University of Nigeria Research Publications

UGWUOKE, Modesta .I.

PG/MA/93/14871

Title

Applied Linguistics: A Selected Bibliographical Study of its meaning.

Facu

lty

Arts

Dep

artm

ent

Linguistics and Nigerian Languages.

Dat

e

February, 1997

Sign

atur

e

APPLIED LINGUISTICS t A SELECTED BJBLIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF ITS MEANING.

A PROJECT PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE (M.A) IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

BY

HODESTA I J E O M A UGWUOKE

FEBRUARY, 1997.

CERTIFICATION

Modesta Ijeoma Ugwuoke, ~G/~A/93/14871, a

p o s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t i n t h e Department of L i n g u i s t i c s

and Niger i an Languages, U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

ha6 s a t i s f a c t o r i l y completed t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c o u r s e s

and p r o j e c t worke f o r t h e , d e g r e e of Master o f Arte (H .A) . .

i n Applied L i n g u i s t i c s . ..

The work embodied i n t h i s p r o j e c t r e p o r t i s

o r i g i n a l and has n o t been s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t o r i n f u l l

f o r any dipJoma o r degree of t h i s o r any o t h e r U n i v e r s i t y .

P r o f e s s o r B.O. Oluikpe D r (Mrs) C.1. Urekeonwu S u p e r v i s o r Head o f Department Department o f L i n g u i s t i c s & Department of L i n g u i s t i c s & N i g e r i a n Languages N i g e r i a n Languages U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a , Nsukka. U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka.

Engr.. Ernclrn I J p ~ ~ o k c

A r n r p b r o t h ~ r

Fo r t h e l o v e

F o r t h e i n o p i . r n t i o n

F o r t h e encouragement

Fo r what w o r d s c a n n o t e x p r e s s .

and

To

God Almighty

Fo r e v e r y t h i n g

For i t ; i s his w i l l

t h q t we l i v e

t o r e a l i s e t h i s dream,

ABSTRACT

The t ; h e o r a t i c ~ l devcloprnentn i n a p p l i e d linguistics

i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g c o u p l e d w i t h t h e emergence o f new

a r e a s of l i n g u i s t i c a p p l i c a t i o n have made t h e u s e o f t h e

term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o a p p e a r ambiguous. I n t h e

l i g h t of t h e above , d i f f e r e n t a t t e m p t s by d i f f e r e n t

a u t h o r s t o d i s c u s s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t

v iews of t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e

c o n c e p t of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s becomes s l i p p e r y and

e l u s i v e . .

We have , t h e r e f o r e , s e l e c t e d a number of l i t e r a t u r e ,

c o l l a t e d and s t u d i e d them a g a i n s t t h e backdrop o f some .. . - .

e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a . I n t h i s s t u d y , we a r e a b l e t o

d e t e r m i n e t o what e x t e n t e a c h of t h e s e l i t e r a t u r e can

c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .

We have a l s o , based on t h i s s tudy , t r i e d t o p i n down t h e . .

c o n c e p t o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I t i s j o y f u l t o s e e a dream r e a l i s e d , more j o y f u l

when t h e drcam i s n o b l e , and most j o y f u l when t h e dream i s

R p r o d u c t of n o b l e minds, It is , t h e r e f o r e , my p l e a s u r e

t o ncknowledge t h e n o b l e mindn t h n t worked t o g e t h e r i n

v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s t o b r i n g t h e dream t o f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n ,

My p ro found g r a t i t u d e g o e s t o my academic f a t h e r and

s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r B.0, O lu ikpe , As a f a t h e r h e t o o k

i t upon h i m s e l f as a c h a l l e n g e and saw t o i t t h a t I was n o t

overcome by f i n a n c i a l p roblems, He l i s t e n e d p a t i e n t l y t o

my b o r i n g p rob lems w i t h o u t g e t t i n g b o r e d and p r o f f e r e d

prompt s o l u t i o n e t h a t g a v e p s y c h o l o g i c n l b u f f e r t o my

academic work. A t t h i s p o i n t , I must n o t f a i l t o t h a n k . .

h i s w i f e Mrs E.N. O lu ikpe f o r h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and

co -ope ra t ion . As a s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r O lu ikpe , i n h i s

shrewd i n t e l l i g e n c e , academic a s s i d u i t y and t e n a c i o u s

i n c l i n a t i o n t o p e r f e c t i o n , t u r n e d a n a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e . *

~ i t u a t i o n around. By h i s c r i t i c a l comments, h e b r o u g h t

me back to. t h e r i g h t t r a c k when I seem t o wander i n t o t h e . . . . .

unknown and p a t i e n t l y g u i d e d me t o t h e end of t h i s work.

Daddy, I c a n n o t t h a n k you enough.

I am h i g h l y i n d e b t e d t o D r P.I. Ndukwe who i c n o t - .

o n l y i n s t r u m e n t a l t o my p o s t g r a d u a t e a d m i s s i o n b u t a l s o

t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e programme. I found

i n him n dependab le b r o t h e r who k e p t h i s door open f o r me

whenever I needed h i s h e l p . He gave me s p e c i a l i n s p i r a t i o n

ant1 cncouragpment which I w i l l l i v e t o remember.

I a l s o have f i p e c i a l f a t h e r s , b r o t h e r s and f r i e n d s

;.n l).r F.A. Nwachukwu, D r O.S. Ogwuel-eka, B.N. ~ ' ~ ~ a s i u d u ,

Ilr P7.E. Iwundu, C.N. Okebalama, and 1.17. Nwadike. Each

of t h e s e n o b l e men has a t one t i m e o r t h e o t h e r o f f e r e d

b o t h m a t e r i a l and mora l a s s i s t a n c e . I a l s o wi sh t o

acknowledge t h e immense impac t c r e a t e d on my s t u d i e s by

i n s p i r a t i o n s from my academic m o t h e r s , s i s t e r s and f r i e n d s :

D r ( ~ r s ) C . I . I k e k e o n ~ , G.1. Nwaozuzu, R . I . O k o r j i ,

M. Onyejakwe, E. U t i p , and E.A. Ogbonna-Ohuche.

I have a l s o g r e a t l y en joyed t h e companionship o f t h e

f o l l o w i n g c o l l e a g u e s and f r i e n d s ; Mr B o n i f a c e M. ash,

who w i t t i n g l y s t i m u l a t e d me i n t o a c t i o n whenever a n y t r a c e

o f l a x i t y s e t i n , Mrs R.O. Okeke, Mr and Mrs Bmoh, Madam

Nenne. They a l l g a v e t h e i r i n v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o

t h i s n o b l e c o u r s e . I w i l l n o t be a b l e t o f o r g e t t h e

1993/94 ~ o s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s o f t h e Department o f ..- . .

L i n g u i s t i c s and N i g e r i a n Languagee. As c l a s s m a t e s , we

p l a y e d , exchanged j o k e s , c r i t i c i s m s and humour which h e l p e d . .

t o s h a p e my work and o u t l o o k t o l i f e . They i n c l u d e :

Monsieur Leonald O k o l i , M r C h r i s t i a n Anozie, Mr Femi Balogun,

and Rev. J ike j io fo r .

My a p p r e c i a t i o n

C.0. E ~ a m a , F.N. Eze

Adewole, M r A l i , Bro. F e s t u s Eze,

Memory o f them w i l l c o n t i n u e t o r a n k l e . . .

a l s o g o e s t o Miss G.N. O n y i s h i , . .

(Mrs) , A. I. Ugwu, Nr and Mrs D a n i e l Ugwuoke,

v i i i

b / i -1 1 i n m Odo, Mr Pnul Nnndj , Mr Ccl r .nt lno Mridu , Jutlc

TJ oc.nc, T h a o p h 3 . 1 ~ ~ Nwokpor , and P e t c r Neuuta f o r t h e i r

jmrncnse f i n n n c j - n l and mora l s u p p o r t t h r o u g h o u t t h e d u r a t i o n

o f t h i R programme.

I hnvc a l s o found good r e l a t i o n s i n M r C.I. O jobor ,

my a b l e t y p i s t , Mr I. Ozioko, M r Ekeleme E., Mrs Obayi ,

E l d e r Uka, M r C.S. Amoke, M r S.C. Ugwuijem and M r Okpor ie .

I owe you a g r e a t d e a l .

I s i n c e r e l y acknowledge my g r e a t i n d e b t e d n e s s t o

M r George Oked inach i I l o e n e , a d a r l i n g b r o t h e r and f r i e n d ,

who prompted , prodded and p roped m e t h r o u g h o u t t h e seeming

i n t e r m i n a b l e p e r i o d o f t h i s s tudy . He o f f e r e d h i s

i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e , b u t more t h a n t h a t , p roduced

i .ngenious comments and c r i t i c i s m s which h e l p e d t o s h a r p e n

my clumsy i d e a s . Dear , your encouragement was a g r e a t p r o p

t o my self c o n f i d e n c e .

My g r a t i t u d e a l s o g o e s t o my a b l e s t e p f a t h e r

M r J o s e p h Ugwuoke Eyaka ( ~ g b o o ) , my grand-mother , Mrs Ngozika

Agbogo UgGoke (Mama I j eo rna ) , and m y mo the r Mrs C a r o l i n e

Ovute Ugwuoke, who d e s p i t e a l l odds have p a t i e n t l y b o r n e

my ove rdue burdens . May God l e t thorn l i v e t o r e a p t h e

f r u i t s of t h e i r l a b o u r . I a l s o c o u n t on t h e a ~ s i s t a n c e

o f my f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s : M r s Suzan Ugwuoke, M r and Mrs

Ijonif a ce Ugwuoke , P e t e r Ugwuoke , Miss I f eoma Nnadi ,

Olcwudili Nnadi, Mceiru and my p e t C a r o l i n e Ugwuoke.

i x

Great; i.s my i n d e b t e d n e s s t o Engr. Erneka Ugwuoke P h i l i p ,

n b r o t h e r p a r e x c e l l e n c e , f o r h i s u n r e s e r v e d l o v e , c a r e and

c c n c r o u s i t y . Ae is my r e l i a b l e a n d d e p e n d a b l e g u i d e and . . mentor and w i t h h i s s o l i d and undaun ted s u p p o r t we a r e a b l e

t o conque r a t l a s t . B r o t h e r , i t is o n l y God who can t h a n k

you enough.

F i n a l l y , I am g r a t e f u l t o God Almighty t o whom we owe

o u r v e r y e x i s t e n c e and power t o conque r and subdue e v e r y

problem. I t is h i s i n f i n i t e w i l l and by h i s s p e c i a l g r a c e

and mercy t h a t dl t h e s e h e l p s and a s s i s t a n c e came. We

g i v e him all t h e G l o r y i n J e s u s ' name.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1'1 TJJ3

C JX'L'I F'ICA'I.!lON

DEll1CATION

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CRAPTER

INTRODUCTION

Background To The Study

S t a t e m e n t s f The Problem

P u r p o s e o f The Study

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f The S t u d y

Scope and D e l i m i t a t i o n

BIBLIOGBAPHICAL STUDY

I n t r o d n c tion

Books

A r t i c l e s

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Summary

Conclusion.

P n g e ~

i

ii

iii

i v

V

v i

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 1 i s t ; o t y a s s o o . i a t e d l anguage s t u d y w i t h t r a d i l i o n a l

p ,~-an~l~rar , b u t bsi 'oro ttle 19 th c e n t u r y , l a n ~ u n g e , i n t h o

hlc..; t e r n w o r l d , was o t' i l l t c r e s t on ly t o p h i l o s o p h e r s .

1 ' 1 ~ t o , t h e Greek p h i l o s o y t l e r , for instance, was t h e

I ' . i r s t persol1 t o d : L s t i ~ ~ g u i s l l between nouns and v e r b s .

I lowever, i n t h e 19th c e n t u r y , t h e s t u d y of l a n g u a g e

ac1optc.d i n i t s ayproac l l , t l lc scientific approach .

' l ' l ~ i s n e w apl)r.oach bocn~r~e w h a t i s r e f e r r e d to as

.I .i II(:IJ is t.Lcs.

I.,inf;l.li.s t s o f p a s t and p r e s e n t g e n e r n t i o n s have

c o.l>cer.nod themso lves w i L1i the developmon t o f t h e o r i e s

a n d p r - i n c i p l e s about; t h e n a t u r e o f human l a n g u a g e .

'I'11j.s t h e o r e t i c a l . development has p r o g r a s s e d i n the

areas of h i s t;or.icol/coutprrra t i v a l i n e u i s t i c s , yhonol-ogy,

s y 1.1 { .ax ar~rl serr~nn t.i.cs wtlich lo(;e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e p u r e

01. t i ~ e o ~ - o t.i.ca1. 1 L I I ~ t c 'i'he t h e o r e t i c a l linguist

s l ;~~c l i e . s l a n g r ~ a g o f o r its own s a k e . He is i n t o r e s t e d

i n t h e i n h t ? r e n t n a t u r e of Inn{,uap,e a n d d e s i r e s t o

1,:it1/;11np,e t i n s C I 1 H O l > o e ~ i s 111dj 111 r e la t 1.011 t o S O I I I C

ot . l~cr . n ~ p c c t ~ ol' I I U I I I I I I ~ l j f o . ' I ' l r l ~ i s boc:ru!ro "tk1or.e

3 t . c ' i m p o r t a n t human p r o b l c n ~ s i n t o whlch 1ane;uage e r l t e r s

j 11 L i m a t e l y arid on u l ~ i c l ~ i t e x e r t s such a p ro found

i 11 f ' l lrollco t t ~ n t a n u l ~ d o r s t n r l c l i n ~ of' i t 8 m~chan ian l would

c :o~ , t r l l , u t e mat or-1n.l Ly to tlio.Lr sol11 t i o n " , Gleoeon ( 196 1: 1 ) . ' ~ ' ~ I I I s , n t l i e r s p e c l a l l a t s l i k e t h e psychologists, a o c i a l

nri t h r o p o l o g i a t ~ ~ , ~ o c i o l o g i s t s , s p e e c h t h e r a p i a t e ,

compute r s c i e n t i s ? ~ , t o nsnre j u s t a few, hnve a l l

s t l ~ d i e d l i n g u i s t i c problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r own

f i o l d s . However, eacil s p e c i a l i s t h a s been conce rned

w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of' l a n g u a g e t h a t t o u c h e s on

l l i s o r h e r own s t u d i e s . "The p s y c h o l o g i s t s e e i n g

. Ia~l~; . :ua~=e, i n p a r t , a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f m e n t a l a c t i v i t y

or. bel lav iour , t h e speech p a t h o . l o g i s t b e i n g i n t e r e s t e d

i n t l ~ e normal p r o c e s s o f l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o ~ ~ and

r e t e n t i o n and how abnormal p a t t e r n s d e v i a t e from t h i s ,

and t h e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s e e i n g l a n g u a g e a s a medium

l o r - 1 i t o r a t u r e , e t c . " , A l l e r t o r l ( 197952).

A 1 1 t h o s e a s p e c t s o f I)un~ar~ problems need

S i r1y71.1 i s t i c knowledge a s a nroans t o p r o v i d i n g t h e i r

s o l u t i o n s . Hence, t l t c o r i e s g e n e r a t e d i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

a r e a s o f p u r e l i n g u i s t i c s f i n d their a p p l i c a t i o n s

J I P T ' C ! . F o r tliis r easo l i , such p rob lo rn - so lv ing e x e r c i s e s

t.11:1 t. 1 1 3 ~ J.ingilis t i c k~iowl edge arc co . l l ec t i v e l y c e l l e d

- 3 -

app.1 iod l i n g u i s t i c s ( i n a b road s e n s e ) . " S u c h f i e l d s

of s t l ~ d i e s L i k e psycliol i rr l :u . is t i c s , soc io l i r1~ ;u l s t i c s ,

; i l ~ c l tIie l i k e a r o i n some s e n s e p a r t o f a p p l i e d

l i l i f = u i s t i c s but they llava growl1 t o sucil an e x t e n t t h a t

t l i ey n r e now f u l l - f l e d c o d s o p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e s " .

ELgirl (1979118%) .

S i r n i l a r l y ' A p p l i e d Lin( ;u is t i c s ' i n the s e n s e u s e d

i n Lhe t i t l e o f t h i s work i s a d i s t i n c t f i e l d of study

w11 i c h is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s a p p l i e d l i n g t r i s t i c s i n

J .a l l f ;ua~e tenclliri(: or- edllcil Liorlal l i n g u i s t i c s ( c f . S p o l s k y

1980, S t e r n 1983) because i t Grew o u t of a J - i r i g u i s t i c

a p p r o a c h t o l anguage t e a c l l i ~ i g .

The o r i ~ : i n of n y p l i e d l i n / : u i s t i c s 3s used i n t l ~ c

t i t l e of t h i s work Ilas i t s r o o t s i n a c o n s c i o u s

a t tempt t o provi.de l i n g u i s t i c answers t o t h e problems

o f second and f o r e i / ~ i 1anguny;o t e a c h i n g . The whole

o x ~ r c i s e s t a r t e d around 1940's a t tile o u t s e t o f t h e

secol id wor.Ld war, Mnckcy ( 1966) , St~arwoodsmi Lh ( 197'7) ,

Elor~Lton ( 196'j), S t e r i l ( 1 9 8 3 ) , Van K l s et a t (1984) .

Tlie outbrertl t of secorici wor ld war s i g n a l l e d t o t h e

UII i ted S t a t o s army thn t t 1 i e i r s o l d i e r s would soon be

c c a t t e r e d t l : rou; ; l~o~~t t l le (:lobe. TJley, t h e r e f o r e , saw

an 11r-gent need t o ost:\l, l is11 L:rl~y,ua~:n t r a i r i i r ~ g f n c i l i ti o s

of' t l i c i r own t o erl:~I)Lo t l i e i r so1d ic r . s t o l e n r n a s T a s L

a s poss i1)l.e t h c new I ang~~: i t ; s s o f t h ~ i r enemies .

- 0 -

t l ~ c s t t ~ t i c ? ~ ~ t s Tor f o r - d : ; n .I:\r~(:ll:r(;c t e a c l l i ~ i ~ : . 'rllis

I I I ; I l s l t s tlirb i t i ( : c?~ ) t . i o~~ ol' Cor~Lrns t i . v e A11o1ysj.s ( C A ) , wlli.cli

1~:) : ; ;\tlv:\t~cc?tl t,y I{ol,c?r.t J,:)tlo, ; ) l l t f 0 1 1 w l l lc l~ wag t )a se ( l

1.11 (? :I t ~ r l Lo 1 i llt:rJa 1 rrlc? 1.l1otls . 1.n t l ~ o 1 9 5 0 ' s , soine . I . ~ I I ~ ; I I i s t s grew dissn t i s f i o t l

w i L l i s t r u c t u r a l i a m and tlie lo11t:uage t e a c h i n g nio thod

a n s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . Chornsky ( 1957) s i g n a l l e d t h e e r a

ol' T r o n s f o r r n a t i o n a l G e n e r a t i v e ( T G ) grnnlrnar which sllook

t l i e f o u n d a t i o n s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s n ~ i n l i n g u i s t i c s , and

by i n i p l i c a t i o ~ ~ s o f a u d i o l i n g u a l i u m i n l a n g u a g e t o a c l r i n g

a s a t t a c k s intons.i .f ' iec1 on t l ie e r n p i r i s t i c l i n g u i s t i c s

n11cl b e h a v i o u r i s t p s y c l l o l o ~ y of' tile a u d i o l i n g u a l t l l eo ry ,

A s n r i a l t o r n a t i v e , a ' r a t ; i o n a l i s t ' o r ' c o g n i t i v e '

t h o o r y emerged i n which t r a n s f'or~ria t i o n a l g e n e r a t i v c

c o n c e p t s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e l i n g u i s t i c conrponen t; a n d

b ~ i c a ~ i ~ e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a ' c o [ p i i t i v o 8 view o f Llle

p s y c h o l o g y o f l an .pngo l e a r n i n g . " T h i s t h e o r y w a s

p l a c e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o an ' e a ~ p i r i c i s t ' t h e o r y , t h a t i s ,

p e d a g o g i c a l l y a u d i o l i l ~ p a l . i s r r ~ , psy c h o l o g i c a 1 l . y

b c i ~ a v i o u r i s m , and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y s l ; r u c t u r a . l i s m " , S term

( 1983; 169) .

