

r i g h c s a n d c i e m o c r i c i s a c i o n ) ; b e h i n d - t h e s c e n e s s u p p o r t for d i s p u t e m e d i a t i o n by A f r i c a n c h i r d - p a r t y actors ( N i g e r i a i n S u d a n , Z a i r e i n ~ n g o l a ) ; b a c k i n g a

r e g i o n a l a c t o r ( E U ~ X S i n L i b e r i a , OhU i n ~ w a n d a ) ;

a s s i s c i n g a n e x c r a - c o n c i n e n - k a l actor ( B r i t a i n i n Zimbabwe, P o r t u g a l i n n c g o c i a c i n g A n g o l a ' s i n t e r n a l

s e t t l e m ~ n c e c c . ) ; p r o r n o c i n g a n international

o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s i n i t i a t i v e (UFJ i n Congo , Somalia,

Rwanda, L ibe r i a e c c ) ; p r e s s u r e o n local actor to

n e g o c i a c e ( S o u t h A f r i c a , S u d a n ) ; human1 c a r i a n

i n t e r v e n c i o n a n d d i p l o m a t ic f a c i l i c a t i o n s (Somalia);

o r g a n i s a c i o n of a r e g i m e t r a n s 1 t i o n ( ~ c h i o p i a ) ; a n d

direct c h i r d - parcy m e d i a t i o n b e c w e e n i n c e r n a l p a r c i e s ( S u d a n 1989 - 1 9 9 2 , Z a i r e 1 9 9 2 ) as w e l l a s b e c w e e n

i n c e r n a t i o n a l p a r c i e s ( t h e Angolan governmenc , S o u t h

Af r i c a a n d Cuba r e g a r d i n g a s e c c l e r n e n c i n ~ n g o l a and

~ a m i b i a ) .

L e n d i n g c r e d e n c e co R o c c h i l d , O a k l e y ( 1995: 56-57) S

c o n s i d e r e d t h e U n i c e d S t a c e s t role i n che r e s o l u c i o n

of che Congo crisis, A c c o r d i n g co him, c h e f i r s t

m a j0r Uni t e d S t a c e s of A m e r i c a ' s efforts a t c o n f l i c t

r e s o l u c i o n i n c h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n c b e g a n w i c h t h e

Uni ced S c a c e s of ~ m e r i c a as no more t h a n a s u p p o r c e r

of t h e p e a c e k e e p i n g i n i t i a c i v e c a k e n b y t h e Uni ced

N a c i o n s g Secretary-General, Dag Hammarsk j o l d i n J u l y

1860 , r e s p o n d i n g to a n a p p e a l f o r h e l p from c h e g o v e r n -

m e n t of c h e Congo i n L e o p o l d v i lle i n res c a b i l i s h i n g

o r d e r , T h i s was b e c a u s e s h o r t l y af c e r i n d e p e n d e n c e o n

J u l y 1, 19t10, t h e C o n g o l e s e army began c o loot: a n d

g e n e r a l l y d i s o b e y o r d e r s a n d t h r e a c e n che l a r g e number

of B e l g i a n s l i v i n g i n c h e c o u n t r y . B e l g i a n s d e p l o y e d

forces o n J u l y 13, 1 9 6 8 to p r o c e c c t h e l i v e s of h e r

n a t . i o n a l s . T h i s l e d to a v i o l e n c a n c i - Be lg ium

r e a c t i o n f o r c i n g c h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r , P a c r i c e Lumumber

a n d c h e P r e s i d e n t , J o s e p h Kasavubu to a p p e a l co c h e

United N a t i o n s . The U N s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l a p p r o v e d t h e

S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l ' s p r o p o s a l fo r a U N p e a c e k e e p i n g

f o r c e of 1 0 , 0 0 0 c o h e l p r e s c o r e o r d e r , p r o v i d e

h u m a n i t a r i a n a s s i s c a n c e and to r e t r a i n c h e army.

A c c o r d i n g to O a k l e y , t h e US p r o v i d e d much of t h e

l i f t a n d logistics. T h e US made t h e Congo a t o p p r i o r 1 t y

af c e r president J o h n F. Kennedy assumed o f f ice i n

J a n u a r y 1961. N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e f a i l e d c o t e l l u s whac

America d i d to q u e l l t h e Congo u p r i s i n g and e v e n c u a l

c o n f l i c t . Hence , h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l n o c h e l p u s i n c h i s

s t u dye 6

Smath (1995: 154) s t a t e s t h a t f r o m 1977 - 1989 t h e US u n d e r t o o k a c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n o p e r a t i o n i n t h e

~ f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s of ~ a r n i b i a a n d Angola. D u r i n g c h i s

p e r i o d , t h e C a r c e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o o k t h e i n 1 c i a c i v e

i n p r e s s i n g r f o r a r e s o l u t i o n to t h e l o n g - s t a n d i n g

problems i n N i g e r i a , s e c t i n g u p t h e o ' con tacc g r o u p "

of t h e f i v e W e s t e r n members of t h e Uni ced N a t i o n s '

S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l i n 1977 to u n d e r t a k e s e r i o u s negotiations.

The, US a b b a s s a d o r c o t h e Uni ted N a t i o n , Dona1 M i c c e n n y

w a s t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d t h e c o n t a c t g roup . T h e i r

e f for ts p r o d u c e d o n S e p t e m b e r 29 , 1978 , t h e U N S e c u r i t y b

C o u n c i l Resolution 435, c a l l i n g for t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of

NamYbia t h r o u g h f r e e a n d f a i r e l e c t i o n , e s t a b l i s h i n g a

Uni r e d N a t i o n g s T r a n s i t i o n A s s i s t a n c e Group ( U N T A G ) ,

e n d o r s i n g a s p e c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l f o r t h i s p u r p o s e and u r g i n g t h e c o o p e r a t i o n

of t h e S o u t h ~ f r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e S o u t h West

A f r i c a n P e o p l e ' O r g a n i s a t i o n (SCHPO). A l s o , t h e

C a r t e r a d m i n i s c r a c i o n was a c t i v e anti h e l p f u l to t h e

Uni t e d Kingdom i n n e g o t i a t i n g a g r e e m e n t o n i n d e p e n d e n c e

f o r R h o d e s i a w h i c h h a d s e e n s u b s t a n t i a l b l a c k v e r s u s

w h i t e c i v i l w a r s ,

Piaking u p f o r t h e w e a k n e s s o f h i s ear l ier a n a l y s i s ,

O a k l e y ( 1995:62-b7)' o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e U b i n c e r e s t a n d

a c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n S o u t h

A f r i c a was s u s t a i n e d p a r t l y b y a G e n e r a l S o v i e t U n i o n ' s

e a g e r n e s s i n 1990 - 1 9 9 2 to c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e US i n r e s o l v i n g r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s ( t h a t is, PJicacgua, Cambodia ,

~ n g 0 l E t a n d Mozambique) and p a r t l y b y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

t h e r e q i o n ( S o u t h ~ f r i c a ) t o t h e Ub p u b l i c and c o n g r e s s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y , i n terms of r e s o l v i n g t h e b l a c k - w h i t e t e n s i o n , Hence, t h e U n i t e d Sta tes of A m e r i c a s u p p o r t e d

P o r t u a u e s e a n d UN e f f o r t s to b m k e a d e t a i l e d p o l i t i c a l

a g r e e m e n t b e c w ~ e n t h e PIPLA and t h e ~ J N I T A t o s t o p t h e c i v i l b

w a r , d i e a r m m i l i t i a s a n d h o l d e l e c t i o n s . However, t h i s

a g r e e m e n t

c o l l a p s e d a n d che c i v i l w a r c o n t i n u e d b e c a u s e of

l a c k of h i g h - l e v e l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Angolan s i t u a t i o n b y t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l a n d t h e s e c r u t . iy

c o u n c i l of c h e U n i t e d N a t i o n , t h e f a i l u r e to m o d i f y

a g r e e m e n t s a n d t i m e c a b l e to m a t c h t h e p o l l t ical a n d

m i l i t a r y r e a l i c i c s o n t h e g r o u d a n d t h e u n w i l l i n g n e s s

of t h e Uni t e d N a t i o n s ' S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l members

( i n c l u d i n g t h e Uni t c d S t a t e s of ~mer ica ) to commic

t h e much n e e d e d r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d fo r s u c c c s s f u 1

d i s a r m a m e n t a n d e l e c t i o n s ,

T h i s a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e s u s w i c h a f o r e - t a s t e of

t h e t y p e o f obs cnc1t.c and o b s t r u c t i o n s t h a c N i g e r i a

w i l l l i k e l y meet o n h e r way to s h a p e ~f r i c a n r e s p o n s e s

to c o n f l i c t i n Africa, The q u e s t i o n t h e n is: How f a r

i s N i g e r i a b a c t l e r e a d y to cake o n a n d s u r m o u n t s u c h

o b s t a c l e s ? Does N i q e r i a h a v e t h e human a n d material

r e s o u r c e s n e e d e d f o r s u c h a s s ignmenc?

Going f u r c h e r , O a k l e y h o l d s t h a t d u r i n g t h e 1991

a n d most of 1992, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n

w i c h c h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s made several a c t e m p c s a t

r e s t o r i n g p e a c e a n d o r d e r i n S o m a l i a . T h e s e h a d

l i t t l e effects as l a r g e - scale d e a t h from C i v i l as

w e l l a s c l a n w a r s , f a m i n e a n d d i s e a s e s continued.

T h e Bush a d m i n i s c r a c i o n t h e n d e c i d e d c o l ead a

mu1 c l n a c i o n a l m i l l c a r y o p e r a t i o n a n d s e e k e d c h e

a p p r o v a l from t h e s e c u r i c y c o u n c i l i n December 1992.

T w e n t y - c h r e e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a n d 10,000 forces j o i n e d

c h e 2 7 , 0 0 0 U n i c e d S t a c e - ~ m e r i c a ' s forces i n o p e r a t i o n

restore h o p e U n i t e d Na t i o n s t T a s k F o r c e ( ~ A ~ T A F ) .

However , c h i s s e c o n d p h a s e of S o m a l i a p e a c e k e e p i n g

( U I W ~ A F ) made t r e m e n d o u s s c r i d e s i n a c h i e v i n g i ts

p r i m a r y h u m a n i c a r i a n m i s s i o n as d e a c h f rom rna lanu c r i c i o n

a n d d i s e a s e virtually decreased. T h e r e was a l so a n

i m p r e s s i v e b e g i n n i n g of p o l l t i ca l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of

b r i n g i n g w e a p o n s a n d m i l i c i a s voluntarily u n d e r r e s c r a i n c

i n M o g a d i s h u a n d o t h e r k e y locations a n d of r e b u i l d i n g

L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t s c r u c t u r e s a n d r e s u m i n g a g r i c u 1 c u r a l

a n d a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y . T h u s , i t a p p e a r e d a c c o r d i n g c o

O a k l e y t h a c c h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d UNI'fAF h a d f o u n d a

s u c c e s s f u l f o r m u l a : o v e r w h e l m i n g forces a v a i l a b l e fo r

u s e a c a l l c i m e s , u s e d w i t h maximum restraint a n d w i t h

e v e r y e f f o r t to l i m i t c h e af c e r effects; f u l f i l l i n g c h e

h u m a n i t a r i a n m a n d a c e a n d s h o w i n g t h e somalis t h e

a d v a n c a g e s of p e a c e , e n c o u r a g i n g t h e somalls c o s o r t

o u c t h e i r own p r o b l e m s a n d establish t h e i r own

i n s t i t u t i o n s ; n o t c a k i n g s i d e s o r g e c t i n g c a u g h t i n

t h e m i d d l e of the d i s p u t e s a n d n o t i m p o s i n g s o l u t i o n s

o n t h e factions; a n d coordinating t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

of h u m a n i t a r i a n , po l l t i c a l a n d s e c u r i t y a s w e l l as

m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t ies to m a x i m i s e a n d mu1 t i p l y t h e i r

f a v o u r a b l e i rnpac t,

T h e a b o v e c h a r - a c t e r i s a t i c n p r o v i d e s g o o d f r a m e

work of a n a l y s i s to p r e d i c t t h e e x t e n t N i g e r i a c a n g o

to s h o u l d e r t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of c o n f l i c t p r e v e n t i o n ,

manaqernent a n d r e s o l u t i o n i n ~f r i ca , O u r c o n t e n t i o n

is w h e t h e r N i g e r i a h a s t h e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , social

c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e r e s i l i e n c e t h a t e n s u r e d t h e Ub - UNITAF' s u c c e s s i n somalia, And i f s h e does n o t p o s s e s s

s u c h r e s i l i e n c e c h a r a c teris tics, w h a t m u s t be d o n e to

e n s u r e t h a t s h e c u l t i v a t e s them,

i t , UNITED NATIONS* ROLE IN CONFLICT

RESOLUTION IN AFRICA.

'

H a y s (1996: 1971% h o l d c h a t t h e s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l

of t h e Uni ted N a t i o n s v o c e d o n October 5, 1993 to

d e p l o y a p e a c k e e p i n g c o n t i n g e n t of 2,5000 s o l d i e r s

a n d 331 m i l i t a r y o b s e r v e r s to Rwanda t h a t h a s b e e n

e n g a g e d i n e t h n i c f i g h t i n g s i n c e s h e g a i n e d

i n d e p e n d e n c e . The w a r r i n g f a c t i o n s a g r e e d to a c e a s e - f i r e i n A u g u s t 1 9 9 3 a f ter t h e U N f o r c e s m e d i a t e d and

f o r c e d t h e f a c c i o n s to come t o g e t h e r i n a r o u n d t a b l e

c o n f e r e n c e . The s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l manda ted UWAMIR

w i c h r e s o l u t i o n 8 7 2 ( 1 9 9 3 ) o n O c t o b e r 5 , 1993. T h e

p e a c e k e e p i n g o p e r a t i o n was g i v e n c h e m i s s i o n to r e t r a i n

c h e Rwandan army, d i s b a n d and d i s a r m i r r e g u l a r m i l i t a r y

u n i c s , a s s i s t i n t h e r e t u r n of r e f u g e e s , p r o v i d e some

p r o c e c c i o n i n che c a p i t a l , a n d h e l p t h e s ta te i n

e l e c t i o n preparations. The UN a d d e d c l e a r l y d e f i n e d

t i m e - tables f o r t h e o p e r a c i o n i n a n a c c e m p t co g u a r a n t e e

i c s p r o m p t d e p a r t u r e f o l l o w i n g t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of i c s

d u t i e s .