Around 1 9 6 0 ' s o t ~ d 70 ' s , d e s c r i l ~ t i v e lin(:uis t s

rrlade i n s i t ~ k i t i n t o t h o s t u d y of' I . a n ~ u a g e a s a s o c i a l .

. f ' ~ r n c t i o n , e v o . 1 vod k l l e model s e l ~ l a ~ ~ t i c s a n d a c c e p t e d t h a t

1'nr.t; o f t i l e r ~ ~ o n n i r ~ g o f a 1v'07--(1 OX' S ~ I I ~ O I I C O lies i n tlre

rl:\ t c 1 1 . c of m e a n i n g , i n s i p J ~ ts f rom s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s i n to

s c i c i lce a n d et luca t i o n or] t l ~ e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n lai i( ;uage

:111cl c d u c a t i o l ~ a l p l a n n i n g a r c a1 1 n v a i l a b l e i n t i lo

c o u r s e d e s i g n t o s a t i s f y t i l e wide r a n g e o f interests

r e p r e s e n t e d i n the a c t i v i t y o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g " .

A s i d e a s fx.onl t h o s e va~ . . i c ius d i s c i p l i n e s w e r e

i l l t e g r n t e d , a new a p p r o a c h t o 1anei;uuge t e a c t ~ i n g k ~ ~ o w r i

a s f u n c t i o n a . l / ~ ~ t i o r i a l o r C o l ~ ~ r r ~ c ~ r l i c a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o

I n r ~ ~ u ~ ~ ~ e t e a c h i n g e v o l v e d . ' l ' l ~ i . - , ap1)roacll a d v o c a t e s

n n a r i a l y s j s , s y ~ i t h e s . i s , illld t e a c h i n ( ; of d y n a m i c d i s c o u r s e

r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e c o r l t e x t u a l i z e d s e n t e n c e . Consetiue11t.7 y ,

- )j .-

I . i ~ ~ ~ ; ~ t . i ! i t i c s F ? C L U S ~ V B . I y , 1)111; cc.1 P C t i c , an i l l t ( j r - d i : i c i l ) l . i ~ t : ~ r y ,

o r . 1nl11. t i d i s c i p 1 . i n n r . y Tic2l.d of' s t ; u t l j . c l r n w j lie f'rSonl v a I: i o u s

s o l l r c o d . i s c i p l i n o s . T l ~ e c o r ~ c ~ , ? t of' Needs A11a.1.y 3 . i ~ ( N A )

w a s ~ ~ o ~ ) ~ ~ l : ~ r - i s o d a s a I I I P ; ~ I I S o [ ' s tu t iy i1 )g t11e l a n ~ t u a { ; e

r,c?o( lg o l' I .c;t~-nor5 w i t 1 1 :> v.i .ow l o d ( ! ~ : i ~ r ~ i r i g l : l r ~ ~ ~ ~ n f , : o

c o t l r s e s t h a t would l n e c t t l l c i r . n e e d s . H e n c e , l a n g u a g e

f o ~ . s ~ ) e c i . r i c / ~ : a r ~ c r a . l p u r p o s e s emerged a s a C o r o l l a r y .

1 .2 STATEMENT 01' THE' PlWHLEs'Pi

A s t h u developrner~ t of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n

. I n~~k ;uage t e n c t j i n g c o n t i n u e d , a l o t of' l i t e r a t u r e wero

r o l . l . i ~ ~ g o u t . Very r~larly o f t l l e s e li t a r a t u r e a r e c r j - t i c a l

of' t 1 1 n s u b j e c t , rnally o t l i e r s a r e c i e i ' i t l i t i v e , y e t o thc t r s

are i l l t r o t i u c t o r y . I n t r u t h , many o f them a r e a u t h o r i t a -

l . L v ( ~ a n d , t ~ o ~ ~ c e , c o n s t i t u t e f r a rne s of.' r e f e r e n c e s .

l i oweve r , i t a p p e a r s t o us t h a t some of thorn a r e

v a c c o u s a s f a r a s t h c s u b j e c t i s concerned. T h i s s t e m s

f r c s n ~ t h e i r inadequacy oi' t l l e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e

f a l s o d i c h o t o m i e s , t l ~ e i r r e l e v a i ~ t o p p o s i t i o n s , t h o \qcak.

c o ~ ~ c ~ y t u a . l i z a tions, a11d the n e g l . e c t o f r e a l l y c r i t i c a l

i s s u e s a n d v a r i a b l e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , some a u t h o r s b a s e

t11ei:r d. i . ! ;cussio~l on p r e t e n t i o u s o ~ t d unfourldnd a s sumpt i . ons .

'l'lie- r o s u l t i s t11a t t l la d e i ' i r ~ i Lioii of' a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

h a s r e m a i n e d s l i p p e r y a n d e l u s i v e . T h i s s t a n c e has

c i r l n ~ i n a t e d i n a f u z z y g r a s p o r t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f

npll- l icrl l i n ~ u i s t i c s t o otlucri t i o n a . 1 a r i n ~ i n i s tra t o r s ,

- 3 -

I :1~1(~,11ap,o toac t iors , a 1 ~ 1 Q V U I I 91, I I < I V I ~ t s o f n ] ) l ) l i .nd

I i ~ I ~ ; I I i ~ ; t , i ( : 9 , t o t i l t ) O X ~ C I J ~ . t l ~ a I. n ~ ) p l i o d l i n ( ; u i s t i c s alld

I v n r nors oi' npj)l i c ? c l 1 irl;:rii s t i css n r P said t o be i l l

I > I I I s t l i t , of son10 aspect. 0 1 . > 1 1 1 / , 1 1 i : i t i c S roal.i.t,y whoso

c.x i n t.c.r~cc. i s b y n o I l l c r i > r l s o l > v i ucrs .

1 1 1 a l l e v e n t s , i t i s o v i d o n t t t~cr t t h i s c o n f u s i o n

i l l tlio d c f illi. t i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , h a s found

s x p r e s s i o n i n t h o p e r e n i a l c o m p l a i n t s abou t t h o

u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a t e of lnrlgllage t e a c h i n g arid abou t i t s

i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s . T h i s u n f o r t u n a t e s i t u a t i o n h a s beon

r e v e a l e d i n t h e r e s t l e s s r i o s s i n t h e l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g

p ro f ' o s s ion , tlie v a i n s e a r c h f o r a panacea , t h o i m p a t i e n c e

w i t h l anguage i n s t r u c t i o n , t l ~ o r a p i d t u r n o v e r o f i d e a s

011 l o n ~ t l n g e tonchir ig, t h o lorip, l l i s t o r y o f t h e method

b a t t l e s , and o f d i s c o v e r i e s a l ~ d break th roug l i s and t l l o i r

coricoin~r~itan t d i senchan tmen t . A l l t h e s e c a s t a gloomy

a11d s a d c n v a l c a d e o f d i s d a i n o v e r a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s

a n d the f i e l d o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s . The problem at

s t a k e , t h e r e f o r e , i s , t o wlja t e x t e n t do the l i t e r a t u r e

c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s s l i p p e r y and e l u s i v e n a t u r o o f a p p l i e d

1 - i n g u i s t i c s and i t s a s s o c i a t e d problems?

1 .3 YIIIIPUSE OF s'rmy

I n l i n e w i t h t h e problonl s t a r t e d above , i t i s t h o

p u r p o s e o f t h i s work t o make a c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l ol'

e ; > t r 1 1 o f n s e l e c t e d n1~111ber of' I l . i l ;eroture on a p p l i e d

tile e s s e n c e of' a p p l i e d 1 i . n g u i s t i c s would be c a p t u r e d

I)y t 1 1 . i ~ o x o r c i s o , arid tile ovornJ.1 n v a l u a . t i o n of tlle

1.e lntive t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s o f t h e s o u r c e s attained. 1I;

l q i I L a l s o be made obv ious how tile a u t h o r s , a p p r o a c t i i ~ l g

t h e s u b j e c t f rom s u c h d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t s , come t o

I n tho a n d , i t w i l l be c l e a r t h a t w h i l e some

l i t e r a t u r e a r e most s u i t e d S o r the s t u d y of applied

I j . n [ ; u i s t i c s , o t h e r s a r e l e a s t s u i t e d f o r tile same

pr~rj>osc. 1 t i s o u r fu~~lnn~c: r l L a 1 ~ b ~ j e c t i v e , h e n c e , t o

sif't. t l ~ o g r a i ~ r from tile clinf'l' b y r e v e a l i n g t h r o u g h

tkrjs s t u d y t h o s e a p p l i e d I j . n ( ~ u i s t i c s l i t e r a t u r e t h a t

I,;>vc? nr.r.i.vod a t a n ova 1 . 1 ~ n t . ivc! ,jucly;cn~erl t of' t l lc rel.al, . i .vc

S I I i t ;n l , i 1 i. 1.y o f I;l~o set 1.i ter- ;r t ,~~r-r? . i ~ ~ r t h e o v e r n - l 1

rlxlcinr.s t ; ;~ r~d in[y o . T I ; l i c ? t , l ioor-y ar~rl ~ ) r - ; ~ c i , i c e of a p j ) l i e d

1 I i . I i . For- ~ ) ~ ~ r ' l ) o s c ! ! ~ o f ' v n l i c 1 . i t y , wo s l ~ a I L L ~ ? I I I ~ ) . ~ O ) '

sr1(:11 nvn.l .~ln t i v e too1.s n s O b j c c t i v i t;y, C o h o r e l ~ c o ,

E x p l n r ~ a t o r y f o r c e , d e p t l i of ' c o v e r a g e and c o n s i s t e n c y i n

orlr. nlla l y s i s of ' t h o s e t I . . i t e r n t r . ~ r o .

A t t h i s p o i l i t , sonit? br ' ie f n o t e s would h e l p t o

e x p l i c n t o o u r c o r i c e p t i o r ~ o f t l i e s e e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a .

O b j e c t i v i t y : Heirit; ~ U I W I I I S , t11e a u t h o r s a r e bound t o ,

b y t l ~ e i r p e r s o n a l d i s p o s i t i o n , be swayed o r c a r r i e d

away by s e n t i m e n t s . Tlie a s su r r i p t i o r~ of t h i s s t a n c e by

a11 n ~ ~ t l l o r w i l l do f ' i nF t e l . y af ' f ' ec t t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s

.J..i I;c!.rature .' L)epending on l l i s t l i s p o s i t i o n t o t h e s u b j o c t ,

] ) o s i t i v o or' ~ l e c o t i v o , he nlny d o c i.dc t o i n f l a t e o r

dc?t ' lat ;o i 5 s u s s alld f a c t s a r i s i . r i g therein. I t i s ,

t i l e r e f o r e , e x p e c t o d ttia t a good a u t h o r be d e v o i d o.C

se l l t i m e n t arid as o b j e c t i v e a s p o s s i b l e , p r e s e n t i n g

ve r i f ' i a1 , l . e a , ~ d a u t h o r i t a t i v e f a c t s a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t

un t ln r c l i . r c ~ ~ s . ~ i i o ~ i . A t ] n u t l ~ o r ' s .LoveJ o f o b j e c t i v i t y ,

t i le p r o b l o n ~ a t s t a k e ( i . e . t l ~ e i l l u s i v e n a t u r e o f a p p l i e d

C o l ~ c r e n c e : T h i s i.3 a110 t . l t o r evn l I I : ~ t i v e t o o l employod

- 1:: -

1 j I J 1 I ; J . 1 1 1 0 t11er words ,

t I I : , ~ . O , ~ ~ I o ! I l t i ; I I I o~-<i1>1., a ~ ~ ( 1 1 1 1 wt1ic11 w o 1 1 t d 0 5 t,11)1 i 511

i 11 0111% I I I ~ I I ( I S a11 . ? \ d R T ' C i l O S S of :\ 1 oy , i c a 1 r o l a t i onsh i p

I > ( \ f w c s ( r f l t 11v i(l(3n.s I ) r c - r t b l l 1r.tl :111d \J i f l10\1t W I I L C ~ I ~ I I Q

r . c ~ l ; l l i o t ~ . i t ~ l l ~ 1r1:1y lot I ) ( . ~ ~ c ~ ~ c c ~ i v r ~ t l . A Litcar.rltrlr,o ill

i r l l l i c.11 i d e a s f i t i l l t o O I I C a ~ l o t l ~ e s - i l l a l o g i c a l o r

s y 5 totr~n t i c seql lcnce is more l i k e l y t o f a c i l i t a t e under-

s t i ~ l ~ c i in{; t t ~ ; \ : ~ O I ~ O W I I ~ C I I 1s nlerc 1 y n rag-bag ' . A good

a1 )p l i ed l i n g u is t i c s l i t o r a t u r e , t l l e r e f o r e , s h o u l d

c o ~ , t a i n i d e a s or( ;anised i n t o a ~ ~ n i f i e d whole by v l r t u o

o 1' t h e 1 o ~ ; i c n l rc 1 n t i o n s be tweorl t l~eln.

U e p t h o f Coverae;eo Any a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s l i t e r a t u r e

t l ~ a t , is t r u e t o t y p o sllo~llcl bo comprehens ive enough a s

l o c o l ~ t n i r ~ tho ma jo r a p y r o a c h c s R I I ~ n ~ e t h o d s i n the f i e l d .

1 t j s a t r u i s r r ~ t h a t t l le s cope a r ~ d o b j e c t i v e s o f ~ u t l ~ o r s

c i i . f'f'er c o ~ l s i d e r a b l y , llowcvcr, t h e d e l i m i t e d a r e a sllo111d

hnvo some n a t u r a l j u s t i f ' i c a Lion, s o t h a t a l l r e l e v a n t

as1wcts o f i t a r e emphasized. The n e a r e r t h e l i t e r a t u r e

i s t o c o v e r i r ~ g aLL tlle s u b j e c t , , t h e h i g h e r t h e l e v e l o f

unclc rs t a n d i n g o f t h e s u b j e c t t11a t c o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d

w i t t ~ i f , a n d v i c e verso.

Ex1 '1 a l ~ n 1 . o ~ ' ~ F o r c o t Ur~cicrs 1 n 1 ) d int: nn t u r a l l y , i n h e r c s

fro111 tl ie way a n a u t h o r ar(:ues alld do fends his i d e a s .

A (:ootl 1 i t e r n t u r a , t l lnrol 'os-c, s h o u l d c o n t a i n w e l l

i t 1 . t i c - l l l a 1 . 0 ~ 1 Icioas f.l~:l t ;-\re v ~ r i f ' i nl11.0 and c o ~ l v i ~ ~ c i r ~ r : .

- 13 - ' I I i ( > : ~ i , i l i ty o r tlie . ~ ~ l l . j l o l - L O I>nck kip h i s c l a i m s wit11

:, 1 1 i Ilr.11 t i ( . ; I l ~ ( 1 at1 t Iiori 1.8 t . i v ( - solrr-ccs W O I J ~ ~1 (TO :I

0 1 , : I t o C I J I I I : \ X I C H 1 1 1 1 i o ~ i L o f tlio l i t a r n t u r o .

I i t I : A i:ootl 1 i l : ~ t 111.o of ' app l in t l l i l l ( : l l i 4 t i cq

. C : J I O I I 1 4 1 I ) + ? ( : o ~ i ~ i s t e n t w i l , l ~ i 1.s sot. o b j e c t ~ V O S . 1 t

s l ~ o l l l d c u m u l a t i v e l y b u i l d t h o s e o b j e c t i v e s i n t o a

c o l ~ s j s ton t w11ol e d e ~ o i t l o f c o r ~ t r a d i c t i o n s and d i s c r e p a n -

tic.?, n o t , j u s t i n tllo f a c t s presented, b u t a l s o i n Lhe

p x . c s e i ~ t ; ~ t , i o n of' tlie f a c t s . 1 1 1 o t l i e r words, t h e r e s l ~ o u l d

1 ) ~ n c o ~ l c o p t r ~ n l framewor.k of ur~tior-l y-Lng s t r i n g s o f

ir1cn.s ap,ni.n.st wIli.c11 nl .1 o t h e r ideas t h a t a r e b r o u g h t

i r ) t o p i n y a r e ad judged coni'orrei s ts o r non-co~nfo rmis t s .

I I S I G N I F I C A N C E OF Tl1E STUDY

T h i s w o r k , i n l in t3 w i t h t h e g e n e r a l a im of a

I r i I ) l i o g s : ~ p h 1.c e s s a y , wllicll i s t o prov i d e a b i b l i o g r a p l ~ i c

i (in' t o r l p p l i o d Li11(;11i.s t s 1 1 1 1n11~;un~;e t e a c h i r i g , foc:usos

O J I tile U S O ~ ' I ; L I ~ ~ S S of a s e t l i t e r a t u r e i n tho g e n e r a l

u r ) d e r s t a r ~ d i n g s o f a p p l i e d 1 i n t ; u i s t i c s , and on t h e

j)o Lor) t i a l . u so f ' u lness o r s u c l ~ s o u r c e s f o r f u t uro readors ;

sv110 I a r L y o r r ~ o r ~ s c h o l a ~ - l y . 1 t w i l l h e l p f u t u r e s c h o l a r s

0 1 1 : I J ? J ) ~ i c c l L i n , v , r r i s t i c s , on Ll~e one h a n d , t o q u i c k l y

( 1 i s t - o v r r - rim t e r i : ~ l s r c Lc~v:ir~ t t o t l l e i r s u b j e c t , nl l t l

t 1 1 ~ nor ) -scholar i n a p p l i e d 1i11i;u is t i c s , on t h e o t h e r

l innd, t o know more obou t the s u b j e c t w l t l lou t h a v i n g

( 1 0 i1li.o tilo c,ubjcc:t d e e p l y . I n o t h e r words, we ~ l ~ ~ , ~ ,

i j y t l l i . ; ~ t o r k , t o kccj ) r . s n c l r : r s i ~ ~ l o l - r ~ ~ ~ ~ l on t h e

J l I i , t h e r e f o r e , el- able tile r e a d e r s t o s e e

a1)pLic.d l i n g u i s t i c s from t h e r i g h t p e r s p e c t i v e .

T h i s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n s h o u l d p r o v i d e a

111011 ta.1 'map' o f a p p l i o d l i n g u i s t i c s and e n a b l e one t o

L o c a t e o n e ' s b e a r l n g on i t s mass ive t h e o r e t i c a l f r o n t .

I t i s n.Lso hoped t h a t t h e e x e r c i s e would i n no s m a l l

mensure h o l p appl ioc l l i n g u i s t s ' ' to a r r i v e a t an

inl 'ormod p r o f e s s i o n a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and ba lanced

Llleory o f l anguage t e a c h i n g which i s p e r s o n a l l y v a l i d

1 ' 0 1 3 our:ioLvos a s a tl;ui.de t o a c t i o n n , S t e r n (198383) .

We a r e a l s o convinced t l l a t t h i s work w i l l p r o v i d e

a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r f u t u r e work i n a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ,

a n d , more t l ~ a n t h a t , prove t o be a r e a l t o n i c t o

si.rrri.Lar r e s e a r c h e s i n o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s , s i n c e

a l l wa have done i s t o open up t h e p r e c i n t s o f a

t r ( > a s u r e t h e mining of which i s y e t t o be done.

1 , SCOPE A N l l I ) E L L b l l T A ' I ' l U N UE' 'lllb STUDY

Tile rnnin t h r u s t of tllis e s s a y i s t o d i s c u s s some

l i t e r a r y works on a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ( i n t h e nar row

S C T I S O ) , o f t e n r o f e r r e d t o a s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n

I :111(:lrn/;o t , o n r l l i r ~ f ; 0 1 - etlur:;r L i o r ~ a l l i r l g u i s t i c s .

- 15 -

'1'11c. d o J . i ~ r ~ l t n t i o n o f t h i s s t ~ ~ t i y t o t h i s s e n s e o f t h e

tern1 i s j.r~forrned by t h e f a c t tllo t , on t h e one hand ,

t.Ilc?re R O C ! I I I ~ t o be a c o l ~ c c n s u s om wliat c o r ~ s i t u t e s

nj 'p l i o d l i l ~ g u i s t i c s ( l n tlio broad s e n s e ) , and on t h e

o tl ior. Ilanti, a p p l i e d l i r i g u i s t i c s ( i n t h e na r row s e n s e )

n p p e a r s t o be a h o t l y d e b a t e d z o l ~ e , a f i e l d r i f e w i t h

c o n t r o v e r s i e s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y an e l u s i v e s u b j e c t

tlln t rleocts t o bo c a p t u r e d , exp . l i ca t e d and d e f i n e d .

Never t t i e l s s s , men t i o n w i l l be made o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s L ics

( . in t h e broad s e n s e ) where n e c e s s a r y , i n t h e c o u r s e

o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d , however , t h a t

i t i s n o t p a r t o f t h e b r i e f of t h i s work t o s t u d y a l l

t l ie 1 i t e r a t u r e p u b l i s h e d i l l t h i s a r e a , g i v e n t h e l i r n i t e d

s c o p e of R p r o j e c t o.C tliis n a t u r e and t h e e x e g e n c i e s

of ' a v a i l a b i l i t y . Books ar~cl 111n t c r - i a l s d i f f i c u l t t o

o b t a i n a r o , t l l o r e f o r e , l o f t o u t . T h a t notwitl istarldiri(; ,

i n o r d e r n o t t o t r i v i a l i s o tlle .qcupe, we have made a

a t , ; , 1 y t ; i.cnl. e x o r c i s o 011 1 . 1 1 ~ t e l - ~ l ~ ( i . 0 . a t e r r t ~ i ~ i o l o g i c a l

1 1 n v e some c o ~ ~ t r , i b u t i o r ~ s , p o s . i t i . v o o r n e g a t i v e , t o tllo

I ,oc:~u:;~, tho e s t e n t t o w l ~ i . c l l a li t e r n Lure on a p p l i e d

l:i .r~(;ui.s t i c s i s objcc t i v o , c o h c ~ w n t ; , c o m p r e h e n s i v e , and

' i s l a t e r , t.)lerc!l'ore, s t u d i e s a s o l e c t e d

- 1 ';I -

'I'l10 ni.111 T-cninirt,q t o j)l-ov.i cic a t tsef .111 g u i d e t o

: I I I I . 1 lox . i . t n L i v e I s I I , t j toory a n d p r a c t . i c e 01'

n j ) l ) l . i c t c l .l.Ln~:u:is t.i,c.s.

I I ; I , , O c t r o s c ! ~ ~ I.(.) o~.(;;rrri+:c~ t . 1 1 ~ work 1 1 1 two ~ o c L i c r 1 1 : ; t

5 I r L C I s . \qj. tll t l i i s O I - ~ : ; I I ~ ~ B R t i o n a l p a t ~ C L * I I ,

111:) t . e r i.;i 1 s of tlio same c a tegor 'y a r e evaluated, compared

; 1 1 ) c . 1 co11 t r o s t e d wi t l l one a l ~ o t l i e r , alld i n t h e i r own r i g h t s ,

s o t h a t i n t l ~ e e n d , e a c h s e t would e v o l v e i n t o a

C U I I ~ I ~ ~ A ~ ~ V C I t h o u g l ~ t p a t t e r n whic11 w i l l help u s t a k e

our s t a n d on tile s u b j e c t m a t t e r . We h a v e a l s o c h o s s n

t o a r rn l tEo o u r b i b l i o g r a p h i c works c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y .

'1'11 .I 5 n r~~ i~ne ,o r r i o r~ t' .Ls t1osi;;llud t;o 1lol.p u s t r r i i .1 t11e

t l ovc1.oprnen t a l c l ~ a r l g o s i n tlxe t l i ~ ? o r y and p r a c t i c e o f

a p p l . i e d l i n g u j . s t i c s o v e r the y e a r s , a n d g r a d u a l l y h e l p

11s Lo come t o gr ips w i t h tlio c u r r e n t t h i n k i n g i n t h i s

: f i e l d . Uased on t l l i s , w o s h a l l c o ~ ~ c l u d c by t r y i n g t o

s e e wlie t l i e r we c a n c a p t u r e o r p i n down t h e t e r m .

1'hi.s a p p r o a c h i s consi.:g t o n t w i ti1 o u r b e l i e f tba t t l io

L ' t r r ~ h o l - we move fro111 oile l i t e r a t u r e t o a n o t h e r , i n

t i m e and s p a c e , t h e c l o s o r we corrle t o a b e t t e r d e r i r ~ i t - i o n

01 c x p l aria t i o n o f t h e t e r m , opl)Liod l i n g u i s t i c s , arid

t . 1 1 ~ c. 1 e n r e r w e p o r c e i v c t l ~ e coll tr- i l )u t i o n o f e a c h o f

t h e s e 1 i t c r a t u r e t o t l t is d e f i ~ l i t i o l l o r e u y l a n a t i o n .

. i . l ~ i ) ~ r ts f x'om p l l v ~ ~ o l ogy , r to~ .p l io loey , s y n t a x , e t c , o f

t l i o s e lnni;urlges, t h r o u g h a s y s t e n w t i c compar i son a r e

l ) ~ ~ i l t i .r~t;o t e a c l i i n g m a t e r i a l s .

C o n s i s tell t w i t h t h o s t r u c t u r a l i s t t r a d i t i o n , Lado's

( 1 9 5 ' ~ ) a s s u n ~ l ) t i o r ~ d raws or1 t l ~ o b e h a v i o u r i s t t h e o r y o f

I c : ~ r - l l i r ~ ~ t h a t . L e a r ~ ~ i n t ; a I ariguaf:e i s a m a t t e r o f

11; ) I ) i L 1'0 r~na t i o r ~ . 1 , t i l e r e l ' o r c , a s s e r t s * i r ~ d i v i d u r r l s

t c i ~ d t o t r a n s f e r t11e fo rms and n ~ e a n i n g s , a n d t h e

d i s t r i b ~ l t i o n o f fo rms and ~ n s a n i r ~ g a o f t h e i r n a t i v e

1.;111(;ua~;s and cr1Lt;ure t o tlio f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e and c u l t u r e - b o l t l pc-otluc t i v o 1 . y wlion a t t ernpt i11g t o s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e

allt i t o a c t i n tlie c u l t u r e , and r e c e p t i v e l y when a t temp1; ing

t o p,~-; lsp and u r ~ d e r s t a ~ l d t11e l i ~ r ~ f ~ u a g o and t h e c u l t u r e

a s practiced by n a t i v e s " , Lado ( 1957r2).

I n consonance w i t h t h e above , Lado (1957) i s o r g a n i s e d

:i.n six c h a p t e r s . The f i r s t c h n p t e r , t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n ,

a x p l o r c s t h e g e n e r a l u s e f u l n e ~ s of c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s

01 t h c n a t i v e and f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s and c u l t u r e i n t h e

n r e a s of e d u c a t i o n and r e s e a r c h . The r e s t o f t h e c h a p t e r s

i s d e v o t e d t o some e l a b o r a t e , p r a c t i c a l a n d s y s t e m a t i c

t e c h n i q u e s f o r c a r r y i n g o u t c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d i e s o f l a n g u a g e s ,

d o n g v a r i o u s d imens ions , and c u l t u r a l b e h a v i o u r .

Lado (1957) c o u l d be r i g h t , , a t t h a t p e r i o d , t o r e g a r d

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a s synonymous w i t h c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d i e s

because a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s o r t h e n e w / s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h ,

as i t w a s c a l l e d , l o g i c a l l y o r i g i n a t e d f rom s t r u c t u r a l i s t

1 i n g u i s l ; i c p r i n c i p l e s . Again , a p p l y i n g l i n g u i s t i c s f o r

t h c s t r u c t u r a l i s t s , means b u i l d i n g t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s

based on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s be tween n a t i v e and t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s

o.f l e a r n e r s . However, w i t h changes i n t h e t r e n d o f e v e n t s

i n t h e f i e l d , c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s can b e r e g a r d e d a8

j u s t o n e s t e p / t o o l , t e c h n i q u e o r deve lopment i n a p p l i e d

l i n g u i c t i c s , It i s , t h u s , wrong t o r e g a r d a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s as c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e as soon as t h e

b e h n v i . o u r i s t p sycho logy and s t r u c t u r a l i s t l i n g u i s t i c s came

u n d e r a t t a c k , t h e i n f l u e n c e of c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d i e s b e g a n

t o wane, b u t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s p r a c t i c e s c o n t i n u e d .

Us ing o u r e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a , t h e r e f o r e , Lado (1957)

i s n o t comprehens ive i n t h e s e n s e t h a t whet h e i n t e n d s t o

b c nppl . icd l i n e u i s t i c s f o r t e a c h e r s f a i l s t o e x p l a i n what

:~ppl.ri cd l.inp;uin t i c 8 i n , b u t inr; tcntl , d i o c u s o e o con t r a o t l v c

ann1.ysi.s which i s j u s t one t e ~ h n i q u e / ~ r a c t i c a l a r e a of

h c has b e n t t h e meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o s u i t h i s

s t r u c t u r a l i s t p e r s u a s i o n . T h i s i s a wrong i m p r e s s i o n on

the s u b j e c t which i s as m i s l e a d i n g as i t is d e c e p t i v e s i n c e

it n o t o n l y f a i l s t o t e l l u s what a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is

b u t a l s o t o r e v e a l o t h e r s h a d e s o f meaning a s s o c i ~ t o d w i t h

Lhe term.

H a l l i d a y , Mcin toshand S t r e v e n s (1964) i s a h i g h powered

e x p o s i t i o n which p r e s e n t s a c o h e r e n t and comprehens ive

s t a t e m e n t of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y and i t s a p p L i c a t i o n t o

l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . The p u b l i c a t i o n , made up o f two p a r t s ,

c o n k a i n s i n t h e f i r s t p a r t , a n e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n of

e e n e r a l l i n g u i s t i c s a n d p h o n e t i c s and how, u s i n g them, i t

i s p o s s i b l e t o d e o c r i b e how a l a n g u a g e works. The a u t h o r s

throw some l i g h t on t h e r e l e v a n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s and

p h o n e t i c 6 t o t h e wide r a n g e of p rob lems o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g .

Thc s k e t c h bolow 18 a model of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y which

Lhc uut ,hors b e l i e v e i s t h e most u s e f u l f o r l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g

pu rpose .

concerned P h o n e t i c s I - - , L i n g u i s t i c s 1 - - --. I 1 L e v e l S u b s t a n c e 1 1 R e l a t i o n / Form \ C o n t e x t S i t u a t i o n

1 ( ~ e l a t i o n i , (non- ; of form & \ l i n g u i s t i c

I . s u b s t a n c e ] s i t u a t i o n l p h e n o r n e n a )

S e m a n t i c s

(Vocabu- gY ( w r i t i n g l a r y

I i s y b t em 1

C u l l e d from H a l l i d a y e t al ( 1 964: 1 8 )

I n t h e second p a r t c a p t i o n e d 'The L i n g u i s t i c S c i e n c e s

i.n R e l a t i o n t o Languaee Teach ing and L e a r n i n g ' , t h e p u r p o s e

of h a v i n g n l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y is e x p l i c i t l y uncovered .

A d m i t t i n g t h a t i t i s t o b e used i n l a n g u a g e d e s c r i p t i o n ,

t:he a u t h o r s , l i k e Lado (1957) m a i n t a i n s ' t h a t t h e r o l e o f

l i n g u i s t i c a n d p h o n e t i c s i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g i s t o p r o v i d e

good description^ of l a n g u a g e based on r e c e n t r e s e a r c h i n t o

t h e form and t h e s u b s t a n c e o f l a n g u a g e , H a l l i d a y e t al

(1964:166-7). U n l i k e Lado, however , t h e y c r i t i c i s e d

d e s c r i p t i o n s based on s t r u c t u r a l i s m as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y l a r g e l y

b c c a u s c o f t h e i r n e g l e c t o f c o n t e x t u a l meaning and t h e i r

i n a b i l i t y t o p r e s e n t an i n t e g r a t e d p i c t u r e o f a l a n g u a g e as

a whole. I n t h e same v e i n , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l grammar (TG)

was r e j e c t e d as a t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g b e c a u s e i t

d o c s n o t p r e s e n t an i n t e g r a t e d t h e o r y t o c o v e r a l l l e v e l s o f

lanf luncc , T h e a u t h o r s , r e c o l u t e l y , f avoured t h e neo-

fj . r th: i .nn s c a l e and c a t e g o r y t h e o r y because , f i r s t , i t gave

:\n ntlequnte p l a c e t o meaning a t n l l 1-cve l s of l anguage , and

:;c>r:orid, hcc:illnr, it; p;nvc e q u a l w r i p;ht t o t h e d i f f e r e n t 1nvel.n

of l anguage : t h e m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e of l anguage (sound and

w r i t i n g ) , t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s o r form (grammar and l e x i s ) ,

find t h e env i ronmenta l c o n t e x t (meaning), H d l i d a y e t a1

(13G~t:149-151).

Two d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n p r o v i d e a p t

d e c c r i p t i o n s , explanat j -ons and d e f i n i t i o n s of a p p l i e d

1 . i n g u i s t i c c viewed from broad and narrow p e r s p e c t i v e s . The

s e c t i o n one of c h a p t e r s i x b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , m a i n t a i n s

t h a t " the Use of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y t o d e s c r i b e l anguage i s

n o t i t s e l f counted as a n a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s ... a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s starts when a d e s c r i p t i o n i s s p e c i f i c a l l y

mad;, o r an e x i s t i n g d e s c r i p t i o n used , f o r f u r t h e r purpose

which l i e s o u t s i d e t h e l i n g u i s t i c s c i e n c e s " , H d l i d a y e t a 1

(1964:,138). Again, t h e s e c t i o n s i x of t h e same c h a p t e r

s e p a r a t e s d e ~ c r i p t i o n s of l anguage from t e x t b o o k s of

l anguagec , and a t t r i b u t e s t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n t o two d i f f e r e n t

c x p e r t s : l i n g u i s t s and a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Def in ing h p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s na r rowly , t h e a u t h o r s a s s e r t

"appl.i.ed l i n g u i s t i c s i s a term t h a t c o v e r s t h e whole f i e l d

of r e s e a r c h and t r a i n i n g i n t h e teaching o f l a n g u a g e s ,

:i.nclud3 n g b u t n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o g e n e r a l l i n g u i s t i c 6 and

g c n c r a l phone t i c s " , N a l l i d a y e t a 1 (1964: 169) .

' l 'hcy c o n n i d e r t h e te rm m i f i l e a d i n g b e c a u s e a c c o r d i n g t o

t ; h ~ r n " i t e x c l u d e s o t h e r a c t i v i t i c ~ which a r e j u s t as much

npp.l..i.c:~ 1:i.ons of l i n g u i s t i c s , s u c h a s machine t r a n s l a t i o n

n ~ l d n o c j o l o g i c a l . l i n g u i s t i c s . A t t h e same t ime i t i n c l u d e s

p a r t s o f c e r t a i n s u b j e c t s which l i e o u t s i d e t h e l i n g u i s t i c

s c i e n c e s , s u c h as t h o s e a s p e c t s o f p sycho logy and e d u c a t i o n a l

t h c o r y t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t t o l a n g u a g e t each ing" . H a l l i d a y

On t h e a i m o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e a u t h o r s p r e s e n t

a wide a r r a y o f f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t o p r o v i d e a . s o l i d

ground in^ i n t h o s e a s p e c t s o f p h o n e t i c s and l i n g u i s t i c s and

o t h e r s u b j e c t s which l i e beh ind t h e l a n g u a g e c l a s s , s o as

t o e n a b l e t h e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t t o e v a l u a t e b o t h d e s c r i p t i o n s

and t e x t b o o k s of l a n g u a g e s , p r o d u c e h i s own t e a c h i n g

m a t e r i a l s , p l a n and t e a c h l a n g u a g e c o u r s e , t e s t h i s p u p i l s

a t t a i n m e n t s and a s a background t o a l l t h e s e , t o u n d e r s t a n d

as much a s p o s s i b l e of t h e working of l a n g u a g e , H a l l i d a y

e t n l (1964:169-170).

I n consonance w i t h t h e s i n g u l a r a im o f t h i s book, t h e

a u t h o r s s y ~ t e m a t i c a l l y e v o l v e d a l i n k be tween l i n g u i s t i c

~ c i e n c e s and l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g by m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t " the

p l a c e f o r b o t h l i n g u i s t i c s and p h o n e t i c s i s b e h i n d t h e

c l n ~ s r o o m t e a c h e r , i n t h e t r a i n i n g t h a t h e r e c e i v e d f o r

his job a6 a t e a c h e r , i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e s y l l a b u s L

a c c o r d i n g t o which h i s t e a c h i n g programme i s o r g a n i s e d ,

a n d I n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s o f a l l

kin?:; thC-tt he rn,&es u s e o f i n c l a s s 1 ' , H n l l i d a y e t a1 (1964:

18')) Hcncc, t h e b r i d g e t h n t j o i n s l b f f u i s t i c s and language

t e i ~ c h i n g , t h e y l a b e l - l e d ~ e t h o d b i , t h n t i s "A f ramework of

o r .~nn i .nnLions f o r p r a c t i c a l l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , i n which

pcda.zogicn1 t e c h n i q u e s and l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y c r o s s - f e r t i l i z e

c i l ~ h ot;herl ' , H a l l i d a y e t a 1 (1964:200).

Rooted i n o b j e c t i v i t y , c o h e r e n c e and c o n s i s t e n c y , t h i s

book h a s some u s e f u l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o make i n t h e g e n e r a l

understanding of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , S t t o o k a f i r m

p o s i t i o n i n t h e i ~ s u e s c o n c e r n i n g l i n g u i s t i c s and i ts

~ p p 1 . i ~ a t i . o n a . F i r 8 t , i t demons t ru t es t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s i s a

theory g e n e r a t i n g d i g c i p l i n e , s econd , L i k e Lado ( 19.571, it

r e v e a l s t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t d e r i v e f rom l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s

can have a b i l i t y o u t s i d e t h e l i n g u i s t i c s c i e n c e s , and t h i r d ,

d ~ s p : i t e t h e l em antic s h o r t f a l l o f t h e t e r m , a p p l i e d

i i n p ; u i x t i . c c , i t s t a n d s f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h e s

from 1 i .n t ;u i s t i c s and o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s t o l a n g u a g e

t e a c h i n g , t h u s h i ~ h - l i g h t i n g t h e ec1ect.i.c n a t u r e o f t h e

I i c l d . The t h i r d p o i n t i s c o n s p i c o u s l y l a c k i n g i n Lado

(19.5'7). Thus, u n l i k e Lado (19571, t h e 3 u t h o r s r e v e a l , by

2i1:i.r: r ipproach, t h e b r o a d nnd na r row v iews o f a p p l i e d

~ ~ t l [ ~ l l ~ . ~ t : i . ~ ~ ~

What a p p e a r s t o u n i f y Lado (1957) and H a l l i d a y e t a1

(776't.j is t h a t b o t h a r e d e v o t e d t o t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of

I . i t ip~: i r , t i c s s c i e n c e s t o I n n ~ u a g c t enc l i i ng w i t h o u I, con!;i.dcra-

t i o n o f o t h e r d i s c i p l i n c f i which t o g e t h e r w i t h l i n g u i s t i c s

y i e l d i n p u t s t o a p p l i e d L i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e na r row s e n s e .

ILnwcvcr, f o r t I n l l i d n y c t a1 (19Gl1), t tic appronch i n n o t

a c c i d e n t a l because i t i s i n comformity w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e of

t h e l i t e r a t u r e : t o r e l a t e l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y t o l a n g u a g e

. I t e a c h i n g , s o t h a t w h i l e H a l l i d a y e t a1 (1964) u s e ' m e t h o d ~

t o r e p r e s e n t t h e b r i d g e between 1 i n g u i c ; t i c s o n l y nnd l a n g u a g e

t e a c h i n g , and u s e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e l i n k

between 1inp;ui.n t i . c a , o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e c , a n d lnnffun(5.e t e a c h i n g ,

Lado (1957) d e s i g n a t e s a p p l i e d linguistic^ as t h e l i n k

be tween l i n g u i ~ t i c d e s c r i p t i o n (CA) and l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g .