T h e p e a c e k e e p e r s s c a r c e d a r r i v i n g o n December 10, -

1 9 9 3 a n d es cab1 i s h e d d e m i l i t a r i s e d b u f f e r z o n e

approximately 100 miles l o n g a n d 15 m i l e s wide i n

N o r c h e r n Rwanda to s e p a r a t e che m a i n rebels s t r o n g h o l d

of . ~ u l i n d i from t h e governmenc c o n t r o l l e d Souch. The

g r o u p a l s o c l i s p a c c h e d o b s e r v e r s to c h e a i r p o r t a t K i g e l i

a n d moved a ceam c o n s i s t i n g of 81 ~ e r s o n n e l co Uganda 6

co p r e v e n t c h e f l o w of weapons t o Rwanda.

D e s p i t e t h e n e a r s u c c e s s s t o r y , t h e U N h a s b e e n

a c c u s e d of n e g l i q e n c e a n d l a c k of c o n c e r n towards t h e

p l i g h t of t h e Rwandans i n many q u a r t e r s , T h e allegation

is t h a t t h e i n c e r n a t l o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n t rea ted c h e

Rwandan c o n f l i c t s ( a t i t s b e g i n n i n g ) w i t h a k i n d o f

" k i d - g l o v e s t * u n t i l i t d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o s e r i o u s a n d s e v e r e case o f g e n o c i d e . T h e c r i c i c s are o f t h e o p i n i o n

t h a t h a d t h e UN a c t e d s w i f t l y a n d p r o m p t l y a t t h e

o u t b r e a k o-i- t h e c o n f l i c t s , t h e s t o r y w o u l d h a v e b e e n

d i f f e r e n t . P e r h a p s , t h i s may a c c o u n t f o r t h e ~ p r i l

1994 r e n e w e d e t h n i c c o n f l i c t a n d w a r j e o r p a r d i s i n g

t h e operations of t h e p e a c e k e e p e r s . T h i s r e s u l t e d to

t h e d e a t h of many B e l g i a n p e a c e k e e p e r s w h i l e t h e y w e r e

t r y i n g to p r e v e n t t h e m u r d e r of t h e Rwandan p r i m e

m i fils c e r , A g a c h e Unwfnh ing rnmyimanah .

F u r t h e r ~ ~ o r e , t h e s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l au t h o r i s e d t h e

es t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e U n i t ed N a t i o n s * O b s e r v a t i o n

M i s s i o n i n L l b e r i a ( U N O N I L ~ q to ass is t t h e p e a c e k e e p e r s

of t h e Economic Comnwni ty of West ~ f r i c a n Monl c o r i n g

G r o u p ( E C ~ G ) i n L i b e r i a f o l l o w i n g t h e s i g n i n g of t h e

C o t o n o u p e a c e a g r e e m e n t , T h e U N m a n d a t e d m i s s i o n

c o n s i s t s of c o n t i g e n t s s e l e c c e d from t h e ~ f r i c a n

member s ta tes of t h e U N i n 1993, t h e U n i c e d S t a t e s

a i r l i f t e d t h e p e a c e k e e p e r s from Uganda a n d

T a n z a n i a to L i b e r i a . T h e o p e r a t i o n w a s i n r e s p o n s e

to cwo fac tors i n t h e L i b e r i a n c i v i l w a r , F i r s t ,

C h a r l e s T a y l o r , t h e m a i n g u e r i l l a l e a d e r i n L i b e r i a ,

demanded t h e p r e s e n c ? of a n e u t r a l m i l i t a r y u n i t

beeore h e w o u l d a g r e e to a cease - f i r e a n d e l e c t i o n s . H e v i e w e d ECUWG as a N i g e r i a n - l e d o p e r a t i o n aimed a c h i s r e m o v a l . S e c o n d , t h e s ta tes p r o v i d i n g t h e

c o n t i g e n ts f o r ECWlOG, i n p a r t i c u l a r , N i g e r i a , w e r e

e x p e r i e n c i n g f i n a n c f a1 h a r d s h i p i n m a i n t a i n i n g

t h e force i n t h e f i e l d . UIUJ"I~L t h e r e f o r e , was a n

a t t e m p t to p r o v i d e relief fo r ECOMOG t h r o u g h

i n c r e a s e d man p o w e r f u n d e d by t h e UN. L e n d i n g h i s

v o i c e i n c h e U l d ' s ro le i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n

~f ri ca,

Za r tman ( 1991: 3l9)Ie, d i s c u s s e d t h e Uni t e d

N a t i o n s * ro le i n c h e Mozambican c o n f l i c t s , A c c o r d i n g hiw,

-conMozambique was ch rown f n t c c i v i l war f o l l o w i n g

i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e from P o r t u g a l i n 1975, T h e

c o n f l i c t s , f a n n e d b y e x t e r n a l s p o n s o r s , e n g u l f e d t h e

entire Mozambican s o c i e t y f o r two d e c a d e s .

T h e c i v i l w a r r a g e d o n g r o w i n g from s t r e n g t h to

s t r e n g t h u n t i l t h e U N waded i n t o t h e t u r b u l e n t w a t e r .

A cease - f i r e a g r e e m e n t w a s r e a c h e d w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s g p e a c e k e e p i n g o p e r a t i o n to oversee

t h e c e a s a t i o n of h o s t i l i t i e s , d i s a r m i n g of rebel forces,

c h e i n t e g r a c i o n of a new army a n d t h e g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n

p r o c e s s T h e p e a c e k e e p e r s b e g a n c o a r r i v e i n O c c o b e r

1993 a n d r e a c h e d a t o t a l of 6,200 b y F e b r u a r y 1994.

T h e operation w a s c o n s i d e r e d a h u g e s u c c e s s t h o u g h i t

i t g u l f e d m i l l i o n s of d o l l a r s . However , Z a r t m a n d o e s

n o t te l l u s w h a t t h e UhJ - m a n d a t e d o p e r a t i o n d i d to a c h i e v e s u c h a h u q c s u c c e s s . H e o n l y offered u s a n

o v e r - v i e w of t h e Mozambian c o n f l i c t s ,

* g a i n , Mays ( 1996: 173)1'4 d e s c r i b e d t h e U n i t e d

N a t i o n s i n t h e Congo (UNUC). I n t r a c i n g t h e g e n e s i s

of t h e c o n f l i c t , h e h e l d t h a t Congo e m e r g e d from

c o l o n i s a t i o n u n d e r B e l g i u m i n 1960. T h e new s t a t e

g a i n e d i n d e p e n d e n c e w i c h o n l y a s i x M o n t h s p r e p a r a t i o n

carlo& .. A l a s t m i n u t e p o l i t i c a l c o m p r o m i s e e s t a b l i s h e d a g o v e r n m e n t w i c h J o s e p h Kasavubu as t h e

P r e s i d e n t a n d P a t r i c e Lumumba as t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r .