Re t h e r e b y e q u a t s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s w i t h what H a l l i d a y e t

a1 c a l l methodics .

A s f a r as t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e of a p p l i e d l i n @ . ~ t i . c n

i s c o n c e r n e d , H a l l i d a y e t a l , though more o b j e c t i v e and

comprehens ive t h a n Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) , l a c k s i n - d e p t h coverage .

T h i s i s b e c a u s e i t h a s n o t r e v e a l e d t o u s how p ~ y c h o l o g i c a l

and e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s which he ment ioned can be r e l e v a n t

t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . T h i c would have e n a b l e d u s t o

u n d e r s t a n d what i n p u t s t h ~ s e t h e o r i e s can y i e l d t o

n p p l i c d l i n g u i s t i c s j u s t as he d i d i n t h e c a s e of l i n g u i s t i c s .

The book c a n , t h e r e f o r e , be s a i d t o be r e s t r i c t i v e i n t h e

s e m e t h a t i t d i s c u s s e s o n l y one m a j o r i n p u t t o a p p l i e d

I . i n ~ u i s t i c c - l i n g u i s t i c s .

Relabed t o I l n l l i d a y e t a 1 (1964) ic Corde r (1973) which

i s made up of an i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d thrct . p a r t s . T h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n s e e s a p p l i e d l l n g u i s t j c s from bo th j t s nar row

and b road p e r c p e c t i v e s . T h i s p n r t i c u 1 : l r l y wide cove rage i s

r e f l c c t c d i n t h c s c words of C o r t l ~ r ' ~ ; (1973:lO) "theories

?bout t h c n a t u r e of' h i m a n l n r i ~ u n ~ ~ a r c , o f coiirsc ' , o f u s e

t o o t h e r p e o p l e b e s i d e s t h e l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r . I t would be a

m i s t a k e t o a s s o c i a t e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h

l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . There a r e o t h e r p e o p l e who a r e engaged i n

p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s which i n v o l v e l a n g u a g e i n a c e n t r a l

r o l e f o r whom a knowledge o f i ts n a t u r e c o u l d b e of u s e i n

d e a l i n g w i t h problems which a r i s e i n t h e i r work: t h e s p e e c h

t h e r a p i s t , t h e l i t e r a r y a r i t i c , t h e communicat ion e n g i n e e r 1

f o r example". He d e s c r i b e s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as a p r a c t i c a l

a c t i v i t y which u t i l i z e s i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e f rom t h e o r e t i c a l

s t u d i e s . S t e p p i n g a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s down t o a na r row view

p o i n t , Corde r (1973: l l ) h a s t h i s t o s a y " a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g i s conce rned w i t h t h o s e p a r t s of t h e

t o t a l l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g o p e r a t i o n i n which d e c i s i o n s a r e

made i n t h e l i g h t o f a knowledge of t h e n a t u r e of human

l a n g u a g e , how i t is l e a r n e d and i t s r o l e i n s o c i e t y " . T h i s

d e f i n i t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , acknowledges t h e e s s e n c e o f a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s as d e r i v i n g f rom i n s i g h t s i n t o d e s c r i p t i v e

l i n g u i s t i c s , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s and s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y .

I ' n r t one which i n mndc u p o f fotrr c h n p t e r n c o n t n i n s

gcnc. rnl J. ingui.r; t ; ic i n f ormn l;Son on thc 1111 t u r o of l n n ~ u n g o i n

< I.:: vnl--i O I I G mnnl f en t n t-l.onr;. 1 I; movt-r; f rom t h e mu1 t i f nrouf;

p o r s p c c t i v c s from which l.l.'nguae;e i s viewed t h r o u ( ~ h a s t u d y

of i t s f u n c t i o n s , v a r i e t i e s and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on l a n g u a g e

t e a c h i n g . Also i n c l u s i v e a r e s t u d i e s i n c u l t u r a l v a r i a t i o n

a n d t h e i r impac t on l a n g u a g e and t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,

P a r t two f i t a r t s w i t h t h e f i r s t two c h a p t e r s c o n s i d e r i n g

Eome l i n g u i s t i c and p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c a s p e c t s of l a n g u a g e s t u d y .

The t h i r d c h a p t e r i n t h i s p a r t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e ma jo r s t u d y

t h n t i n f o r m s t h e t i t l e of t h i s l i t e r a t u r e , Here, t h e a u t h o r

e ~ p 1 , ~ i n s what h i s i d e a of a p p l i c a t i o n i s l i k e , c o n t e n d i n g

t h n t " t h e r e is one p h a s e i n t h e p l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n of a

t o t a l l n n ~ u n g e t e a c h i n g o p e r a t i o n i n which t h e a p p l i c a t i o n

of l i n g u i s t i c s i~ r e l e v a n t : t h e s t a g e a t which t h e q u e s t i o n s

have l i n g u i s t i c answers" , Corde r ( I 973 : 138) . He g o e s

f u r t h e r t o p o s i t t h r e e h i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l s o f l o g i c a l l y

r e l a t e d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y , o r u s i n g h i s words, Te him t h e f i r s t o r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n

' o r d e r s of a p p l i c a t i o n s P : f i r s t , s econd and t h i r d . L ( i . e .

l a n g u a g e d e s c r i p t i o n ) i s t h e most g e n e r a l , i n v o l v i n g all t h e

p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t h a t r e q u i r e t h e knowledge of l a n g u a g e

(i,e. a p p l i e d l i n g u i ~ t i c s i n a broad s e n s e ) , w h i l e t h e t h i r d

o r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s t h e most s p e c i f i c t o t h e l a n g u a g e

t e a c h i n g o p e r a t i o n (i.e. a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n a na r row

. ~ . c n r ; o ) . Pcrcc iv inp; c r i t ; j tally t h e r c l : ~ t i o n between 1 ingni .n t i c s

; 'nd l nngunge t e a c h i n g , Corde r (1973:155) a s s e r t s

- 28 - " t h e nppl . icat ; ion of l i n g u i s t i c e t o l m g i m g e t e a c h i n g i s a n

i n c l i . r ~ c t one. It i s n o t a s i n g l e - s t a g e o p e r a t i o n . T h i s i n

why many t e a c h e r s , when f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d t o l i n g u i s t i c s ,

s e a n o r e l e v a n c e i n i t f o r t h e i r work and , c o n v e r s , , ~ l y why

many l i n g u i s t s u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g i n

p r a c t i c e d i s c l a i m any p r a c t i c a l u s e f u l n e s s f o r t h e i r work.

'I'llc f a c t n o e m t o b o t h a t o n l y thoue who a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h

bo th l i n g u i s t i c s and l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o

d i s c e r n t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e two".

The r e s t of t h e book i s devo ted t o e x p l a n a t i o n s on

t h e t h r e e o r d e r s of a p p l i c a t i o n s of linguistic t h e o r y t o

l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . The l a s t c h a p t e r of p a r t two takes u p t h e

d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e p r o c e d u r e s a v a i l a b l e f o r l a n g u a g e d e a c r i p -

t i .ons w i t h o u t l o o s i n g s i g h t of some models of g rammat i ca l

dcccr%pt ; ion . O p e r a t i n g o u t e i d e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e a l m , p a r t

t h r e e comes t o g r i p s w i t h some p r a c t i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t s of

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e c h o i c e , p r e o e n t a t i o n , and

a s s e s s e m e n t of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s and methods ,

which i n t u r n , c o n s t i t u t e t h e i s s u e s and p r o c e a s e s u n d e r l y i n g

t h e second and t h i r d o r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n s .

Corde r (1973) l i k e H a l l i d a y e t al (1964) t o o k o f f q u i t e

cornprehensdvely by e l u c i d a t i n g on t h e b i d i r e c t i o n a l

app roach t o t h e t e rm, a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , and t h e n ,

d e l i m i t i n g h i s d i s c u s s i o n t o one - a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n

l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ( c f . Corde r 1973 :I 1 1, b u t u n l i k e

J l d . l i ( l a y e t a1 (1964) f a i l s t o p r o j e c t t h e e c l e c t i c n a t u r e

-- 79-

n.f : ~ p p l . j e d I r i .n~u. i . .~tr i .cn, Though h~ i n c l u d e s b o t h psycho-

.1.3.i1~:11i~.~I:i.c~ and s o c i o l . j . t ~ p ; u i ~ , t i c s i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

1 i 1 1 y ; i l i r; l,j.cr;, C o r d e r ' s (1973) s cope i.r; t o o nar row t o i n c l u d e

I : h r . l ; h r ~ o r r r l ; i c n l r e l c v n n c c ? o f t h e ~ c di...;ciplinc.-; a n d more to

corl~n~llni ca I;ive l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , an approach which r o s e o u t

o f t h i s meaning e x t e n s i o n , and a c o n d i t i o n which made a p p l i e d

I . in~11i . s t i c s e c l e c t i c .

!tl~e major d i ~ t i n g u i s h i n g f a c t o r between Corde r (1973)

and N n l l i d a y e t a1 (1964) , and p r o b a b l y o t h e r a p p l i e d

" l i n [ ~ u i ~ t i c s l i t e r a t u r e lies i n C o r d e r ' s (1973) g e n e r a t i o n of

n h i e r a r c h i c a l ~ y s t e m of r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i n g u i s t i c s and

l n n ~ u a g e t e a c h i n g ( i . e . t h e t h r e e o r d e r s of a p p l i c a t i o n o f

I . : i . n ~ u i s t i c t h e o r y t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ) , Here t o o , C o r d e r ' s

(1373) e x t c n ~ i o n of t h e meaning of l i . n a u i s t i c e and omifision

of o t h c r s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s a p p a r e n t .

N n n c c , what Corder (1973) c a l l s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , j u s t

1-ilce Lndo ( 1 9 5 7 ) , cou ld b e compared t o what H a l l i d a y e t a1

(1964) r e f e r t o as Methodics , App l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e r e f o r e ,

is p e r c e i v e d by Corde r ( 1 9 7 3 ) , l i k e Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) , i n i t s p u r e l y

s e m a n t i c s e n s e . T h i s app roach d o e s n o t conform w i t h c u r r e n t

I;ho~~(/;hf;r, a b o u t t h e ~5ub j e c t e~ i o nppnrcn t i n b o t h Re11 (1981)

a n d Van a s e t a1 (1984). AS a m ~ t t e r of f a c t Van JCLS e t a1

(1984:6 ,10) s t a t e c a t e g o r i c a l l y t h a t "a p u r e l y s e m a n t i c

d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e f i e l d w i l l f a i l ... we w i l l ( t h e r e f o r e )

not: makc! t h e d e f i n i t i - o n o f t h e f i e l d s u b o r d i n a t e t o a

:;cm:lrr I; i . c n l . 1 ~ p u r e i n t c r p r c t n Li.on o f th c t e rm a p p l i e d l i n p ; ~ ~ : i s t 3 . c ~ " .

If we admi t t h i f i , t h c n , Corde r (1973) d o e s n o t ~ a t i s f y o u r

cr:i.tc?r:i.on of d c p t h of covcrngo n i n c o i t f a i l a t o s p r e a d

h i s d r a g n e t wide enough t o c o v e r dl r e l e v a n t b i t s o f i n p u t s

L h n t would enhnncc t h c f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h o term.

C o r d e r (1373) i~ i n f l u e n c e d by h i s s t r u c t u r a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n .

By t h i s i n f l u e n c e he p r o j e c t s o n l y a p a r t i a l a c c o u n t s of

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and r e l a t e e t h e s u b j e c t w i t h i t s

p r a c t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s as s e e n i n p a r t t h r e e .

C o r d e r ' s (1973) c o h e r e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s

of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s an a d v a n t a g e o v e r B a l l i d a y e t a1

1964 ( though thif i is o u t s i d e i t s s c o p e ) , and h i s p o i n t o f

u n i t y w i t h Lado (1957) ( t hough i t d i s c u s s e s j u s t one , i . e .

C A I , B e l l (1981) and Van Els e t a1 (1984).

H e l - 1 (1981 ) is an i n t r o d u c t o r y work on a p p l i e d

I : i n g u i n t i c s . Apa r t from t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e book i s made

up o f two part^ and an e p i l o g u e .

As i t concernR t h e deve lopmen t s i n a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i o s ,

b o t h i n t h e o r y and p r a c t i s e , ~ e l l ( ( 1 9 8 1 ) i s down to e a r t h ,

simplified,.comprehensive and e x p l a n a t o r i l y f o r c e f u l . I t

opened w i t h a c h a p t e r whi-ch i s more o r l e s s a compressed

n t n t c r n c n t of t h e e n t i r e c o n t e n t of t h e book and i n which

t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s a r e c o n f r o n t e d :

( a ) What i s l a n g u a g e ?

(b) Now do p e o p l e l e a r n P a n g u ~ g e s ?

( .c) How can we h e l p p e o p l e l e a r n l a n g u a g e s ?

1.n a n a t t e m p t s t o answer q u e s t i o n ( a ) t h e a u t h o r t a k e s

l l ~ c r c n d c r t o t h e two mnjor Appronchcn t o t h e ~ t u d y o f t h o

n n tiirc o f 1nnppnp;ct : l'ormnl. nnd Fiinc t i . o n n 1 appronchee.

p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s o f l e a r n i n g : Behav iou r i sm and

R a t i o n a l - i s m . F i n a l l y , t o answer t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n , h e

cxplorcr communicat ive l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g methodology. H e ,

t h u s , c o n c l u d e s by e v o l v i n g a model o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

i n t o which l i n g u i s t i c s , p sycho logy , and o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s

y i e l d i n p u t s and from which s y l l a b u s , method and m a t e r i a l s

d e r i v e , a s r ep roduced below:

A L i n g u i s t i c I n p u t s 1 1. L i n g u i s t i c

T h e o r i e s

2. Pedagogica l p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r

3. S e l e c t e d . e l ements from A 2

B P s y c h o l o g i c a l I n p u t e

( i. F s y c h o l o g i c a l T h e o r i e s

-.I

p r e s e n t a t i o n of p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s

3. S e l e c t e d e lements from B 2

4. Applied l i n g u i s - t i c s approach

I c. Other i m p u t ~

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e

Chap te r two s k e t c h e s and d e s c r i b e s t h e model of d e s i g n

and implementa t ion of t r a i n i n g programme as an i n p u t - o u t p u t

sys tem which comprises an i n p u t of ' r a w m a t e r i a l s ' , some

p r o c e s s which a c t s upon and changes t h e ' r a w m a t e r i a l s ' i n

5. S y l l a b u s

some planned way, and from which they emerge a s t h e f i n i s h e d

Pedagogica l ,

P o l i t i c a l ,

S o c i o l o g i c a l , e t c .

6. Method 1 -.. - -..- -- -...- ..-- -- . I I

- 33 - p r o d u c t , ' t h e o u t p u t , B e l l (1981:32). T h i s model e s s e n t i a l l y

i n h e r e s i n communicative approach t o l anguage t e a c h i n g i n

which a c a r e f u l l y and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y conducted a n a l y s i s of

t h e l e a r n e r s needs s p e c i f i e s what t h e l e a r n e r s ' needs f o r

t h e t a r g e t l anguage are, and based on which l anguage ( ~ n g l i s h )

f o r s p e c i f i c purposes emerge t o s a t i s f y learner^' i n d i v i d u a l

o b j e c t i v e s . Appendix A contain^ an i l l u s t r a t i v e example

of t h i s k i n d of s t u d y f o l l o w i n g a s e r i e s of s t e p s , Appendices

B through D c 0 n t a . h aome d i s c u s s i o n s on e r r o r a n a l y s i s ,

t e s t i n g and o y l l a b u s , which i n d i v i d u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e some s t a g e c

i n t h e l anguzge t r a i n i n g programme.

Focus ing spec i f i ca l . l , y on l anguage programmes, t h e t h i r d

c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s t h e t h r e e t y p e s of s y l l a b u s : grammat ica l ,

s i t u a t i o n a l , and n o t i o n a l , and t h e i r a t t e n d a n t weakeness.

Revealed i n t h i s c h a p t e r is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e two opposing

t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s on t h e n a t u r e of language: f o r m a l i s t

and f u n c t i o n a l i s t , in fo rm t h e deci . s ions on t h e language

c o n t e n t and o r d e r i n g of t h e m a t e r i a l s f o r t e a c h i n g purposes .

Thus, w h i l e grammatical and s i t u a t i o n a l ~ y l l a b u s e s a r e of

f o r m a l i s t backing, n o t i o n a l o r f u n c t i o n a l s y l l a b u s i s

of f u n c t i o n a l i s t backing.

The n e x t c h a p t e r , i n t r a c i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l development

i n l i n g u i s t i c s from t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e e a r l y

p a r t of t h i s c e n t u r y , h i g h l i g h t s t h e major t h e o r e t i c a l

a s sumpt ions t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e d i f f e r e n t l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s

- 34 . .. at t h a t p e r i o d : T r a d i t i o n a l grammar and t h e e a r l y modern

l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e i r v iews on t h e n a t u r e of l anguage , language

d e s c r i p t i o n s and l anguage l e a r n i n g . Summarising t h e s t a t e

of t h e 'ar t ' a t t h a t t ime , B e l l (1981 :90 ) w r i t e s "by t h e

mid 193Ows, l i n g u i s t s had g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e need t o

d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e p r e s e n t form of a l anguage and t h e

p r o c e s s e s of l i n g u i s t i c change by which i t reached t h a t form.

They had a l s o a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n of l anguage

shou1.d b e as o b j e c t i v e as p o s s i b l e and t h a t v a l u e judgement

shou ld be t o t a l l y out lawed from a d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e i r d a t a

b e i n g speech and t h e i r method based on t h a t of t h e p h y s i c a l

s c i e n t i s t ". Chapte r f i v e and s i x r e s p e c t i v e l y , are a l l o t e d t o

formal ism and f u n c t i o n a l i s m , t h e two major approaches t o

t h e s t u d y of language. These c h a p t e r s gave an i n d e p t h

- t r ea tment of t h e b a s i c t e n e t s of t h e two approaches and

t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s on l anguage t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g , and

t h e d e s i g n of t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s . Out of t h e s e two approaches

came t h e two opposing views on t h e c h o i c e of t h e c o n t e n t

of a l anguage programme: w h i l e fo rmal i sm s t r e s s e s form,

f u n c t i o n a l i s m s t r e s s e s funct5.on.

P a r t of t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e s e c h a p t e r is devoted t o

t h e m l t i d i s c i p l i n n r y a s p e c t of f u n c t i o n a l i s m . L i n g u i s t i c s ,

phil.osophy, s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s and o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s

were deemed i n f l u e n t i a l i n t h e c r e a t i o n of t h i s approach,

y i e l d i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o i t i n t h e i r v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s .

It became a p p a r e n t t h a t t o de te rmine what l anguage f u n c t i o n

t h a t shou ld c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o n t e n t of a l anguage programme,

a s t u d y of t h e d i f f e r e n t l anguage needs of l e a r n e r s i s

i n d i s p e n s i b l e , The r e s u l t of t h i s a c t i v i t y provokes t h e

i d e a of l anguage f o r s p e c i f i c purposes (LSP). The a u t h o r ' s

a t t i t u d e t o f u n c t i o n a l approach is summarised i n t h i s passage;

The r e s u l t of growing t o g e t h e r of s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s h a s keen t h a t t h e l anguage % y l l a b u s d e s i g n e r h a s a t h i s d i s p o s a l f a r more i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n he had 20 y e a r s ago. New i n s i g h t s from s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s i n t o t h e c o n t e x t s .of l anguage u s e , i n s i g h t s from l i n g u i s t i c s and ph i losophy i n t o t h e n a t u r e of meaning and from p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e and e d u c a t i o n on t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n l anguage and e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g a r e a l l a v a i l a b l e t o t h e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t and must b e r e f l e c t e d i n h i s c o u r s e d e s i g n i f i t is t o s a t i s f y t h e wide range of i n t e r e s t s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e a c t i v i t y of l anguage t e a c h i n g , B e l l ( 1981 :-1321,

Code, t e x t and d i s c o u r s e c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s i c concern

of t h e l a s t chap te r . The argument i s t h a t s i n c e f u n c t i o n a l

approach t o l anguage t e a c h i n g broke t h e nge 1.ong r e g a r d f o r

t h e s e n t e n c e as t h e h i g h e s t l i m i t of l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n

and, as a r e s u l t , d i s c o u r s e now r e c e i v e s emphasis , t h e r e

i s bound t o be sane i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s s h i f t of a t t e n t i o n

on b o t h l i n g u i s t i c s and l anguage t e a c h i n g , These

i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e e x p r e s s l y d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s l as t chap te r .

B e l l (1981) i s an a p t e l u c i d . a t i o n of t h e theory-

p r a c t i c e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow

sense . It is o b j e c t i v e , c o h e r e n t and c o n s i s t e n t i n t h e

- 36 - s e n s e t h a t n o t o n l y a r e thought^ p r e s e n t e d f a c t u a l b u t a l s o

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o one ano th.er.

Appl ied l i n g u i s t i c s i s p r e s e n t e d as a m e d i a t o r d i s c i p l i n e

between t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e a s suf!gested i n t h e s e words of

B e l l ' s (1981 :13! : "The a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s t a n d s i n r e l a t i o n

t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t (and o t h e r t h e o r i s t c ) and t o

t h e p r a c t i c a l t e a c h e r of l a n g u a g e s much a s t h e e n g i n e e r does

t o t h e academic p h y s i c i s t and t h e workers on t h e s i t e . H i s

r o l e i s t h a t o f a middleman, d e r i v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n abou t what

can b e done and how from t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n and p a s s i n g t h a t

on , i n a more r e a d i l y u s e a b l e form, t o t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s

from whom h e d e r i v e s f eedback , f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n , about

t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a p p l i c a t i o n s of h i s theory.#' He d i d n o t

j u s t s t o p a t t h i s s t a t e m e n t , h e weaved i n t h e e c l e c t i c

n a t u r e o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s w i t h o u t any a p p e a l t o t h e

s t r i c t l y , semant i c s e n s e ( i m p l i c a t i o n ) o f t h e t e rm by

r e v e a l i n g t h e s o u r c e a r e a s o f t h e t h e o r i e s , and a l s o o u t l i n i n g

t h e u s e a b l e o u t p u t s of t h e s e t h e o r i e s which a r e made

a v a i l a b l e t o t h e l anguage t e a c h e r s ( c f . B e l l : 1981:29).

It is , t h e r e f o r e , n o t an o v e r s t a t e m e n t t o aay t h a t t h e

book c o v e r s a l l t h e r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e t h e o r i e s and

p r a c t i c e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow sense . It

however, assumes a unidi rnens ional approach t o t h e term,

t h u s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e te rm a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s r e f e r s

o n l y and whol ly t o l anguage pedagogy. By t h i s approach,

- 37 - t h e broad meaning of t h e term i s s i l e n c e d and, hence, cannot

be cap tu r ed by any r eade r . The g e n e r a l i m p r e ~ s i o n t hen ,

i s t h a t any beg inner i n , a p p l i e d 1 : i n g u i s t i c s w i l l n o t be

exposed t o t h e m u l t i f a c e t e d i d e a of t h e term and hence, cannot

come t o g r i p s w i t h t h e whole and e n t i r e meaning of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s . I n t h e l i g h t of our e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a ,

t h e r e f o r e , though B e l l (1981) i e o b j e c t i v e , coheren t and

c o n s i s t e n t , t h e s e q u a l i t i e s do n o t move beyound h i s p r e sen t a -

t i o n o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i ~ t i o s i n narrow sense .

Van M s e t a 1 (1984) seems t o u s a n improvement on

B e l l (1981). Made up of t h r e e p a r t s , Van Els e t a1 (1984)

i.5 d iv ided i n t o f i f t e e n chap t e r s .

P a r t one i s some d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e term a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s i n which t h e c o n t e n t s , methods and p r a c t i c a l

r e l evance of t h i s s u b j e c t f o r t h e f i e l d of f o r e i g n language

t e ach ing i s exp re s s ly c l a r i f i e d . Here, t h e a u t h o r s make

i t c l e a r t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g of f o r e i g n languages

is j u s t one of t h e sub-areas of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s which

i n t u r n , l a c k s t e r m i n o l o g i c a l p r e c i s i o n , though i t ha s no

b e t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e ye t . The h i s t o r y o f t h e term a l s o

r e c e i v e s e l a b o r a t e d i s c u s s i o n and Van Els e t a 1 (1984:8)

s u c c i n c t l y remark "Applied l i n g u i s t i c s h a s , i n t h e p a s t , i n

deed, sometimes based i t s e l f s o l e l y on t h e f i n d i n g s from

t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s . The p o s i t i o n then was e s s e n t i a l l y

t h a t i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o t e a c h a language all one needed

t o know w a s how t h e l a n g u a g e i n q u e s t i o n is s t r u c t u r e d " .

T h i s , n o d o u b t , c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e s t r u c t u r a l i ~ t s and t h e i r

a t t i t u d e t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ( c f . Lado 1951 and Corder 1973).

P a r t two concerns i t s e l f w i t h t h e i n s i g h t s of l i n g u i s t i c

r e s e a r c h , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c and s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c r e s e a r c h on

l a n g u a g e b e h a v i o u r , l anguage l e a r n i n g , f i r s t l anguage

l e a r n i n g , second l anguage l e a r n i n g and l e a r n e r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

I n t h e l i g h t of t h e above, t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r i n t h i s p a r t

d i s c u s s e s t h e major t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s t o t h e ~ t u d y

o f language: formal ism and f u n c t i o n a l i s m , and t h e two

p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s of l e a r n i n g . Behnviourisrn and

menta l i sm t o g e t h e r w i t h a p r o c e d u r a l approach t o l anguage

l e a r n i n g . The second and t h i r d c h a p t e r s a r e devo ted t o t h e

d i s c u s s i o n of t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e r e s e a r c h i n t o

Gecond l anguage l e a r n i n g , s u r v e y i n g t h e v a r i o u s 6 h i f t s i n

emphasis , o v e r t h e y e a r s , from t h e t e a c h e r ( t e a c h e r c e n t r e d

approach) t o t h e l e a r n e r ( l e a r n e r c z n f r e d approach) o f t h e

second language. Appl ied l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n t h i s

h i s t o r i c a l perioi ' . a r e i d e n t i f i e d and d i s c u s s e d generous ly .

These i n c l u d e C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s (CAI , (the t e a c h e r . .

c e n t e r e d approach\; E r r o r A n a l y s i s (-1, Performance A n a l y s i s

(PA) and D i s c o u r s e A n a l y s i s (DA), (the l e a r n e r c e n t e r e d

approache$ The las t c h a p t e r o f t h i e p a r t p i c k s on t h o s e

f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n d i v i d u a . 1 v a r i a t i o n s i n second

l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g under l e a r n e r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Some of

t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e Age, A p t i t u d e , C o g n i t i v e s t y l e s ,

- 39 - a t t i t u d e , m o t i v a t i o n and p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

The l a s t p a r t t a k e s o f f w i t h what t h e a u t h o r s c a l l n

p i v o t a l c h a p t e r i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t i s i n t e n d e d t o connect

t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s t o t h e subsequen t ones. Here t h e

r e l e v a n c e of t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s : l i n g u i s t i c s ,

psychology, s o c i o l o g y , pedagogy, e d u c a t i o n , e t c . i n t h e

f i e l d o f f o r e i g n l anguage t e a c h i n g (FLT), are h i g h l i g h t e d .

The r e l a t i o n between t h i s f i e l d and t h e s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s

i s d e s c r i b e d as t h a t of i m p l i c a t i o n s r a t h e r than a p p l i c a t i o n s ,

w h i l e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e s t u d y of t h e t e a c h i n g and

l e a r n i n g of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s is d e s c r i b e d as a n autonomous

d i s c i p l i n e . D e s p i t e t h e semant ic i m p r e c i s i o n of t h e term,

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is d e f i n e d as "an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

s u b j e c t which t a k e s i ts r e s e a r c h question^ from f o r e i g n

l anguage t e a c h i n g CFLT) i t s e l f and which in t r y i n g t o answer . .

them, t u r n s t o t h e s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s i n which i t l o o k s f o r

h y p o t h e s i s abou t p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s , which are t h e n t e s t e d

emper ica l ly" , V a p ELs e t a1 (1984:139).

F o l l o w i n e t h e p i v o t a l c h a p t e r i s a n o t h e r s u r v e y i n g

t h e h i s t o r i c a l . developments of f o r e i g n l anguage t e a c h i n g

(FLT) and t e a c h i n g methods. Subsequent c h a p t e r s dwel l on

t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s t h a t can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e d i d a c t i c

c y c l e , such as, t h e d e f i n i t i o n of aims and o b j e c t i v e s , t h e

s e l e c t i o n of c o u r s e c o n t e n t , t h e g r a d a t i o n of course c o n t e n t ,

t h e d i d a c t i c p r o c e d u r e s , t h e u s e of media, t e x t b o o k s e l e c t i o n ,

and t e s t i n g . P a r t i c u l a r l y , i n t h e s e c h a p t e r s , t h e

r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e f i e l d of s tudy t o f o r e i g n language

t e a c h i n g i n t h e s t r i c k s ense i s made apparent .

Van Els e t a 1 (1984) i s h igh ly r e l a t e d t o B e l l (1981)

i n both conten t and achievements. Like B e l l (19811, i t

covers all t h e r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s of t he theory-prac t ice

r e l a t i o n s h i p of app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s . However, u n l i k e B e l l

(1981). Van Els e t a1 (1984) comprehensively p r o j e c t t he

m u l t i p l e meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s wi thout underemphasi-

s i n g t h e i r l o c u s of a t t e n t i o n . Van Els e t a1 (19851,

t h e r e f o r e , makes e x p l i c i t an a l l importnnt ma t t e r , which

B e l l (1981) throws t o t he winds, and can be s a i d t o conta in

more f a c t s than B e l l (1981). Th i s i n t u r n makes i t more

h e l p f u l , u s e f u l and a p p r o p r i a t e t o the s tudy and unders tanding

of t h i s co rpo ra t e b u t complex e n t e r p r i s e known as a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s .

2.3 A r t i c l e s

Mackey (1966) i s a n i n e page a r t i c l e which i s a v e r i t a b l e

source of a t t r a c t i o n t o any s t u d e n t o r r e s e a r c h e r seek ing t o

unders tand the meaning and use of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .

However, i t t u r n s o u t t o be a mirage, an embodiment of

c o n t r o v e r s i e s i n which t h e au tho r encased himself i n

hea ted arguments which found exp re s s ions i n ques t ion and

answer s e s s ions , , r a t h e r than add re s s t h e s u b j e c t a s i t s

t i t l e suggests .

The aim of t h e a r t i d e i s t o prov ide answers t o some

q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , such as: What is

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ? , How d o e s i t concern l anguage t e a c h i n g ?

o f what u s e i s t t t o t h e t e a c h e r ? , How does i t r e l a t e t o

l anguage l e a r n i n g ? , and what i s new a b o u t i t ? . I n h i s

a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e answers t o h i s s e l f imposed q u e s t i o n s ,

t h e a u t h o r , threw o b j e c t i v i t y t o t h e winJs. He abandoned

what cou ld c o n s t i t u t e c r i t i c a l i s s u e s and v a r i a b l e s and

pursued i r r e l e v a n t o p p o s i t i o n s , which I suppose i n h e r e s from

p r o f e s s i o n a l ' b l i n d - s p o t t . T h i s is because h e c a r e f u l l y

evaded a l l d i s c u s s i o n s c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g answers t o h i s

q u e s t i o n s , b u t embraced t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r e l e v a n c e o f

l i n g u i s t i c s t o l anguage t each ing . Even h i s a ssessment of

t h e r o l e of l i n g u i s t i c s i n l anguage teachi-ng i s coached i n

s e n t i m e n t s , misconcep t ions and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of thought

and reason . For i n s t a n c e , he a d m i t s t h a t l anguage d e s c r i p t i o n

is u s e i u l i n l anguage t e a c h i n g b u t d e n i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of

any t h a t can be s a i d t o be u s e f u l because of t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y

o f d e s c r i p t i o n s and a n a l y s e s . H e , t h u s , f o r g e t s t h a t no

d i s c i p l i n e can be s a i d t o be p r o g r e s s i v e i f i t h a s g e n e r a t e d

o n l y one model of a n a l y s i s and t h a t m u l t i p l i c i t y of d e s c r i p t i v e

models i s a s i n e qua non f o r any l i f e d i s c i p l i n e . Robins

(1989:~) t h e r e f o r e , remarks "it must h e r e a l i s e d t h a t a

s u b j e c t l i k e g e n e s a l l i n g u i s t i c s , i u common w i t h most o t h e r

s u b j e c t s of s y s t e n a t i u s t u d y is n o t s t a t i c . Viewphints

i n c l u d i n g some of q u i t e fundamenta l impor tance may change

o r r e c e i v e d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s of emphasie i n t h e c o u r s e of years".

MackeyJ i ncons i s t ency is made more apparen t when

he l a t e r sugges t6 t h a t language t e a c h e r s have some t r a i n i n g

i n l i n g u i s t i c s t o be a b l e t o eva lua t e l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s

and use them i n teaching.

Meanwhile, h i s gene ra l i n c l i n a t i o n towards t h e d e f i n i t i o n

and r e a l i t y . of app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s seems t o be con t r ad i c t ed

by h i s response t o t h e ques t i on , what is new about i t ? He

con fe s se s t h a t from t h e beg inn in^ of language t each ing t h e r e

., i s some k ind of app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s - t r a d i t i o n a l grammar

s o r t of app l i ca t . t on , Th i s no t only a s s e r t s t h e r e a l i t y of \,,

':..%pplied l i n g u i e t i c a b u t i t e age i n language pedagogy.

A l l i n all, t h e con ten t of t h i s a r t i c l e i s n o t represen-

t a t i v e of i ts t i t l e s i n c e i t t e l l s u s no th ing about t h e

meaning of app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s e i t h e r i n i t s broad o r narrow

sense* It is , i n s t e a d , more o r l e s s of an a n a l y t i c e x e r c i s e

on t h e term, a semant ic approach i n which l i n g u i s t i c s i s

t h e on ly i n p u t t o app l i ed l i n ~ i s t i c s . Using our e v a l u a t i v e

parameters , t h e r e f o r e , t h e au tho r l a c k s o b j e c t i v i t y because

he a l lows h i s s en t imen t s f o r the s u b j e c t ma t t e r t o c o n t r o l

h i s reasoning. He, hence, r e f u s e s t o s e e anyth ing good

about app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s . Again, he l a c k s comprehensiveness

because he even f a i l s t o cover t h e scope he s e t up by t h e

ques t i ons be r a i s ed . For i n s t a n c e , what he gave a s t h e

d e f i n i t i o n of app l i ed , i n response t o What is

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s " , is a d i s t o r t e d h i s t o r i c a l sketch.

Yet we know t h a t app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s can be defined. Apart

from t h e s e , Mackey (1966) l a c k s cons i s t ency and explanatory

fo rce , It n o t only c o n t a i n s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s bu t a l s o f a i l s

t o s t r a i g h t e n t he se c o n t r a d i c t i o n s by way of convincing

evidence* The l i t e r a t u r e , based on t h e above shortcomings,

cannot h e l p anybody unders tand a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a s i t s

t i t l e impl ies .

I n agreement wi th t h e above a r t i c l e , Johnson (1970) i s

a sugges t i on ko r e l o c a t e language t each ing because l i n g u i s t i c

i n f l u e n c e on language con ten t and methodology of second

language t each ing has r e s u l t e d i n a " f a i l u r e t o develop a n

adequate d i s c i p l i n e of language t each ing and l e a r n i n g a s

r e f l e c t e d i n t h e inadequate c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n of

language conten t and a misplaced emphasis on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n

of language conten t r a t h e r thau language s k i l l s " , Johnson

(1970:235).

Johnson (1970) is meant t o be an eye opener t o t h e way

l i n g u i s t i c 6 has deceived language t e a c h e r s and how l i n g u i s t i c

d e s c r i p t i o n s dominate language t each ing t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t

pedagogical and l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s a r e o u t moded. The au thor

a rgues t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n !'began when some 1ine;uis tS , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t he USA made a s t r o n g t a k e over b i d f o r

c o n t r o l of second language t each ing f i e l d , These men

brought wi th them what Robert Lado c a l l e d t h e s c i e n t i f i c

approach", Johnson (1570:236).

He, t h e r e f o r e a d v o c a t e s a l anguage t e a c h i n g d i s c i p l i n e

de tached from b u t r e l a t e d t o d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s o n l y

t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t draws raw m a t e r i a l s from 1 8 n g u i s t i c s .

The raw m a t e r i a l s , i n t u r n , shou ld be c r i t i c a l l y a s s e s s e d

by t h e l anguage t e a c h e r s themselves t o de te rmine t h e i r

u s e f u l n e s s t o f u n c t i o n a l communication behaviour . He s t r e s s e s

t h a t what shou ld be s e l e c t e d and o r d e r e d a r e l anguage i t e m s ,

p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l i n communication s i t u a t i o n . According

t o him " the l i n g u i s t ' s view of t h e sys tem of l anguage , h i s

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e 1anp;uage

can s e r v e o n l y a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n

o f what ought t o be i n c l u d e d i n t h e l anguage t e a c h i n g

courses . The l anguage t e a c h e r concerned w i t h t h e p r o c e s s

of a c q u i s i t i o n must s e l e c t from t h e d a t a s u p p l i e d by t h e

l i n g u i s t and o r d e r t h a t d a t a on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r economic

f a c i l i t a t i o n of communication and n o t on t h e b a s i s of t h e

s t r u c t u r a l complexi ty of t h e l a n ~ p a g e t o be l e a r n e d " ,

Johnson ( 1 970 : 240-1 1.

Though t h i s a r t i c l e s h a r e s w i t h Mackey (1966) t h e same

e v a l u a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n towards l i n g u i s t i c s i n l anguage

t e a c h i n g , t h e a u t h o r more o b j e c t i v e l y and comprehensively

made h i s p o i n t . He a d m i t t e d t h a t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of

l i n g u i s t i c s are v a l u a b l e i n l anguage t e a c h i n g and r i g h t l y

d e n i e s l anguage as t h e o n l y prime v a r i a b l e i n l anguage

t each ing . He, t h u s , i n c l u d e s such o t h e r v a r i a b l e s as

t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .

By h i g h l i g h t i n g emphasis on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of

language s k i l l s over and above t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of language

con ten t , Johnson (1970) exp re s se s h i s f l a r e f o r communicative

competence which is the u l t i m a t e goa l of communicative

language teach ing , which i n t u r n , i c t he c u r r e n t approach

i n app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s e n t e r p r i s e .

A c l o s e a l l y of Johnson 's (1970) i s Spolsky (1970),

an a r t i c l e t h a t s eeks t o d i s cove r , l i k e Johnson ( 1 9 7 0 ) ~ t h e

re levance of pu re l i n g u i s t i a s t o language t each ing and t h e

r a t i o n a l e behind t h e use of t he term ' app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s ' .

Spolsky (1970) d e s c r i b e s t h e r e l a t i o n s between l i n g u i s t i c s

and language teach ing as dual : ' app l i ca Lions and imp l i ca t i ons ' .

To h i m , language d e s c r j p t i o n s , app l i ed d i r e c t l y t o language

teach ing , can prov ide t h e d a t a needed f o r w r i t i n g t each ing

grammars, course books, and d i c t i o n a r i e s , on t h e one hand,

and i n d i r e c t l y , new i n s i g h t s from s t u d i e s i n t h e n a t u r e of

language may have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r language teach ing , on

t h e o t h e r hand.