B e l q i u m n e q o c i a ced a n a g r e e m e n t g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e f o r m e r

m e t r o p o l e a n e c o n o m i c . a n d m i l l t a r y p r e s e n c e i n c h e

new s ta te . However , o n J u l y 15, 1960, t h e c o n g o l e s e

s o l d i e r s m u t i n i e d a g a i n s t t h e i r B e l g i u m commander s , 6

T h e n B e l g i u m i n t e r v e n e d c o p r o c e c c c h e l i v e s %her

n a t i o n a l s , w h i c h r e s u 1 t e d to a n t i - B e l g i u m p r o c e s t

a n d r e a c t i o n i n Congo, I n t h e e n s u r i n g crisis, t h e

S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l of UN, Dag Hammarsk jold i n v o k e d

a r t i c l e 99 of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s c h a r t e r to c o n v e n e

t h e s e c u r i c y c o u n c i 1 a n d r ecommended t h e d e p l o v m e n t

of a p e a c e k e e p i n g o p e r a t i o n to a s s i s t t h e c o n g o l e s e

g o v e r n m e n t . T h e m i s s i o n w a s o r i g i n a l l y r e f e r r e d co

as t h e U n i c e d N a c i o n s Force i n C o n g o b u t w a s l a c c e r

c a l l e d o p e r a t i o n des N a t i o n s U n i e s a u Congo (ONUC).

T h e s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l r e s o l u t i o n 143 ( 1 9 6 0 ) was

t h e f i r s t Ulq R e s o l u t i o n to a u c h o r i s e t h e UN S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l to f i e l d a p e a c e k e e p i n g m i s s i o n i n t h e Congo,

T h e o r i g i n a l o b j e c c . i v e s i n c l u d e d o v e r s e e i n g t h e

B e l g i a n w i c h d r a w a l a n d assis t a n c e to t h c C o n g o l e s e

g o v e r n m e n t to m a i n t a i n l a w a n d order i n c h e s t a t e ,

By Augus t 3960, U N so ld ie rs r e p l a c e d t h e B e l g i a n

m i l l t a r y throughout t h e Congo e x c e p t i n two base a

a r e a s a n d K a t a n g a p r o v i n c e , w h i c h h a d d e c l a r e d i c s

s u c c e s s i o n f r o m t h e s t a t e . However, f u r t h e r

n e g o t i a t i o n s w a s K a r t a m g a a n d t h e bases u n d e r t h e

p e a c e k e e p e r s ' c o n t r o l , N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e w h o l e

o p e r a t i o n w a s a f a i l u r e . T h e f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h i s a b y s m a l f a i l u r e i n t e r a l i a , a r e p o l i t i c a l

c o n t r o v e r s y a n d p o o r f i n a n c i n g .

Z a b a d i (1997:7>'* c a l k i n g a b o u t Nigeria's role i n

c o n f l i c t p r e v e n c i o n , m a n a g e m e n t a n d r e s o l u t i o n i n

A f r i c a h o l d s c h a c N i g e r i e , t h r o u g h o u t h e r 36 y e a r s of

s o v e r e i g n s c a t e - h o o d , h a s p l a y e d s t a b l i s i n g r o l e i n

A f r i c a n a f f a i r s , I n t h i s r e s p e c t , s h e h a s a l so

e n h a n c e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y t h r o u g h

h e r d i p l o m a t i c activities i n Afr ica , H e n c e , N i g e r i a

h a s a c t u a l l y p u r s u e d a l e a d e r s h i p role i n Africa to

e n s u r e a p e a c e f u l and s e c u r e e n v i r o n m e n t , c o n d u c i v e

f o r . d e v e l o p m e n t , H i s a r g u e m e n t i s c h a c the l e a d e r s h i p

role w a s t h r u s t o n h e r p a l m b y h e r s i z e , p o p u l a t i o n a n d

r e s o u r c e s ( b o t h human a n d m a c e r i a l 1. T h u s , s u c c e s s i v e

~ i b e r i a n l e a d e r s h a v e made M r i c a t h e c&\trc- p i e c e of

N i g e r i a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . N i g e r i a h a s commicced

h u g e r e s o u r c e s ( b o t h human a n d m a t e r i a l ) c o

m e d i a c i o n , a r b i c r a c i o n a n d conciliation operation

as w e l l a s l i b e r a c i o n s c r u g g l e i n some n e i g h b o u r i n g

h f r i c a n S c a c e s .

N i q e r i a , a c c o r d i n g to Z a b a d i , d e m o n s t r a c e d c h i s

a c c h e o u t b r e a k of the C o n g o crisis i n 1960, N i g e r i a

s e n c h e r croops c o q u e l c h e c o n f I i c c s . AS a f o l l o w -

up, N i g e r i a g a t h e r e d a l l t h e i n c l e p e n d e n c A f r i c a n

S c a c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c a s s a b l a n c a p o w e r s , c o a

m e e c i n g i n ~ a g o s i n 1962 to d i s c u s s ways o f

r e s o l v i n g c h e c o n f l i c e . I c was a i m e d a c r e s o l v i n g

t h e d i f f e r e n c e s be t w e e n t h e w a r r i n g f a c t i o n s a n d

c r e a c i n g a f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h c o h a n d l e a l l

m a c t e r s d i p l ~ m a c i c a l l y ~ Though t h e c s s a n b l a n c a

bloc d i d n o t pu c u p a p p e a r a n c e , t h e o t h e r s w o r k e d

c o w a r d s es c a b l i s h i n g a c o n t i n e n t a l o r g a n i s a c i o n to

c o l l e c c i v e l y address c h e i r common p r o b l e m s . I t w a s

t h e s u b s e q u e n t e f f o r c s b y N i g e r i a w h i c h l e d to c h e

f o r m a c i o n of a t c h e i r n e x c m e e t i n g i n ~ d d i s

Ababa, i n 19b3. And i c is o n record c h a c N i g e r i a

v i r t u a l l y d r e w u p t h e OAU c h a r t e r t h r o u g h t h e

c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f h e r j u s t i c e m i n i s t e r , D r . T s a l i m .

However , s i n c e i t s f o r m a t i o n , t h e OAU a p p e a r s

co be l o s e i n c h e maze of c o n f l i c t s t h a t h a v e r a v a g e d

t h e c o n c i n e n c so much so t h a t i c s ( O N ) effects are

n o t f e l t . T h i s h a s l e d some c r i t i ~ s to d e s c r i b e i c as

a N t o o c h l e s s b u l l d o g M .