On t h e i s s u e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , Spolsky (1970:272)

has t h i s t o say "the term app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s i s no t a

p a r t i c u l a r l y happy one: i n one way i t is t o o broad, f a i l i n g

t o sugges t what l i n g u i s t i c s is a p p l i e d t o , i n ano the r , i t

s u g g e s t s a l e v e l of p r a c t i c a l i t y t h a t l a c k s t h e d i g n i t y

of ttpure l i n g u i s t i c s " . To j u s t i f y h i s c la ims , he made a

va in s ea rch f o r 81 model i n which l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s a lone

a r e d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d t o some f i e l d s o u t s i d e l i n g u i s t i c s .

I n l anguage t e a c h i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , i t : is p r a c t i c a l l y

i m p o s s i b l e because l anguage d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n o t synonymous

w i t h a s t a t e m e n t of how t o t e a c h o r l e a r n l anguages .

Otherwise , t h e r e would n o t h e any need f o r t h e l anguage

t e a c h e r and h i a t r a i n i n g i n educa t ion . But , convinced

t h a t e d u c a t i o n h a s t h e monopoly t o s u g g e s t how i t e m s i n a

grammar book can be t a u g h t , he q u e r i e s t h e p l a c e of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s . A s i f t o d i s c o v e r t h e answer h i m s e l f , t h e

a u t h o r t r i e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h between a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and

d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s . S e e i n g no d i f f e r e n c e between

them, he went f u r t h e r t o r e g a r d a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as

c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s and t o c o n t r n s t CA w i t h d e s c r i p t i v e

l i n g u i s t i c s . Yet he cou ld n o t p e r c e i v e any d i f f e r e n c e

because , a c c o r d i n g t o him, b o t h CA and d e s c r i p t i v e

l i n g u i s t i c s i n v o l v e l anguage d e s c r i p t i o n . Having now t r i e d

t o no a v a i l t o p l a c e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and t h e r a t i o n d e

f o r i ts u s e , t h e a u t h o r s u b s t i t n t e d l a n e u a g e pedagogy as

a b e t t e r term, s t r e s s i n g t h a t l anguage pedagogy is e c l e c t i c

drawing i t s assumpt ions n o t j u s t from t h e o r i e s of language,

b u t a l s o from t h e o r i e s of l e a r n i n g , p s y c h o l o g i c a l and

p e d a g o g i c a l t h e o r i e s and t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e

i m p l i c a t i o n o of t h e t h r e e f i e l d s of l i n g u i s t i c a c t i v i t y :

- T h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s

- P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s

Spolsky (19701, though more e l a b o r a t e than Johnson

(19701, acknowledges, l i k e Johnson (1970) , some measure o f

r e l e v a n c e of l i n g u i s t i c s i n l anguage t e a c h i n g , Moreover,

a d m i t t i n g t h a t t h e term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s t o o broad

t o be s p e c i f i c t o l anguage t e a c h i n g a l o n e and t o o narrow

t o i n c l u d e o t h e r s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s i n l anguage pedagogy,

Spolsky (1970) , l i k e Johnson (19701, i n c l u d e s l e a r n i n g

t h e o r i e s , pedagog ica l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s as o t h e r

i n p u t s t o l anguage t e a c h i n g which a r e n o t covered by t h e

u s e of t h e t e rm a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , He, t h u s , h i g h l i g h t s

t h e semant ic i m p r e c i s i o n of t h e term and s u g g e s t s an

a l t e r n a t i v e term language pedagogy o r e d u c a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c s

polsk sky 1970, 1978b). Th i s meanshe i n t e n d s t o d i sambigua te

t h e term, However, e d u c a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c s i s till based

on one d i s c i p l i n e - l . i n g u i s t i c s , and does n o t have any

i n h e r e n t semant ic r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h o s e o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l

i n p u t s ( v a r i a b l e s ) which t h e term a p p l i e d 1 i n . g u i s t i c s is

s a i d t o exc lude ,

I n t h e a c t u a l s e n s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p i c t u r e p a i n t e d

of l anguage pedagogy i n Spolsky (1970) and E d u c a t i o n a l

l i n g u i s t i c s i n Spolsky (1978b), i s t h a t of a a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s viewed from a s t r i c t l y s e m a n t i c a l l y de tached

p e r s p e c t i v e , Spolsky c a s t i g a t e s t h e term because l i t e r a i l y ,

i t is ambiguous b u t he f a i l s t o p r o v i d e a l e s s ambiguous

a l t e r n a t i v e . Hence u n t i l a b e t t e r t e rm i s evolved we s h a l l

make do w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e term (cf. Van Els e t a1 1984).

F i n a l l y , Spolsky (1970) i n a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e any

d i f f e r e n c e between a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and d e s c r i p t i v e

l i n g u i s t i c e , on t h e one hand, and c o n t r a s t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s

and d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s , on t h e o t h e r is i n l i n e wi th

h i s a t t e m p t t o n u l l i f y t h e term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s o u t of

b i a s t h a t t h e r e a r e no o b v i o u ~ d i f f e r e n c e s between them.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h i s c h o i c e of a term f a i l s h i m because he

could n o t convince u s t h a t E d u c a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c s is a

b e t t e r term c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s o u r c e d i ~ c i p l i n e s i n l anguage

t e a c h i n g . R e l a t i n g i t t o t h e g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e

meaning o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e a r t i c l e

l a c k s b o t h o b j e c t i v i t y and e x p l a n a t o r y f o r c e .

Gomes de Matos (1971) i s a n o t h e r a r t i c l e t h a t

evaluatef i t h e r e l e v a n c e of l i n g u i s t i c s i n l anguage t each ing .

To t h i ~ a u t h o r , a l o t h a s been s a i d abou t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n

of l i n g u i s t i c s p r i n c i p l e s t o l anguage t e a c h i n g w i t h o u t a

c o r r e s p o n d i n g demons t ra t ion , through s p e c i f i c i l l u s t r a t i v e

exampleg, how t h i s t a k e s p l a c e i n p r a c t i c e . He, t h e r e f o r e ,

a t t e m p t s t o e v a l u a t e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n langua#e

t e a c h i n g through t h e examina t ion o f f o u r t e e n t e a c h e r s '

g u i d e s t o show t h e e x t e n t t o which some p r i n c i p l e s of

l i n g u i s t i c s c i e n c e e x e r t i n f l u e n c e on t e a c h e r ' s manuals

i n t h e f i e l d of Teaching E n g l i s h as a Sccond Language (TEFL).

A t t h e end of t h e s u r v e y , h e was d i s a p p b i n t e d by h i s

r e s u l t f o r he d i scovered t h a t t h e sample of t h e p o p u l a t i o n

of s t u d y ( f o u r t e e n t e a c h e r s ' manuals) w a s t o o narrow t o

be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , and hence could n o t y i e l d enough d a t a

from which r e l i a b l e and v a l i d conc lus ion could be drawn.

However, he observed t h e conspicous absence of t h e term

app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e f o u r t e e n t e x t s .

Like Mackey ( 1966). Johnson ( 1970), and Spolsky ( 1 9 7 0 ) ~

Gomes de Matos (1971) e v a l u a t e s l i n g u i s t i c s and i t s

a p p l i c a t i o n t o language teach ing . The! orrly d i f f e r e n c e is

t h a t Gornes de Matzs (1971) i s a ca se s t udy of some s o r t .

Again t h e con t en t i on of Gomes de Matos (1971) t h a t a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s r o s e o u t of an over a n x i e t y of t h e l i n g u i s t s t o

con fe r s c i e n t i f i c s t a t u s t o approaches unde r ly ing language

t e a c h i n g is i n l i n e w i th Mackey (1956) and Johnson (1970).

The scope of t h e a r t i c l e , l i k e Spolsky (1970) , p o r t r a y s a

s t r i c t l y semant ic approach t o t h e term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s . , .

Hence, t h e au tho r b e l i e v e s t h a t by t h e u se of t h e term,

l i n g u i s t i c s is regarded as t h e on ly sou rce d i s c i p l i n e i n

language teaching. This is why he dec ides t o l o o k i n t o

language t e a c h i n g manuals. f o r examples of such a p p l i c a t i o n s

a s a means t o debunk t h e claim.

Like Spolsky (1970) a l s o Gomes de h t o s (1971) meets

w i th some d i f f i c u l t i e s . H i s cho i ce of t h e sample of h i s

popu la t i on f a i l s him i n t h e same way as Spolsky ' s (1970)

sugges t i on of an a l t e r n a t i v e term f a i l s him too. That

Gornes de Matos (1971) cannot a r r i v e a t any d e f i n i t i v e

* c o n c l u s i o n is n o t any f a u l t of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s o r

l i n g u i s t i c e ' , b u t t h e f a u l t of h i s l a c k of thoroughness.

H i s work, t h e r e f o r e , l a c k s comprehensivencss n o t o n l y

because i t t o e s a semant ic p a t h t o t h e term a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s , b u t r l s o because i t does n o t u s e a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

s c m p l e of t h e s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n which would have engendered

a conv inc ing demons t ra t ion of how p r a c t i c a l l y o r o t h e r w i s e

l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s can r e f l e c t i n l anguage pedagogy,

and, a t l e a s t , r e v e a l t h e p l a c e of l i n g u i s t i c i n t h e wide

a r e n a of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s e n t e r p r i s e of which i t i s a

p a r t . o f

Moreover, i t is p e d a n t i c l t h e a u t h o r t o s c a n f o r t h e

term a p p l i e d l i n ~ i s t i c s i n a t e x t i n which t h e p r i n c i p l e s

o f l i n g u i s t i c s a r e expec ted t o r e f l e c t . T h i s i s because

t h e methods and approaches of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a r e n o t

b e t t e r r e f l e c t e d i n a mere mention o f t h e term t h a n i n

t h e i r a c t u a l u s e i n t h e t e x t .

Also r e l a t e d t o t h e above a r t i c l e s i s Van * (1971)

which s e t s o u t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

l i n g u i s t i c s and fo re ign , language t e a c h i n g , and t o de te rmine

i n what meaningful way r e s u l t s of l i n g u i s t i c r e s e a r c h can

be a p p l i e d t o f o r e i g n l anguage t e a c h i n g . Van W , l i k e

Mackey (1966) and indeed a l l o t h e r p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d

a r t i c l e s , e v a l u a t e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of l i n g u i s t i c s t;o

l anguage t e a c h i n g . However, u n l i k e Mackey ( i 9 6 6 ) ,

- 51 - Van Ek (1971) a g r e e s w i th Johnson (1970) and Spolsky (1970)

t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s makes some con t r i b u ti.ons t o language

t e ach ing , b e l i e v i n g t h a t l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e

r e l e v a n t t o language t e ach ing because they r e v e a l t o t h e

language t e a c h e r what t o t e a c h , b u t n o t how t o s e l e c t o r

o r d e r t h e m a t e r i a l s .

On t h e term app l i ed l i n g u i s t i c s , Van Ek (1971) s h a r e s

t h e same a t t i t u d e wi th Mackoj (19661, Johnson (1970) and

Gomes de Matos (1971), when he n o t e s " the c u r r e n t ~ o p u l a r i t y

of t h e term a s a l a b e l f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c approach t o

language t e ach ing problems ... makes t h e approach l o o k

11 r e s p e c t a b l e by r ang ing i t w i th e s t a b l i s h e d d i s c i p l i n e s .. . , Van Ek (1971 $332). Van Ek (1971) went f u r t h e r , l i k e

Spolsky (1970) , t o s t a t e t h e l i m i t a t i o n on t h e term "appl ied

l i n g u i s t i c s " when taken on i ts f a c e ( semant ic ) va lue , b u t

u n l i k e Spolsky (1970), he does not sugges t an a l t e r n a t i v e

term. I n s t e a d he de t aches t h e term from i ts s t r i c t l y

semant ic s e n s e and r e v e a l s t h e e c l e c t i c n a t u r e of t h e

d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e fo l l owing s ta tement : "Applied l i n g u i s t i c s

s t a n d s f o r a m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y approach i n which s p e c i d i s t s

i n many f i e l d s work toge ther" , Van Ek (1971:333).

However, t h e d e f i n i t i o n i s n o t comprehensive as i t

does no t i l l u m i n a t e t h e f a c t t h a t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s

a d i s c i p l i n e independent o f and d i s t i n c t from t h a t of t h e

s a i d s p e c i a l i s t s , bu t u s e s i d e a s produced by t h e s e c p e c i a l i s t s .

Hence, s p e c i a l i s t s i n app l i ed l i n g u i c t i c s ( app l i ed l i n g u i s t s )

a r e d i f f e r e n t from s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t source

d i s c i p l i n e s , whose o b j e c t i v e is t o d i scove r f a c t s and make

t h e o r i e s f o r t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l consumptions. But, t he se

d i s c o v e r i e s , through t h e manipulat ive i ngenu i ty of app l i ed

l i n g u i s t s , f i n d t h e i r way i n t o ma t t e r s concerning language

teaching and l ea rn ing . A s a mat te r of f a c t , Mackenzie

(1981:36) does not mince words when he remarks "the goa l s

and mot iva t ion of t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c work a r e e s t ab l i shed

independent ly of t h e i n t e r e s t s of those who seek t o b e n e f i t

from the ou tpu t of t h a t work".

Moreover, i t is expected t h a t s i n c e Van Ek (1971)

shows u s t h a t t he main burden of appl ied l i n g u i s t i c s does

no t r e s t on l i n g u i . s t i c s , t he au thor should have been

e l a b o r a t e enough t o i n d i c a t e where e l s e the burden r e s t s . .

and how, so a s t o enable one t o come t o g r i p s with what

c o n s t i t u t e s t h e f i e l d of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and why. Hence,

t h e argument l a c k s explana tory f o r c e , and t o some e x t e n t ,

no t comprehensive.

I n t he f i n a l a n a l y s i s , t h e a r t i c l e e x h i b i t e s a

reasonable degree of o b j e c t i v i t y and coherence. It has ,

t h e r e f o r e , succeeded t o t he ex t en t t h a t i t makes u s

unders tand t h a t the semantic value of t he term, appl ied

l i n g u i s t i c s , i s inappropr i a t e , and t h a t t h e r e i s more t o

t h e f i e l d than t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n t p i s t i c s a lone t o

- 53 - l anguage t e a c h i n g (c f . Van Els e t a1 1984). However, we

a r e e a g e r l y a w a i t i n g t o be t o l d what t h e s e o t h e r i n p u t s

a r e . Again, t h e r e is no mention of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n

a broad s e n s e t o deno te i t s u s e t o r e f e r t o a wider a r e a . . o f a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s t o f i e l d s i n c l u d i n g b u t n o t

r e s t r i c t e d t o l anguage t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g .

W i l k i n s (1972) seems t o p r o v i d e a d e f i n i t i o n of and

a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c approach t o l anguage

t e a c h i n g ( a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ) , Made up o f f i v e s e c t i o n s ,

s e c t i o n one d i s c u s s e s t h e problems t h a t b e d e v i l e d l anguage

t e a c h i n g methodology. A s he a p t l y o b s e r v e s " t each ing

methods have changed l i k e t h e swing of t h e pendulum due

t o l a c k of t e c h n i q u e s and r e s o u r c e s f o r s t u d y i n g t h e

l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g of l a n g u a g e s , and t h e i m p e r f e c t

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of l anguage i t s e l f n , W i l k i n s

(1932: 23). The second s e c t i o n a d d r e s s e s t h e problems of

c a r r y i n g o u t e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t o l anguage t e a c h i n g ,

e x p l a i n i n g how t h e numerous v a r i a b l e s f a c t o r s i n l anguage

l e a r n i n g have h indered a c o n c l u s i v e r e s e a r c h i n language

t e a c h i n g , I t is v i r t u a l l y i m p o s e i b l e i n any r e a l t e a c h i n g

s i t u a t i o n t o ensure t h a t a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s have been

c o n t r o l l e d " , t h e a u t h o r l a m e n t s W i l k i n s (1972:24).

Convinced t h a t t e a c h i n g t h e o r i e s ) a l o n e

cannot s u p p l y a l l t h a t is needed i n l anguage t e a c h i n g ,

t h e a u t h o r i n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n , weaves i n some o t h e r

s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t cou ld b e u s e f u l i n l anguage

t e a c h i n g as fo l lows : f i r s t , acknowledging t h a t l anguage

t e a c h i n g does n o t t a k e p l a c e i n n vacuum, he l i k e n s

l anguage l e a r n i n g t o o t h e r forms of l e a r n i n g and p r o p o s e s

t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n from g e n e r a l , e d u c a t i o n a l and s o c i a l

psychology would h e l p i n l anguage t each ing . Second, c e r t a i n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l e a r n e r s i n f l u e n c e l e a r n i n g , concerned

w i t h t h e s t u d y o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s o c i o l o g y and

s o c i a l an th ropo logy a r e p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n

f o r l anguage t each ing . Again, e d u c a t i o n a l a i d s shou ld be

r e s o u r c e f u l i n l anguage t e a c h i n g s i n c e t h e y p r o v i d e

i n f o r m a t i o n on how t h e c o n t e x t o f t e a c h i n g i n f l u e n c e s

l e a r n i n g . Also c o n s i d e r e d i n f l u e n t i a l i n l anguage l e a r n i n g

is t h e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l ph i losophy of t h e s c h o o l system.

F i n a l l y , he con tends %ecause l anguage 5s t h e human

phenomenon w i t h which l i n g u i s t i c s i s concerned j u s t a s i t

i s t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of l anguage t e a c h i n g , l i n g u i s t i c s i s

a n a r e a of s t u d y which might h e l p t o inform d e c i s i o n s i n . l anguage teaching". Wi lk ins (1972~25). Summing up, he

remarks , "Language t e a c h i n g i s a p ragmat ic b u s i n e s s , hence

i t is wrong t o r e f e r o n l y t o ev idence drawn from l i n g u i s t i c s

i n making l anguage t e a c h i n g d e c i s i o n s " , ( W i l k i n ~ 1972:26).

The r e s t of t h e s e c t i o n s i c devoted t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n

of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i n g u i s t i c s and l anguage

t each ing . The a u t h o r s t a t e d , w i t h some examples, t h e

p r i n c i p a l g o a l s of l i n g u i s t i c s a s a s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y of

- 55 - l a n g u a g e as d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ,

showing t h a t l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s do n o t p o i n t t o t h e

b e s t way t o t e a c h a l anguage as t o make developments i n

l i n g u i s t i c o c a u s e changes i n l anguage t each ing . T h i s thought

conforms w i t h Spolsky (19701, b u t t h a t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ,

u n l i k e Spolsky (1970) , t h e a u t h o r p o s i t s a t r i u m v i r a t e

sys tem of r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i n g u i s t i c s and Janguage

t e a c h i n g i n t e rms o f i n c i g h t s , i m p l i c a t i o n s , and a p p l i c a t i o n s :

With i l l u s t r a t i v e examples from s t r u c t u r a l i s t p r i n c i p l e s ,

h e e x p l a i n s t h a t i n s i g h t s from l i n g u i s t i c s can i n c r e a s e o u r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of l anguage and consequen t ly

l anguage l e a r n i n g , w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y g i v i n g s p e c i f i c

i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t can b e b u i l t i n t o l a n g u a g e t each ing . I n

t h e same v e i n , d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t e a c h i n g a r e r o o t e d i n a

view of l e a r n i n g such t h a t t h e i r z p l i c a t i o n s of many l anguage

t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s can b e explain.ed by t h e h e l p of s t u d i e s

i n l i n g u i s t i c s e ~ : p e c i a l l y t h e o r i e s of l anguage a c q u i s i t i o n ;

and f i n a l l y , l i n g u i s t i c s can a c t d i r e c t l y upon t h e p r o c e s s

of l anguage t e a c h i n g th rough l anguage d e s c r i p t i o n s . T h i s

i s because l anguage d e s c r i p t i o n s p r o v i d e t h e b a s e s f o r t h e

s e l e c t i o n and o r d e r i n g of l a n g u a g e i t e m s and t h u s i n f l u e n c e s

t h e c r e a t i o n of t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l a . Thi.s l a f i t r e l a t i o n of

a p p l i c a t i o n is what t h e a u t h o r r e f e r s t o as a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h i s is t h e a n g l e from

which Johnson (1970) , Spo l sky (1970) , and Gomes de Matos

(1977) v iews t h e t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ( t h a t is from its

s t r i c t l y semant ic s e n s e ) , as opposed t o Van Ek (1971)

who views t h e term from a s t r i c t l y s eman t i ca l l y detached

p e r s p e c t i v e , whi le acknowledging i ts semant ic imprecis ion.

On t h e whole, F l i lk ins (1972) i s o b j e c t i v e because he

p r e s e n t s h i s d i s cuos ions , l oaded w i th examples, wi thout

any d i s p l a y of b i a s o r s en t imen t s , and coherent because

he ma in t a in s h i s s t ream of argument from t h e beginning t i l l

t h e end. However, i t l a c k s comprehensiveness a n d exp lana tory

fo rce . H i s u s e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o de s igna t e t h e

d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n t o language

t e ach ing does no t c r e a t e a complete thought about app l i ed

l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow senGe because i t does no t

encompass t h e d i v e r s e f i e l d of e n t e r p r i s e represented by

t h e d i s c i p l i n e (c f . Van Ek 1971). A s a m a t t e r of f a c t

what Wi lk ins (1972:23) d i s c u s s e s as s o u r c e s of i n fo rma t ion

i n language t e ach ing a r e t h e source d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t y i e l d

i n p u t s t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c c , and what he d e s c r i b e s as

"a pragmat ic bus iness" Wi lk ins (1972: 26) i s app l i ed

l i n g u i s t i c s e n t e r p r i s e . Hence, by t h i s approach, Wilkins

(1972) c o v e r t l y r e l i v e 8 Spolsky ' s (1970) i d e a of language

pedagogy o r educa t i ona l l i n g u i s t i c s ( c f . Spolsky 1386).

Again, Wilkins (1972) mention of t h e term a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c o does n o t r e v e a l t h e broad s ense of t h e term,

s o t h a t even i f one is t o unders tand a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

as t h e d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c e d e s c r i p t i o n s t o

language teach ing , s o t o speak, one would assume t h a t t h a t

-57 - is all t h a t t h e r e i s a b o u t t h e term.

What a p p e a r s t o b e an e x p l i c i t c h a r a c t e r i n a t i o n of

t h e d i s c i p l i n e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is S r i d h a r (1990).

The a u t h o r r e g a r d s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as a p l u r a l noun

r e f l e c t i n g t h e c o - e x i s t e n c e of a m u l t i p l e and d i v e r s e

c o n c e p t u a l f i e l d s . H e i d e n t i f i e d two d i f f e r e n t v iews of

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s . The narrow and b r o a d views. To

him, a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i a t h e narrow s e n s e i s equa ted

t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g f o r two r e a s o n s : f i r s t , u n l i k e

Mackey (1966). Johnson (1970) . Gomcx; de Matos (1971) who

produce a d i s t o r t e d and b i a s e d view of t h e o r i g i n of < .

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , h e s a y s "In t h e 1940's d u r i n g t h e

heyday of l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e Uni ted S t a t e s , some l anguage

t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s wished t o upgrade t h e i r s t a t u s by

a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h t h e more s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d of l i n g u i s t i c s " ,

S r i d h a r (1990:167); and second , t h e most e x t e n s i v e a p p l i c a -

t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s h a s been i n t h e f i e l d of l anguage

t e a c h i n g , a s a r e s u l t , l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g came t o b e

" regarded as a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s show p i e c e f o r demonstra-

t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s of l i n g u i s t i c c " ,

S r i d h a r ( 1990 $1 67 ) . Taking s i d e s w i t h W i l k i n s ( l 9 7 2 ) , t h e a u t h o r b e l i e v e s

t h a t t h e g o a l s of d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s a r e

d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , c o n s i d e r i n g

t h e f a c t t h a t what t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t s churn o u t

as " the most r e n e r a l , r i g o r o u s , f o r m a l l y e l e g a n t models

a r e o f t e n n o t t h e most u s e f u l o n e s i n f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s " ,

S r i d h u r (1990:168). He c o n t e n d s , q u i t e u n l i k e Spo l sky (1970)

and W i l k i n s ( 1 9 7 2 ) ~ t h a t t h e b a s i c concern o f a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s i s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n c e p t s o r

models of l anguage t e a c h i n g w i t h o u t t i l t i n g towards

J i n g u i c t i c s as t h e s o l e s o u r c e o f i n p u t s s i n c e a d e s i r a b l e

model f o r l anguage t e a c h i n g must n o t u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e from

l i n g u i s t i c s t h e o r i e s i n a t e c h n i c a l s e n s e . To b u t t r e s s

h i s c l a i m , t h e a u t h o r s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e o r i e s of communicative

competence and p r a g m a t i c s which have s o f a r y i e l d e d t h e

most u s e f u l and i n f l u e n t i a l i n s i g h t ; t o l anguage t e a c h i n g

( i .e . comrnuni~at:~ve approach) do n o t d e r i v e from l i n g u i s t i c

d e s c r i p t i o n s p e r s e b.ut from a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s and

p h i l o s o p h y of l a n g u a g e , which e x i s t as f u l l - f l e d g e d

independen t d i s c i p l i n e s . Appl ied l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e r e f o r e ,

i s s e e n as i n v o l v i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of " n o t i o n s disowned

o r a t l e a s t i g n o r e d by l i n g u i s t i c theory" , S r i d h a r (1990:169),

C h a r a c t e r i z i n g a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e b road view

S r i d h a r (1990-) i d e n t i f i e s two c l a s s e s of subject^ which,

though i n v o l v e a p p l i c a t i o n of linguistics, s o t o speak ,

have v e r y l i t t l e t o do w i t h l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s i n a s t r i c t

sense . According t o S r i d h a r (1990:70) " they move beyound

grammar t o a c h i e v e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l anguage i n a

b road s e n s e , i . e . as i t i s s i t u a t e d i n t i m e , p l a c e , s o c i e t y ,

c u l t u r e , and i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o t h e r c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s

and used f o r c o m m ~ n i c a t i o n ~ ~ .

These s u b j e c t a r e a s , t h e a u t h o r m n i n t a i q a r e n o t a p p l i e d

a r e a s of l i n g u i s t i c s , b u t complement t h e p a r t i a l account of

l anguage p rov ided by t h e fo rmal a s p e c t of l anguage s t u d y

( t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s ) . Be t h e r e f o r e , c a l l s them

"complementary o r extended l i n g u i s t i c s t ' , S r i d h a r (1990:170).

By s u g g e s t i n g t h i s w e l l a r t i c u l a t e d , a l t e r n a t i v e name

f o r t h e broad view of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s S r i d h a r (1990)

s a v e s u s from t e r m i n o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s and t h e i r

a t t e n d a n t confus ions . T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e t h e broad view of

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s goes by t h e term complementary o r extended

l i n g u i s t i c s " , t h e narrow views remains unchanged u n t i l w e

f i n d a b e t t e r term; u n l i k e what o b t a i n s i n Spolsky (1970)

where a n ambiguouc term p u r p o r t s t o r e s o l v e t h e ambigui ty

i n t h e term ' a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s 1 .

Fur thermore , S r i d h a r (1990:173) c a p t u r e s t h e g e n e r a l

i d e a of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow s e n s e a s f o l l o w s :

Applied l i n g u i s t i c s i p n o t a s i n g l e , u n i f i e d concep t , b u t t h e r e is a common t h r e e d t h a t r u n s th rough t h e v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s : a commitment t o e m p i r i c a l d a t a , a c o n t e x t u a l i z e d view of l a n ~ u a g e , a f u n c t i o n a l i s t emphasis , and a n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y openness. Applied l i n g u i s t i c s i s concerned w i t h l language i n i t s t o t a l human and environmenta l c o n t e x t ' . T h i s c o n t e x t - s e n s i t i v e , problem-or iented , performance- f r i e n d l y approach c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s o - c a l l e d a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s h a s a l r e a d y proved i ts worth and c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e l i m i t i n g assumpt ions of fo rmal l i n g u i s t i c s .

. ,

Concluding, he m a i n t a i n s t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s cannot be

c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d from o t h e r a.ll?.cd d i s c i p l i n e s l i k e

s o c i o l o g y , anth-opology, e t c . He, t h e r e f o r e , a d v o c a t e s a

- 6 0 - " u n i f i e d , i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t o t h e s t u d y o f

l a n g u a g e i n which l a n g u a g e would b e s t u d i e d i n a l l t h e i r

complex i ty and un iqueness i n s t e a d o f d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d

s e n t e n c e s " , S r i d h a r (1990:174).

T h i s a r t i c l e seems i n my view, t o be a p e r f e c t

c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s of t h e meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n

a l l i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s . It n o t o n l y r e v e a l s t h e v a r i o u s

s h a d e s of meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s b u t a l s o l i n k s

t h e s e s h a d e s of meaning t o t h e i r r o o t s . For i n s t a n c e , he

makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e u s e of a p p l i e d 1 i n g u . i s t i c s i n i t s

p u r e l y s e m a n t i c s e n s e ( i . e . t o r e f e r t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n

o f l i n g u i s t i c d z s c r i p t i o n s a l o n e t o l a n m a g e t e a c h i n g ) is ,

not, a n a c c i d e n t , , 6 e gave two r e a s o n s f o r t h i s view ( c f .

S r i d h a r 1990:167). He a l s o t e l l s u s why a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

i n t h e narrow s e n s e i s n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e domain of f o r m a l

l i n g u i s t i c s as t h e s o l e s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e ( c f . S r i d h a r 1990:

169) . F i n a l l y ; he g i v e s a n e l a ' b o r a t e e x p l a n a t i o n o f what

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e broad view s t a n d s f o r and

u l t i m a t e l y d e s c r i b e s t h e d i s c i p l i n e s covered by t h i s view

of a p p l i e d l i n g u i o t i c s as e x i s t i n c i n a r e l a t i o n of

complementar i ty w i t h d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s . He t h u s

s u g g e s t s t h e t e r m "complementary o r ex tended l i n g u i s t i c s "

f o r t h e b road view of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as a way o f

minimizing c o n f u s i o n s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e te rm

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .

S r i d h a r (1990) can be s a i d t o be o b j e c t i v e , c o h e r e n t ,

c o n c i s t e n t , comprehensive and e x p l a n a t o r i l y f o r c e f u l . It

i s o b j e c t i v e because i t is f a c t u a l , p r e s e n t i n g b o t h t h e

o r i g i n and meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s w i t h o u t any b i a s

c o h e r e n t and c o n s i ~ t e n t because h. is p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e

u n i f i e d and s y s t e m a t i c , comprehensive because i t a c c o u n t s

f o r t h e meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n a l l i t s c o m p l e x i t i e s ,

and e x p l a n a t o r i l y f o r c e f u l because h i s d i s c u s s i o n s a r e

b o t h l o g i c a l and convincing.

The l a t e s t we can f i n d abou t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s

Ranpton (1995) . a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t changes i n

a p p l i e d l i n g - u i s t i c s i n B r i t a i n compared w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n

a decade ago , The a u t h o r n o t e s t h a t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

i n B r i t a i n h a s s h i f t e d its f o c u s on l a n ~ u a g e pedagogy,

l i n g u i s t i c s and psychology towards l anguage and more g e n e r a l

s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s and phenomena, d e r i v i n g i n s i g h t s from

s o c i o l o g y , an th ropo logy , and media s t u d i e s . To e x p l a i n t h e s e

changcs Hampton (1995) borrows S t r e e t ' s (1984) d i e t i n c t i o n

between autonomous and i d e o l o g i c a l model6 o f l i t e r a c y ,

and t h e n , r e l a t e s t h e changes t o t h e s e models. He t h e r e f o r e ,

r e f e r s t o t h e p r e v i o u s s t a t e o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n

B r i t a i n as t h e autonomous model of a p p l i e d l i n c u i s t i c s ,

and t h e c u r r e n t s t a b e as t h e i d e o l o g i c a l model of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s .

To g i v e c redence t o h i s c l a i m , Rampton (1995:235)

o u t l i n e s t h e t e n e t s o f autonornoun and i d e o l o g i c a l models of

l i t e r a c y as g i v e n i n S t r e e t (1984) and compares t h e t e n e t s

o f autonomous model 1 i t e r a c . y t o second l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n

and E n g l i s h l anguage t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s i n t h e autonomous

model of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s . T h i s i s because , t o him,

t h e c l a i m i n t h e autonomous model of l i t e r a c y t h a t l i t e r a c y

i s a war ran t f o r c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i c m ( c : ~ . S t r e e t 1984)

t a l l i e s w i t h t h e i d e a i n t h e autonomous model of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s t h a t E n g l i s h l anguage t e a c h i n g (ELT) i s "an

e s s e n t i a l r equ i rement f o r m o d e r n i z a t i o n and a l a c k of

emphasis on t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l p n r t i c u l z r i t y of l anguage

l e a r n i n g increased t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t a b i l i t y o f

E n g l i s h l anguage t e a c h i n g (ELT)", Ramptmn (1995:236).

The i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e c l a i m s I s t h a t b o t h E n g l i s h language

t e a c h i n g and l i t e r a c y i n t h e autonomous model l e n t s u p p o r t

t o t h e p o l i t i c a l dominat ion of t h e n o n - i n d u s t r i a l i z e d

t h i r d wor ld by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d West.

However, w i t h t h e c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s i n a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s ( i .e . i d e o l o g i c a l model of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ) ,

a t t e n t i o n b e g i n s t o s h i f t from E n g l i s h l anguage t e a c h i n g

o v e r s e a s t o l anguage e d u c a t i o n back at home (UK) f o l l o w i n g

government i n i t i a t i v e s t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s t o d e s i g n

l anguage p o l i c i e s f o r t h e i r own country . With t h i s s h i f t

o f f o c u s , Rampton (1995:236) remarks " a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

i s brough t f a c e t o f a c e w i t h a n i n d i g e n i o u s t r a d i t i o n of

l a n g u a g e e d u c a t i o n t h a t h a s been much more committed t o

t h e l o c a l community r o o t s , and much more e x p l i c i . t l y

. . - 63 - concerned a b o u t t h e p o l i t i c s of l anguage use". Also

i n s t r u m e n t a l t o t h i s s h i f t o f a t t e n t i o n from autonomous

t o i d e o l o g i c a l model o f a p p l i e d 1 inguis t . j -cs i s t h e g e n e r a l

c r i t i q u e and r e d e f i n i t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m ( t h e t e n e t s a r e

o u t l i n e d i n Rampton (1995:237-8) which t h e a u t h o r b e l i e v e s

h e l p e d t o b u i l d up t h e autonomous model, A s he a p t l y

o b s e r v e s "autonon~ous models of l anguage u s e a r e d e e p l y

permeated by l i b e r a l a s sumpt ions , and i t is i n e v i t a b l e t h a t

when l i b e r a l i s m comes under a t t a c k , autonomous a p p l i e d

l inp;uio t : i .cs t f o u n d a t i o n s w i l l a l s o t remble" , Rampton (1995:

239

F i n a l l y , t h e a u t h o r , hav ing e s t a b l i s h e d t h e b a s e s ' -.

f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l model o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s s u g g e s t s

f o u r a l t e r n a t i v e r e s e a r c h domains f o r a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s :

I. .Service t o t h e s t a t e ;

2, Compet i t ion on t h e market ;

3 . Independent a n a l y f i i s and c r i t i q u e ;

4, New s o c i a l movement.

Rampton (1995) i s an accoun t o f 'ihe a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

p r a c t i c e s i n B r i t a i n p a s t and p r e s e n t . The i d e a i s t h a t

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s t o

l anguage t e a c h i n g and t h a t t h i n e n t e r p r i s e i n v o l v e s two

models. The f i r s t model - Autonomous model, i n v o l v e s t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e t e a c h i n g of second and

f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s which w a s i n vogue i n B r i t a i n i n t h e p a s t .

- 64 - The second and c u r r e n t model - I d e o l o g i c a l model involve^

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e t e a c h i n g of mother

tongue. I n t h i s l a t e r msdel r a m i f i c a t i o n s i n t e rms o f :

s e r v i c e t o t h e s ta te

c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e market e tc .

a r e t o be cons ide red .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

3.1 Summary

The d e f i n i t i o n o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is i n a s t a t e

o f f l u x , Again and a g a i n , s c h o l n r s h i p a t t e m p t s a

d e f i n i t i o n of t h e te rm w i t h o u t r e a l l y c a p t u r i n g i t . E3ch

a t t e m p t r a t h e r e l i c i t s v a r i o u s ,pzr t ia l , more o r l e s s

p a r t i s a n a c c o u n t o f t h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r , A s a m a t t e r of

f a c t , t h e s i t u a t i o n h e r e is comparable t o t h e p r o v e r b i a l

b l i n d men who d e s c r i b e d and d e f i n e d t h e e l e p h a n t , each ,

from t h e p o i n t of view of t h e p a r t h e cou ld touch. T h i s ,

by i m p l i c a t i o n , means t h a t t h e t e rm a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

d e n o t e s d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s t o d i f f e r e n t

a u t h o r s , s u g g e s t i n g d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s and f o c u s e s . Hence,

e v e r y c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e meaning of t h i s d i s c i p l i n e i s

r e s t r i c t e d e i t h e r i n t ime , s p a c e , o r i n some r e s p e c t , as

t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r . These v a r i o u s v iew p o i n t s of applj-ed

l i n g u i s t i c s have accumulated o v e r t h e y e a r s i n t o a v e r i t a b l e

m a s s of r a w m a t e r i a l s f o r r e s e a r c h .

We, t h e r e f o r e , d i s c o v e r i n o u r s t u d y of t h e s e t

l i t e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t s t r a p s of t h e view of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s d e r i v i n g from p r e v i o u s t h e o r i e s , p r a c t i c e s

and p e r s p e c t i v e s , which l i e i n w a i t t o b e s y n t h e s i z e d and

i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a u n i f i e d p a t t e r n . Lado (1957) f o r

i n s t a n c e , i s s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t l i n g u i s t i c

pe r iod . S t r u c t u r a l i s m is a ~ u b - f i e l d of fo rmal i sm which

views l a n g u a g e a s a sys tem of d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d code and

e q u a t e s t h o knowledge of n l a n g u s g e w i t h grammat ica l

competence. S t r u c t u r a l i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t l anguage i s h a b i t

and t h a t l e a r n i n g a new language c o n s i c t s i n l e a r n i n g a

new s e t of h a b i t . Hence, t o them d i f f i c : u l t i e s found i n

second l a n g u a g e s i t u a t i o n a r i s e because t h e l e a r n e r a l r e a d y

had a l a n g u a g e ( i .e . h i s mother tongue) which i n t e r f e r s

w i t h t h e second language. To t e a c h t h e c o r r e c t form and

a v o i d e r r o r s comple te ly , s t r u c t u r a l i s t s a d v o c a t e a p r o g n o s t i c

t e c h n i q u e - c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s - f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e s e

e r r o r s s o t h a t s t u d e n t s would be d r i l l e d t o a v o i d them.

Ludo (1957). a s t r u c t u r a l i s t , r e e a r d s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of

l i n g u i s t i c s as n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e p r a c t i c e of c o n t r a s t i v e

a n a l y s i s . He, t h e r e f o r e , s t r e s s e s a c a r e f u l comparison of

t h e n a t i v e and t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s of l e a r n e r s ac s o u r c e s of

r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s f o r succesnfu:L laneu33.gs t e a c h i n g and

l e a r n i n g . A d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n on e r r o r s i s , however,

h e l d by t r a n s f o r s a t i o n a l g e n e r a t i v e grammar (TG), a n o t h e r

sub-f i e l d o f f or~nali.sm. T h i s group b e l i e v e s t h a t a l l e r r o r s

i n second l a n g u a g e ~ i t u a t i o n are n o t caused by mother tongue

i n t e r f e r e n c e . They m a i n t a i n t h a t some e r r o r s a r e i n h e r e n t

i n t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s which c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s canno t

p r e d i c t . They, t h u s , a d v o c a t e a d i a g n o s t i c t e c h n i q u e - E r r o r a n a l y s i s . I n t h i s t e c h n i q u e e r ro rG a r e g a t h e r e d ,

c l a s s i f i e d , d e s c r i b e d and e x p l a i n e d t o d i s c o v e r t h e i r

cauces . CA and EA hence form t h e working t o o l s o f formalism.