G o i n g f u r t h e r , Z a b a d i o b s e r v e d t h a t ~ i g e r i a was a

m e m b e r of t h e O A ~ ad h o c c o m m i c c e e o n t h e c h a d crisis. l-3

S h e p l a y e d a l e a d i n g role i n c h e r e s o l u c i o n of c h e

crisis, S h e a lso s p o n s o r e d s e v e r a l c o n f e r e n c e s ,

e s p e c i a l l y , i n 1979 i n L a g o s a n d Kano to g e e t h e

c h a d i a n f a c t i o n s to r e s o l v e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s , T h e s e

e f fo r t s l e d co t h e f o r m a t i o n of G o v e r n m e n t of ~ a c i o n a l

a n d T r a n s i c i o n (GldUT), i n w h i c h a l l t h e w a r r i n g f a c t i o n s

p a r c i c i n a c e d . And i n order c o e n s u r e a free a n d f a i r

e l e c t i o n , c h e OAU u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p ot N i g e r i a s e n t

a p e a c e k e e p i n g force to c h a d . ~ l c h o u g h t h e m i s s i o n ,

a c c o r d i n g co Z a b a d i , r e c o r d e d a b y s m a l f a i r l u r e , OAU s p e n c n o c h i n g , i t w a s N i g e r i a who i n c u r e d a loss of

80 M i l l i o n Ub d o l l a r s o n t h e o p e r a t i o n . T h e f a i r l u r e

c o u l d he a c c r i b u t e d to many r e a s o n s s u c h as: p o o r

T o g i s t ics , i n a d e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d f u n d i n g , l a c k

28

c o o p e r a t i o n among d i f f e r e n t members of t h e

o p e r a t i o n etc, T h i s a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t s a g o o d

basis f o r N i g e r i a i n s h a p i n g ~ f r i c a n r e s p o n s e s to

c o n f l i c c s i n A f r i c a ,

G a r u b a ( 1997: 18 511k* o b s e r v e d t h a c N i g e r i a

p l a y e d a n o t h e r v i t a l role i r r t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e

A n g o l a n crisis, A c c o r d i n q to h im, p o r t u g a l , t h e

ers c w h i l e c o l o n i a l mas tcr, w i thdrew w i t h o u c p r o p e r l y

h a n d i n g - o v e r D o w e r to any of t h e g r o u p s f i g h t i n g f o r

i n d e p e n d e n c e , T h i s l e d to a series of c o n f l i c c

b e c w e e n t h e MPLA,which was i n c o n t r o l of t h e

G o v e r n m e n t i n L,uanda a n d t h e FI~LA/U~UITA forces

w h i c h wqged a w a r to u n s e a t t h e PIPLA Governmen t .

T h e OAU w a s d e e p l y d i v i d e d i n t h e i r s u p p o r t , B u t

b e c a u s e FldLWUNITH c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h f o r e i g n p o w e r s

a n d recist S o u t h Afr ica , who are h o s t i l e to t h e

s t r u g g l e f o r A f r i c a n l i b e r a t i o n , N i g e r i a acted

d e c i s i v e l y a n d swung O A U ' s s u p p o r t f o r t h e k'PLA

G o v e r n m e n t ,

F o l l o w i n g t h i s d i p l o m a t i c s u c c e s s i n t h e MPLH

r e c o q n i s e d b y t h e ~ A U , N i g e r i a h a d to e x t e n d t h e

k a m p a i g n e l s e w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d to w i n more s u p p o r t

29

a n d recognition fo r Angola . N i g e r i a u s e d h e r

diplomatic a n d e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s co s u s c a i n ~ n g o l a ' s

s o v e r e i g n s cace -hood i n t h e f a c e o f A m e r i c a n

o p p o s i c i o n to A n g o l a , N i g e r i a ' s a c t i o n h e l p e d to

s c a b f l i se c h e A n g o l a n Governmen c a n d assis c e d c h e

l i b e r a c i o n s c r u g g l e b y SWAP0 i n ~ a m i b i a a n d A I ~ C i n

S o u t h Africa, Niger ia a l so p l a y e d a significant role

when i n 1990, p e a c e c a l k s b e t w e e n c h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d

UIJI ' l 'A w e r e h e l d . S h e w o r k e d b e h i n d t h e c u r c a i n to

b r i n q t h e p a r c i e s c o g e c h e r co e n c o u r a g e chern to be

f l e x i b l e for peace to be achieved, S h e w a s i n v o l v e d

r i c j h c co c h e e n d o f t h e p e a c e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 7 7 w i c h c h e

i n u a g u r a c i o n of c h e gove rnmen t : o f n a t i o n a l u n i cy ,

From w h a t h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d so f a r , c h e

i n e v i t a b l e q u e s t i o n is : What s c r a c e g i e s are o p e n to

N i g e r i a i n p r o v i d i n g o r s h a p i n q A f r i c a n r e s p o n s e s to

c o n f 1 ic ts i n ~f r i ca ,

O c h e o h a ( 1997: 1 0 - 1 6 1 ' ~ e m p l o y i ncj c h e c r a n s a c c i o n

a,nd e x c h a n q e m o d e l of a n a l y s i s h o l d s c h a t c o n f l i c t s a r e

i n e v i t a b l e i n human s o c i e c y ( ~ f r i c a n i n c l u s i v e ) , t h e

bes c we c o u l d do, i s co be p r e p a r e d co a d o p c f eas ib le

' s c r a c e c j i e s f o r c o n c r o l l i n g anc! s o l v i n g chern, H e

recommended t h e p r o b l e m s o l v i n g s c r a c e g y of c o n f l i c t

r e s o l u t i o n b a s e d o n a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m u t u a l i t y

o f i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o n f l i c t i n g A f r i c a n s t a t e s / g r o u p s

a n d a p p l y i n g t h e c o n s e n s u s a n d i n t e g r a t e d d e c i s i o n -

m a k i n g ( I n t e g r a t e d D e c i s i o n Mak ing M e t h o d s ) ,

He i s of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t A f r i c a n C o u n t r i e s have

more i n common among t h e m s e l v e s t h a n b e t w e e n them and

o t h e r countries of c h e W e s t e r n World. H e n c e , t h e i r

i n c e r e s ts a re s imi la r i n some r e s p e c t s , c o n s i d e r i r ~ g

t h e i r common c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y , Thus, a n o b j e c t i v e

r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e root a n d c a u s e s o f t h e i r c o n f l i c t s

w i l l ellable them co u n d e r s t a n d t h a t most of t h e i r

c o n f l i c t s , i n t e r - g r o u p w a r s etc a re e x t e r n a l l y - g e n e r a t e d , T h i s r e a l i s a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to O c h e o h a , w i l l

u n i t e them to f i g h t t h e e x t e r n a l a g g r e s s o r s , H i s

a n a l y s i s is v e r y much ad r e m a s i t h e l p s u s to

u n d e r s t a n d t h e c a u s e s of mos t c o ~ ~ f 1 icts i n Africa,

T h i s i n t u r n w i l l h e l p u s make p r e d i c t i o n s a n d s u g g e s t

s o l u t i o n s to N i g e r i a o n how c o n f l i c t s i n Africa c o u l d

be r e s o l v e d ,

' O m (1997:91r6 t o w i n g a d i f f e r e n t l i n e of t h o u g h t

from O c h e o h a i d e n t i f i e d t h e c a u s e s o f c o n f l i c t s a n d w a r s

i n ' A f r i c a as p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n i s m .

P o l i t i c a l l y , i t is t h e s t r u g g l e f o r p o w e r , w h i l e

e c o n o m i c a l l y , i t i s t h e s t r u g g l e f o r w h a t power c a n

g e t . Hence , to a v o i d s u c h c o n f l i c t s , A f r i c a n

q o v e r n m e n t s s h o u l d e n g a g e i n s u c h a c t i v i t ies t h a t

are a imed a t i m p r o v i n g t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e i r c i t i z e n s

and m i n i m i s e p o v e r t y which h a s l e d to c o r r u p t i o n a t

a l l l e v e l s o f ~ f r i c a n s o c i e c y , T h i s i s predicated o n

t h e f a c c t h a t o n c e m a n ' s e c o n o m i c needs are r e l a t i v e l y

mec, he w i l l be less i n c l i n e d to d i s r u p t i o n by

b e l i e v i n g c h a t h e h a s a s c a k e i n t h e s c a t u s quo.

The problem wirh t h i s a n a l y s i s i s i t s belief

t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a t i m e when c h e e c o n o m i c n e e d s of

e v e r y b o d y w i l l be s a t i s f i e d . Hence, i t i s u t o p i a n

and u n r e a l i s tic.

D i s a g r e e i n g w i t h Onu o n t h e c a u s e s of c o n f l i c t s

i n Af r ice, Elckwa ( 1997: l4-25)W h o l d s c h a c m o a t

A f r i c a n s tates are p l u r a l i s t ic societies and l a c k

i n t e g r a t i v e v a l u e s , H e c o n c l u d e s c h a c i t is t h i s

d e a r t h of i n c e g r a c i v e v a l u e s i n A f r i c a n societies

w h i c h a r e p l u r a l i s t i c i n n a t u r e t h a t are r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e i n c e s s a n t C o n f l i c c s and w a r s i n t h e c o n t i n e n t .

H e a l s o a r g u e s t h a t t h ough a c o a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f

C o n f l i c c s is n o t p o s s i b l e b u t men s h o u l d s c r i v e t o w a r d s

1 ts c o n t a i n m e n t w i c h i n a c c e p t a b l e l i m i c s b y a s h i f t

from force to power a n d a u t h o r i t y , H e n c e , t h e

a c c e p t a n c e of t h e belief c h a t c o n f l i c t i s a p o t e n t i a l l y

m a n a g e a b l e a s p e c c of s o c i e t y is a dcsideratu#?I,

H e r ecommended v a l u e integration fo r c o n f l i c t

resolution i n Afr ica , T h i s h o w e v e r i ~ v o l v e s a two w a y s

p r o c e d u r e , T h e f i r s t p r o c e d u r e e m p h a P i s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e

of c o n s e s u s a n d is c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a x i m i s i n g u n i f ormi cy.

f n f ts extreme, t h i s v i e w a d v o c a c e s t h e a # o i d a n c e of

b o t h c o n f l i c t a n d c o m p e c i t i o n t h r o u g h ei c h e r c o e r c i o n

or e x h o r t a t i o n , The s e c o n d p r o c e d u r e o r v i e w is

c o n c e r n e d wi ch c h e i n t e r p l a y of i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p

i n t e r e s ts, a h a r m o n i s a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p

i n c e r e s c s . H e n c e , p u b l i c p o l i c y becomes nac c h e

c o n s e q u e n c e o f a " r i g h t " p o l i c y u p o n w h i c h a l l a g r e e ,

b u c t h e best p o l i c y p o s s i b l e i n a s i c u a t i o n i n w h i c h

a l l a g r e e , b u t t h e best p o l i c y p o s s i b l e i n a

s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h c h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s of i n t e r e s t s a n d

s e n t i m e n t , H e c o n c l u t l e d c h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e

two v i e w s b y p o l i t i c a l leaders i n A f r i c a n w i l l e n s u r e

p e a c e ,

T h e E t r e n g c h of E n e k w a ' s a n a l y s i s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ,

h e f a i l e d to realise c h a t c e r t a i n d e g r e e of c o m p e t i t i o n

( h e a l t h y ) Is needed f o r c h e p r o g r e s s a n d a d v a n c e m e n t

of a n y s o c i e c y .

C h i k e n d u (1997:12-13)'' u s i n g N i g e r i a a s a case

s t u d y i n c o n f l i c t management and r e s o l u t i o n o b s e r v e s

t h a t h o s t i l i t i e s a n d c o n f l ic ts are c a c e g o r i c a l l y

i m p e r a t i v e s . T h i s a c c o r d i n g to him, c o u l d e a s i l y be

g l e a n e d i f o n e remembers t h a t f i r s t , c o n f l i c c is

immanenc i n n a t u r e , and s e c o n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t

human beings are n a t u r a l l y conf l i c c - o r i e n c e d .

H e sugges t e d p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n a n d i n c e g r a t i v e

m e a s u r e s , e x a m p l e , c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e s a s means o f

c h e c k m a t i n g i n t e r g r o u p and i n t r a - g r o u p c o n f l ic ts .

A c c o r d i n g co him, p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n l iberates c h e mind

and h e l p s to breakdown b a r r i e r k e e p i n g i n d i v i d u a l s and

g r o u p s d i v i d e d . And w i t h e d u c a c i o n , i n d i v i d u a l s a n d

g r o u p s w i l l be ab le c o a p p r e c i a t e and r e s p e c t t h e

c u l c u r e s and ech& o f o t h e r g r o u p s . Ruc w h e c h e r

e d u c a c i o n can s e r v e as a means of c o n t i n e n c a l c o n f l i c c

r e s o l u c i o n i s o p e n to d e b a c e .

A g r e e i n g w i t h C h i k e n d u o n c h e imperative of

c o n f l i c t Onah ( l 9 9 7 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) 1 ~ , a c c e p c s c h e v i e w t h a c

c e n f l i c c is i n e v i t a b l e as l o n g a s man l i v e s i n a s o c i e t y

w h e r e i n t e r a c c i c n s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s i s a

n e c e s s a r y p a r t of l i f e . H e h o l d s t h a t a t l e a s t ,

a m i n i m a l l e v e l of c o n f l i c t i s o p t i o n a l b e c a u s e i t

i s a n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t i n c h a n g e . Hence , c o n f l i c t

management a n d r e s o l u c i o n a p p r o a c h e s s h o u l d aim

a t r e d u c i n q s u c h c o n f l i c c s co i c s m i n i m a l l e v e l ,

~ n d s u c h a p p r o a c h e s d e p e n d o n c h e i r me thod ,

i m m e d i a t e t a r g e t , a n d chcz s e q u e n c e of assumed a n d

d e s i r e d eft e c c s . F i n a l l y , h e s u g g e s t e d p r o b l e m

s o l v i n q , s u p e r o r d i n a t e g o a l a n d negotiations a p p r o a c h e s ,

However, h e d i d n o t t e l l u s how to a p p l y t h e s e

a p p r o a c h e s , w h e t h e r s i n g l y or col l e c t i v e l y ,

D i s c u s s i n g s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o n f l i c ~ r e s o l u t i o n

i n A f r i c a , Echezona ( 1998: 23, 24p8., s u g g e s t e d t h e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a r e g i o n a l f o r c e - A f r i c a n High command, t h a t w i l l be i n a p o s i t i o n to f i n d o u t

w h e r e t h e t h r e a t to A f r i c a n s e c u r i c y r e s i d e s , " A r m e d

w i c h t h i s k n o w l e d g e , i c w i l l become e a s i e r f o r s u c h

a r e g i o n a l force to deal w i ch c o n f l i c t s i n c h e

c o h t i n e n c . B u t t h i s i s o n l y r e a l i s a r i l e if enough

l o q i s t i c s a s r e g a r d s t n e n e e d s I n d e c i d i r i g on a

s e c u r i cy s i t u a t i o n a r e made a v a l l a b l e to them, H e

is of t h e o p i n i o n c h a t t h i s w i l l e n a b l e s u c h a

35

s t a n d i n g r e a i o n a l army co meet t h e t h r e a t to A f r i c a n

s e c u r i t y by making i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e r e g i o n a l f o r c e

cc, a d a p t a n d r e - a d a p t to c h a n g e s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

syscpm a n d co t h e i r q o a l s .

A r g u i n g f u r c h e r , h e h o l d s c h a t when s u c h a

m e a s u r e is n o t possible a s a r e s u l t o f t n e under-

d e v e l o p e d c h a r a c t e r of t h e r e g i o n , e f f o r t s s h o u l d be

made to e n h a n c e t h e " c a p a c i cy o f A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s

to e n g a g e i n p e a c e k e e p i n g v e n t u r e s b y i m p r o v i r ~ g c h e

r e a d i n e s s of troop c o n c r i b u t i o n to d e p l o v r a p i d 1 y

and e f f e c t i v e l y , j o i n t t r a i n i n g a n d e x e r c i s e f o r

m a c e k e e p i n g p u r p o s e s , p e a c e k e e p i r l g se rn i r l a r s ,

command p o s c e x e r c i s e s and s e m i n a r s , and c o n t i n u o u s

u p d a c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n A f r i c a n S c a c e s w h i c h c o u l d

be w i 11 i n a to p a r t i c i p a c e i n p e a c e k e e p i n g v e n t u r e s l t .

E c h e z o n a ' s t h e s i s a n d a n a l y s i s i s v e r y a d rem

to o u r work b e c a u s e i t p r o v i d e s t h e s p r i n g - b o a r d a n d

e n o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l basis f o r Nigeria to u n i t e a l l t h e

~f r i c a n S c a t e s to es tab1 i s h a n i n d e g e n o u s r e g i o n a l

force, ( e s p e c i a l l y , i n t h i s p o s t c o l d w a r s y s t e m ) ,

t h a t i s capable of n i b b i n g a t t h e b u b a n y c o n f l i c t

* i n t h e c o n t i n e n t , mak ing i t i m p o s s i b l e , i n t h e w o r d s

of Nkrumah, f o r i m p e r i a l i s c i c jos c i l i n g s f o r posi c i o n

a n d power i n t h e c o n c i n e n c .

1" N I G E R Z A N FOREIGN POLICY I N ThE POST CGLD

WAR ERR W I T H REGARD TO SECbRITY IN AFRICA,

Nweke ( 1990: 12)a a r g u r e d c h a c c h e i n h c r e n c

w e a k n e s s of N i g e r i a n f o r e i g n p o i i c y i s i c s r i g i d

a d h e r e n c e co whac h e c a l l s t h e W o l c n i a l l e g a c i e s n .

H e was of t h e v i e w c h a c ~f-ker c h i r c y y e a r s of

i n d e p e n d e n c e N i g e r i a is y e t to come to cerms w i c h c h e

n a k e d t r u t h t).\& 9 n a t i o n s f o r e i g n p o l i c y h a s co

s y n c h r o n i s e w i ch t h e s t a t e ' s capab i l i ties.

Nweke provides a good framework of a n a l y s i s for

i n c h i s s t u d y i n c h a c N i g e r i a ' s role i n s h a p i n g ~ f r i c a n

r e s p o n s e s to c o n f l i c c s i n Africa w i l l be affected by her

f o r e i g n p o l i c y pos c u r e w h i c h i t s e l f i s d e t e r m i n e d b y c h e

c o u n t r i e s c a p a b i l i t i e s . H e n c e f o r N i g e r i a to face c h e

c h a l l e n y i e s w h i c h h e r l e a d e r s h i p ro le i n Africa h a s

p o s e d for h e r , s h e n e e d s to s c r e n g t h e n c h e d o r n e s c i c

sector a n d e n h a n c e a l l t h e e l e m e n t s of n a t i o n a l p o w e r

a t h e r d i s p o s a l .

2 2 W a l c e r (2991: l l ) i n a n e w s p a p e r a r t i c l e

s u c c i n c t l y ar t i c u l a c e s w h a t role N i g e r i a is e x p e c c e d

to p l a y i n t h e e m e r g i n g new w o r l d order. H e s aw t h e

p o s t c o l d w a r s y s tern as bipolar b u t q u a d r u p l e i n

c h a r a c c e r - p o l i t i c a l l y , m i l i t a r i l y , i d e o l o g i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y d i v i d e d b e t w e e n m a r k e c o r i e n ced a n d s ca te

o r i e n t e d e c o n o m i e s . T h e c e n t r a l f o c u s of h i s t h e s i s

c o n c e r n s c h e q u e s c i o n of s e c u r i cy, e c o n o m i c s and good

g o v e r n a n c e i n t h e w o r l d c o m m u n i t y b u t with p a r t i c u l a r

attention b N i g e r i a . H e commended t h e e x c e l l e n t job

d o n e b y ECOMOG w i c h i n t h e West A f r i c a n s u b - r e g i o n .

A g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d , h e c o n c l u d e d t h a t "when t h e

w o r l d is i n f l u x of c r i s i s some n a t i o n s m u s t l e a d w i c h

t h e c o n s e n t of t h e i r P a r t n e r s a n d n e i y h b o u r s , a n d

s h o u l d e r t h e responsibility of s e c u r i c y u n c i l a broader

s y s t e m of collective s e c u r i cy c a n be p u t i n p l a c e " .

From h l s own juclgment, Niaeria d e m o n s c r a t e d t h i s i n

t h e p a s c e s p e c i a l l ~ i n t h e p o s t w o r l d war I1 era i n

go-la, S u d a n e tc a n d r e c e n c l y i n t h e p o s t c o l d war era

t h r o u g h EcOplOG's m i s s i o n i n L i b e r i a a n d S i e r r a Leone .

Wal c e r p e r c e i v e s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m as

movi ng t o w a r d s m a r k e t - o r i e l 1 t ed economy. H e t h e r e f ore

a d v o c a t e d t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of N i g e r i a n economy i n t o t h e

w o r l d e c o n o m i e s v i a G e n e r a l A g r e e m e n t o n T r a d e a n d

T a r t f f (GATT) as o p p o s e d to t h e ECOWAS m a r k e t or to

A f r i c a n - w i d e f ree t rade area. H i s a n a l y s i s is g u i l c y

of W e s c e r n bias , T h i s become more m a n i f e s c i n h i s

s u p p o r c for r h e s c r u c c u r a l ~ d j u s c m c n t Proqramme (SAP)

a n d N i g e r i a ' s embrace of t h e International M o n e c a r y

F u n d ( 1 ~ 1 ~ ) w i t h a l l t h e i r c o n d i t i o n a l i ties. N e v e r t h e -

less, h i s d i s c o u r s e o n N i g e r i a p l a y i n g a l e a d e r s h i p

r o l e i n c o n f 1 ic t r e s o l u cf o n a n d managemen t i n ~f r ica

t h r o u g h t h e u s e of s u b - r e g t o n a l forces ( l i k e ECXMOG)

and r e g i o n a l force ( : l i k e O.A.U. D e f e n c e H i g h Commend)

i s v e r y u s e f u l to o u r s t u d y , However , h e f a i l s to c e l l

u s how s u c h a r e g i o n a l o r a s u b r e g i o n a l force s h o u l d

be c o m p o s e d , t r a f ncci, f u n d e d etc.

2 .5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

C l e a r l y , t h e r e is a l i n k b e t w e e n t h e l e v e l o f

p o v e r t y a n d c h e l e v e l a n d i n d i c e s of c o n f l i c t i n Africa, a ~ k n c e , i n order to u n d e r s t a n d t h i s l i n k , w e w i l l a d o p c

t h e D e p e n d e n c y p a r a d i a m as articulated by P a u l B a r a n b u t

supplemented w i t h t h e c h e o r y of underdevelopment as

o u r t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k of a n a l y s i s i n t h i s s t u d y .

D e p e n d e n c y p a r a d i s m p o r t r a y s t h e l o p s i d e d

r e l a c i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e u n d e r d e v e l o p e d n a c i o n s and

t h e d e v e l o p e d n a t i o n s , a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h t h e

former d e p e n d s o n c h e l a t te r f o r t h e i r e c o n o m i c

s u r v i v a l . T h i s becomes clearer when o n e u n d e r s t a n d s

t h e s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s of c h e u n d e r -

d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s i n rerms of the mode of t h e i r

i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o c t le c a p i t a l i s t ecuncmy, t h e i r

f u n c t i o n w i t h i n i t a n d t h e m e c h a n i s m s f o r s u s t a i n i n g

t h e c o n d i c i o n s of u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t . From t h e fore-

g o i n g t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n f l i c t s i n t h e c o n t i n e n t are

t h e a f t e r m a c h of t h e s t r u g g l e fo r scarce material

comforts w h i c h is t h e r e s u l t of u n d u e d e p e n d e n t 2 n d

a s y r n e c r i c a l r e l a c i o n s h i p b e c w e e n tne u n d e r d e v e l o p e d

a n d c h e d e v e l o p e d n a t i o n s of t h e w o r l d .

A c c o r d i n g to P a u l Baram ( 19731, t h e b a c k w a r d n e s s

o f t h e e c o n o m i e s of t h e u n d e r d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s i s

d u e t o she way a n d m a n n e r c a p i t a l i s m b r o k e i n t o t h e

h i s c o r k a n d i n d i g e n e o u s d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s of

u n d e r d e v e l o p e d countries d e l a y i n g t h e m a c e r i a l i s a c i o n

of the c o n d i t i o n s of g r o w t h . C a p 1 t a l i s m d i s a r c i c u l a c e d ,

s t u l t i f l e d a n d s t u n c e d t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i g e n e o u s

e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n r r i e s a n d s e r v e

as a n i n s t r u m e n t for e c o n o m i c s t a g n a t i o n , socio-

e c o n o m i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l b a c k w a r d n e s s .

U n d e r t h i s f r a m e w o r k of b a c k w a r d n e s s , A f r i c a n

c o u n t r i e s f i n d i t d i f f i c u l c to p r o d u c e enough to

s a t i s f y t h e y e a r n i n g s of t h e i r c i t i z e n s . I n t h e face

of t h e e n s u r i n g scarci cy, l a c k s.nd d e p r i v a . t i o n ,

i n c l i v i d u s l s s t r u q a l e o v e r the a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s ,

T h i s may c r y s t a l i s e i n c o p o l i c i c a l s t r u g g l e s i n w h i c h

i n d i v i d u a l s , g r o u p s , tribes erc. s t r u g g l e to g a l n

c o n t r o l of p o l i t i c a l power so a s to h a v e assess to and

c o n r r o l over c h e economy. However , i n c h i s s t r u g g l e ,

c h e d e f a c c o g o v e r n m e n c w i l l n o t w a n c to abd ica te

power . T h e a g i t a t o r s w i l l c h e n t a k e u p arms to u n s e a t

t h e g o v e r n m e n t . And i n most cases, c h i s d e g e n e r a c e s

i n c o s e r i o u s c o n f l i c c s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y c i v i l w a r ,

L e n d i n g c r e d e n c e to t h i s , O b a s a n j o o b s e r v e r s t h a t

m a j o r i c y of t h e c o n f i i c c s a n d c i v i l w a r s i n A f r i c a

are as a r e s u l c o f f e e l i n g s of r e s e n t m e n t of o n e

e t h n i c g r o u p a g a i n s t c h e o t h e r b a s e d o n p e r c e i v e d

o r i m a g i n a r y m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f t h e former by t h e

la t c e r m 2 1 F F u r t h e r m o r e , c h i s theoretical f ramework

w i l l h e l p u s to u n d e r s c a l d cnac:

1 The i n t e r n a l s l c u a c i o n s of t h e A f r i c a n

countries is a p a r c of t h e w o r l d economy,

2 . T h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e ~ f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s ( w i t h i t s a t t e n d a n t c o n f l i c t s ) are n o c t h e

r e s u l t of t h e au tonornous h i s c o r i c a r ~ d

i n d i g e n e o u s d e v e l o p m e n t hu t a r e d e t e r rn ined b y

f o r e i g n hegemony and e x p l o i t a c i o r r ,

3. T h e c o n f l i c c s i n h e r e n t i n t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t

can o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d i n r e l a t i o n to t h e

e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s of h e g e m o r i c powers ,

1.6 HYPOTHESES

I n v i e w o f w h a t w e d i s c u s s e d i n o u r t h e o r e t i c a l

f r a m e w o r k , we s h a l l p o s t u l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r k i r ~ y

h y p o t h e s e s :

1. N i g e r i a ' s e c o n o m i c , p o l l t i c a l e f f o r t s i n

s h a p i n g A f r i c a n r e s p o n s e s co c o n f l i c c s i n

Afr ica i n c h i s p o s e cold w a r era w i l l be

constrained b y h e r d e p e n d e n c p o s i c i o n i n c h e

i n t e r n a c i o n a l s y s tern.

2, Nigeria 's u n h e a l chy domes c i c p o l i t i c a l -ts

s c r u d u r e w i l l a f f e c t h e r c a p a c i cy,,shape

~f r i c a n r e s p o n s e s co c o n f l i c c s i n ~f rica,

3, N i g e r i a ' s ambi cfon f o r c o n f l i c c p r e v e n t i o n ,

rnanagemenc and r e s o l u c i o n i n A f r i c a n w i l l be

m i l i t a t e d against b y p o o r f i n d i n g , i n a d e q u a t e

i n f o r m a t i o n , p o o r logistics as w e l l as p o l i c i c a l ,

econo