- 67 - B e l l ( 1 9 8 1 ) ~ Van E l s e t a 1 (1984) , and S r i d h a r (1990)

d i s c u s s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s from t h e p o i n t of view of

f u n c t i o n a l i s m . What c h a r a c t e r i s e s f u n c t i o n a l i s m i s t h e

b e l i e f t h a t l i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t s o.f a l a n g u a g e is determined

by t h e f u n c t i o n s , tha t t h e y perform i n t h e s o c i e t i e s i n

which t h e y o p e r a t e . I n o t h e r words, f u n c t i o n a l i s m is

concerned w i t h t h e s o c i a l u s e s of l anguage and t h e way

l anguage f u n c t i o n s i n t h e everyday b u s i n c s o o f communication.

T h e r e f o r e , t o f u n c t i o n a l i s t s , knowledge of l anguage i s n o t

j u s t a m a t t e r of grammat ica l competence b u t a l s o of communi-

ca t iv . e competence. Because f u n c t i o n a l i s m drew i n s i g h t s

from l i n g u i s t i c s , s o c i o l o g y of l anguage , psychology of

l a n g u a g e , a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s , ph i losophy of

l a n g u a g e , e t c . B e l l (1981) , Van Els e t n l (19841, and

S r i d h a r (1990) p r e s e n t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as e c l e c t i c and

i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y .

Again from a t e r m i n o l o g i c a l a n g l e o f f o c u s , Mackey

( 1 9 6 6 ) ~ Spolsky (1970) , and Gomes de Matos (1971) p r e s e n t

a n a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y of t h e te rms "Applied" and " L i n g u i s t i c s "

w i t h a t ~ i n g e of mal ice . They r i g h t l y su .gges t t h a t what

happens i n t h e f i e l d of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c 6 i s g r e a t e r

t h a n t h e sum o f t h e two component t e r m s , b u t wrongly deny

t h e e x i s t e n c e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s . T h i s d e n i a l i s

e v i d e n t i n t h e i r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t no e x i s t i n g l i n g u i s t i c

t h e o r y can be s a i d t o be r e l e v a n t i n l anguake t e a c h i n g .

Spo l sky (1970) t h u s g o e s as f a r as s u g g e s t i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e

te rm which, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , c o u l d n o t do any j u s t i c e t o t h e

c o u r s e he pursues . It seems t o u s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t Mackey

(1966) and Spolsky (1970) , a s l anguage feathers, f e a r p o s s i b l e

l o s s of impor tance and hence though t t h a k t h e y cou ld ward

o f f what t h e y f e e l i s l i n g u i s t i c encroachment on t h e i r

p r o f e s s i o n by denying any u s e f u l n e s s of l i n g u b s t i c s i n

1.anguage t each ing .

A d i f f e r e n t approach t o t h i s t e r m i n o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y

is a p p a r e n t i n H a l l i d a y e t a1 ( 1964) , Van Ek ( 1 971 ) , Van Els

e t a1 (19841, and S r i d h a r (19901, who c o n s t r u c t i v e l y

acknowledges t h e t e r m i n o l o g i c a l i m p r e c i s i o n of a p p l i e d

1 i n p ; u i s t i c s . They p o i n t o u t u n e q u i v o c a l l y t h a t a p u r e l y

s e m a n t i c approach t o t h e te rm c r e a t e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t

o n l y t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s a r e a p p l i e d i n t h e

e x e r c i s e , These a u t h o r s , however, d e f i n e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

from a semant ica? . ly de tached p e r s p e c t i v e t o i n c l u d e Socio-

l i n g u i s t i c s , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s , p r a g m a t i c s , l anguage pedagogy,

e t c . H a l l i d a y e t a1 (1964) , i n a d d i t i o n t o a s e m a n t i c a l l y

de tached d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d 1 i n g u i s t i . c s g i v e t h e l a b e l

Methodice t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n i t s p u r e l y s e m a n t i c sense .

3.2 Conc lus ion

It is b o t h d e f i n i t e and i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e t h a t any

p r a c t i c a l f i e l d of e n t e r p r i s e t h a t h a s l a n g u a g e , wholly o r

p a r t l y , as t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , must of n e c e s s i t y r e q u i r e

t h e knowledge of t h e n a t u r e of l angunge , and a s such ,

t h e a p p J i c u t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s of some s o r t . T h i s i s why

i n t h e c a s e o f l a n g u a g e t e .nch ing , f o r i n s t a n c e , Gannon and

Cgerniewoka (1980:131 a s s e r t V-t is e n t i r e l y r e a s o n a b l e f o r

t h e t e a c h e r t o r a n s a c k , w i t h o u t compunct ion , t h e a v a i l a b l e

s & o r e s o f l i n g u i s t i c knowledge". Moreover , t h e e x t e n t t o

which l a n g u a g e p e r m e e t e s a p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d of endeavour

d e t e r m i n e s t h e d e g r e e of a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c knowledge,

T h i s e x p l a i n s why C o r d e r (1973) p o s i t s t h r e e l e v e l s o r o r d e r s

of a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s , w i t h t h e s c o p e of a p p l i c a b i l i t y

w i d e s t i n t h e f i r s t o r d e r and n m ~ o w e s t i n t h e t h i r d o r d e r

of a p p l i c a t i o n ,

It is a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t knowledge a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f

l a n g u a g e d e r i v e s from t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s on t h e n a t u r e o f

l a n g u a g e , and s i n c e t h e s e t h e o r i e s a r e v a r i e d a n d m u l t i p l e ,

t h e r e i s l i t t l e wonder why t h e r e s h o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s

i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s . It is

o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

would d i f f e r a c r o s s g r o u p s w i t h d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l

p e r s u a s i o n s . However, A l l e r t o n (1979:3) a f t e r a c r i t i c a l

a p p r a i s a l o f d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s o f l i n ~ u i s t i c s r emarks t h a t

" t h e a r e a s o f agreement among l i n g u i s t s of d i f f e r e n t p e r s u a -

s i o n s a r e much more g r e a t e r t h a n one c a n Imag ine from t h e

r a t h e r ponde rous l a b e l s d e s i g n a t i n g d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s .

I n t h e same v e i n , t h e r e i s a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e of u n i t y

i n t h e d i v e r s e p e r c e p t i o n s o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s s t u d i e d

i n t h e s e l e c t e d l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s more o r l e s s s u g g e s t s

t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and , t o some

e x t e n t , i t s p r a c t i o n e r s a r e much more hornogenious t h a n might

appear from t h e jung le of te rminology. I t , t h e r e f o r e , means

t h a t homoeenuity of purpose p resupposes h e t e r o g e n u i t y Qf

m a t e r i a l s . We, t h u s , g e n e r a l l y i d e n t i f y two major approaches

t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s :

(a) The Broad Approach

( b ) The Narrow Approach.

3.2.1 The Broad Approach

T h i s i s an approach which c o v e r s t h e whole gamut of

s t u d i e s i n which l anguage forms p a r t of t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r

and r e q u i r e s t h e knowledge o f t h e n a t u r e of l anguage t o s o l v e

t h e p r a c t i c a l problems t h a t a r i s e t h e r e i n . B a s i c a l l y , t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s concerned w i t h h e r e i s t h e

pr imary a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g c i s t i c s o r f i r ~ t o r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n

as e x p l i c a t e d i n Corder (1973). The Broad approach is

l a b e l l e d complementary o r extended l i n g u i s t i c s i n S r i d h a r

( lggO) , and c o v e r s such f i e l d s of s t u d i e s as s o c i o l i n @ s t i c s ,

p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s , ,speech p a t h o l o g y , communication

e n g i n e e r i n g , computa t iona l l i n g u i s t i c s , ma themat ica l

l i n g u i s t i c s , n e u r o l i n g u i s t i c s t o mention b u t a few. I n

t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s , knowledge of t h e n a t u r e of l anguage

would i n v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s a i d r e s e a r c h . I n o t h e r words,

i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e c a u s e s and e f f e c t s

o f t h e problems thak a r i s e i n t h e i r v a r i o u s f i e l d s ,

s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e s e f i e l d s c o n s u l t works on t h e n a t u r e of

language. Consequent ly , t h e s e s p e c i a l i s t s a r e a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t s i n t h e b road s e n s e of t h e term. However, each

s p e c i a l i s t p r e c i s e l y i s r e f e r r e d t o i n t e r m s of t h e s p e c i f i c

u r e a of s t u d y he a p p l i e s t h e knowledge of language. Hence,

we have s o c i o l i n g u i s t s , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t s , speech p a t h o l o g i s t s ,

communication e n g i n e e r , e t c . a s t h e c a s e may be. To avo id

c o n f u s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e , f o l l o w i n g from

S r i d h a r ( l g 9 0 ) , t o r e g a r d t h e s e d i o c i p l i n e s n o t a s i n v o l v i n g

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e ma.i.n, b u t a s complements

o r e x t e n s i o n s of l i n g u i s t i c s , I f we buy t h i s i d e a t h e n ,

t h e broad meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i ~ t i c s would be synonymous

w i t h complementary o r extended 1 i . n g u i s t i c s .

3.2.2 The Narrow approach

T h i s i s a n approach t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s t h a t d e l i m i t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e knowledge

of l anguage t o l anguage t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g a lone . Our

s t u d y of t h e s e t l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s two i m p r e s s i o n s on t h i s

narrow approach:

The f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n d e n o t e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of fo rmal

l i n g u i s t i c s t u d y t o l anguage t e a c h i n g , T h i s i s t h e i d e a of

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s p o p u l a r i s e d i n t h e heyday of s t r u c t u r a l i s m ,

and i n f l u e n c e d by t h e f i v e p r i n c i p a l t e n e t s of s t r u c t u r a l i s m ,

namely: (a) Language is s p e e c h n o t w r i t i n g ( b ) A l anguage is

a s e t of h a b i t s ( c ) Teach t h e l anguage n o t abou t t h e

language. ( d ) A l anguage i s what n a t i v e s p e a k e r s s a y , n o t

what one t h i n k s t h e y ought t o say.

( e ) Language a r e d i f f e r e n t .

Given t h e s e t e n e t s t h e r e f o r e , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s was

r e g a r d e d as synonymous w i t h c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s . It i s

t h i s f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e narrow approach t h a t we r e f e r

t o i n o u r e v a l u a t i o n of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s t h e semant i c

approach t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s . T h i s is

because a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is used i n a s t r i c t l - y s e m a n t i c

s e n s e of t h e t e r m s 'Appl ied ' and ' L i n g u i s t i c s ' . H a l l i d a y

e t a1 (1964) r e f e r t o t h i s shade of meaning of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s a s Methodics. Again., Mackey (19661, Johnson

(1970) and Spolsky (1970) r e f e r t o t h i s shade of meaning

of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and base t h e i r c r i t i c i s m of t h e

s u b j e c t on t h e semant i c l i m i t a t i o n of tli(-> tcriil. F i n a l l y ,

Lado (1957) and W i l k i n s (1972) have t h i s Game i m p r e s s i o n

o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s when t h e y u s e t h e term. Applied

l i n g - u i s t i c s viewed from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h u s , r e f e r s

whol ly and e n t i r e l y t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of fo rmal l i n g u i s t i c

p r i n c i p l e s t o afid l.anguage t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .

The second i m p r e s s i o n of t h e narrow approach t o t h e

d e f i n i t i o n o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of

s t u d i e s from l i n g u i s t i c s , psychology, ph i losophy , p ragmat ics ,

and o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and

l e a r n i n g . T h i s a s p e c t o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s d e r i v e s from f u n c t i o n a l i s m , a view on l anguage

"as a dynamic, open sys tem by means of which members of a

community exchange in fo rmat ion1 ' , B e l l (1981:112).

T h i s s h i f t of f o c u s from s t r u c t u r a l i s m t o f u n c t i o n a l i s m

consequen t ly , h i g h l i g h t s t h e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g of

language f u n c t i o n s o v e r and above l anguage ~ t r u c t u r e s .

Applied l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h i s c u r r e n t s t a t e , t h e r e f o r e , came

t o be r e g a r d e d a s an e c l e c t i c f i e l d of e n t e r p r i s e which

draws i t s r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s from v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s i n

o n a t t e m p t t o enhance l anguage t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g . T h i s

i m p r e s s i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c o cor responds t o what Spolsky

(1970) c a l l s l anguage pedagogy a n d l a t e r c a l l e d Educa t iona l

L i n g u i s t i c s ( c f . Spolsky 1978b). Moreover, i t i c i n t h i s

s e n s e t h a t H a l l i d a y e t a 1 (19641, Van Ek (19711, B e l l (19811,

Van E1.s e t nl (1984), and S r i d h a r ( l gg0 ) u s e t h e term

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n l anguage t each ing . The p r i n c i p a l

approach t o l anguage t e a c h i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s t h e

communicative f u n c t i o n n l / n o t i o n a l approach t o l anguage

t e a c h i n g i n which t h e major o b j e c t i v e is t o i n ~ t i l communica-

t i v e competence i n t h e l e a r n e r s .

A t t h i s j u n c t u r e , we a r e compelled by our s t u d y t o s t a t e ,

c a t e g o r i c a l l y , t h a t t h e t e rm app:Lied l i n p p i s t i c s cannot

evoke one, s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d d e f i n i t i o n . It i s an age-long

p r a c t i c e which i n t h e p r o c e s s of e v o l u t i o n , e x p e r i e n c e - s l i g h t

a d a p t a t i o n a l semant ic muta t ion , A t i t s i n c e p t i o n i n t h e

1940s, a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s took o f f w i t h t h e f i r s t i m p r e s ~ i o n

of t h e narrow view, The s t r u c t u r a l i s t s who i n i t i a t e d t h e

p r a c t i c e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s s t a r t e d by a p p l y i n g formal

l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s u s i n g t h e t e c h n i a u e of c o n t r a s t i v e

- 74 - a n a l y s i s t o d i s c o v e r what t o t e a c h and l e a r n th rough t h e

a u d i o l i n g u a l method of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . When t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l

g e n e r a t i v e grammar (TG) a r o s e i n t h e 1950s , E r r o r a n a l y s i s

came t o sup lemen t c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s and t h e c o g n i t i v e

method of l a n g u s g e t e a c h i n g came i n vogue. A t t h i s p o i n t ,

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s r e f e r s s t r i c t l y t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f

f o r m a l l h n g - u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .

I n c i d e n t a l l y , when a n o t h e r t h e o r y - f u n c t i o n a l i s m a r o s e i n

t h e 1 9 7 0 s , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g t o o k o n

i ts p r e s e n t and c u r r e n t meaning t o r e f l e c t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of

b o t h f o r m a l and f u n c t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h e

b e t t e r m e n t of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g . A p p a r e n t l y ,

t h e o r i e s t h a t a r e a p p l i e d i n t h i s c u r r e n t s e n s e of a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a r e m u l t i p l e and v a r i e d .

They i n c l u d e t h o s e o f f o r m a l l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y which draws

i m p e t u s f rom t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s , and p u n c t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c

t h e o r y which draws i m p e t u s f rom s o c i o l o g i . c a 1 t h e o r i e s ,

p h f l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s , p sycho log i . ca1 t h e o r i e s , t h e o r i e s o f

l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , l a n g u a g e u s e and v a r i a t i o n s and p r a g m a t i c s ,

t o men t ion b u t a few. I n t h e l i g h t o f a l l t h e s e s o u r c e

t h e o r i e s f rom d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g assumed t h e second i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e

na r row view ac a n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f i e l d o f s t u d y . Out of

t h e n e e d t o t e a c h l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s which f u n c t i o n a l i s m

s t r e s s e s , t h e r e a r o s e t h e communicat ive app roach t o l a n g u a g e

t e a c h i n g . I n t h e preGence of d i f f e r e n t comrnunic?tive f u n c t i o n s ,

- 75 - There a r o s e t h e n e c e s s i t y t o know t h e e x a c t communicative

f u n c t i o n t h a t l e a r n e r s need t o mas te r i n t h e target languages .

T h e r e f o r e , t o meet t h i s . n e c e s s i t y , t h e v a r i o u s needs of

l e a r n e r s a r e c a r e f u l l y .s tudied and a n a l y s e d i n t h e p r a c t i c e

of t h e t e c h n i q u e o f Needs A n a l y s i s (NA). The r e s u l t of t h i s

a n a l y s i s i s a l i t a n y of books on t h e same l anguage b u t

des igned t o meet d i f f e r e n t l anguage needs of l e a r n e r s .

Ultimate1.y we now have l a n g u a g e f o r s p e c i f i c purposes (LSP),

such t h a t books e n t i t l e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , Eng l i ch f o r Academic

Purpose (EAP), E h g l i s h f o r S c i e n c e and Technology (EST),

E n g l i s h f o r Eng inee r ing (EC), e t c . a r e common-puce i n t h e

rnarke t . From t h e f o r e g o i n g , we l o g i c a l l y conc lude t h a t a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s i n l ~ n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ( i . e . t h e narrow view) h a s

always been i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y . It h a s a lways i n v o l v e d

l i n g u i s t i c s f o r i ts i n p u t and o t h e r d i e c i p l i n e s f o r d e l i v e r y .

F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e e r a o f structuralism/transformational

grammar (TG) ( ~ o r m a l i s m ) , ~ o n t r a s t i v e / ~ r r o r a n a l y s i s p rov ided

t h e t o o l f o r l i n g u i s t i c i n p u t w h i l e psychology p r o v i d e d

t h e i n p u t f o r d e l i v e r y i n t h e form o f method of t e a c h i n g

(i .e. a u d i o l i n g u a l and c o g n i t i v e methods) . I n t h e e r a of

f u n c t i o n a l i s m , Needs A n a l y s i s p r o v i d e d t h e l i n g u i s t i c and

o t h e r s o c i o l o g i c a l i n p u t s f o r t h e c o u r s e c o n t e n t w h i l e

psychology p rov ided t h e i n p u t f o r d e l i v e r y . Based on t h i s ,

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s which o r i g i n a l l y meant l i n g u i s t i c

a p p l i c a t i o n t o l anguage t e a c h i n g s t i l l r e t a i n s t h a t concept

- 76 - i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t i c n o t i o n . What h a s d i f f e r e d i s t h e

e x t e n t of i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n .

Fur the rmore , from t h e broad p o i n t of view, a p p l i e d

l i n g u i s t i c s i s p e r c e i v e d as some k i n d of p r a c t i c a l e x e r c i s e s

i n which l i n g u i s t i c s i s involved. T h i s k i n d of e x e r c i s e i s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e a p p l i e d s c i e n c e s , such as a p p l i e d

medic ine o r a p p l i e d phys ics . I n t h e s e a p p l i e d c c i e n c e s ,

t h e t h e o r i e s which f i n d l a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e fo rmula ted

j u s t f o r t h e i r own s a k e , independent of p a r t i c u l a r e x i s t i n g

problems. I n t h i n s e n s e , t h e r e f o r e , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

would mean p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , , w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s

of human a c t i v i t y , of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s o r r e s u l t s

fo rmula ted and a r r i v e d a t th rough s c i e n t i f i c e f f o r t s and

t h e o r e t i c a l th ink ing . J u s t l i k e o t h e r a p p l i e d science^,

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ( i n t h e broad s e n s e ) i s a consc ious

p r a b < i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s t o d i s c i p l i n e s

o u t s i d e of l i n g u i s t i c s . These l i n g u i s t i c s t h e o r i e s a r e

fo rmula ted w i t h o u t t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e s e o u t s i d e d i s c i p l i n e s

a t h e a r t b u t a r e d i s c o v e r e d t o b e r e l e v a n t t o them.

A s a m a t t e r of f a c t , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h i s

p e r s p e c t i v e cor responds t o what Lyons (1981:36) r e f e r s t o

as " ~ 4 a c r o l . i n g u i ~ t i c s ' ~ . T h i s means an e x e r c i s e i n which

t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of l anguage a r e used i n v a r i o u s

r e s p e c t s bo p r o v i d e e x p l a n a t i o n s on: t h e way i n which

l a n g u a g e s a r e a c q u i r e d , s t o r e d i n t h e b r a i n o r used i n

v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s , , t h e in te rdependence between l anguage and

c u l t u r e , t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l mechanisms

t h a t a r e i n v o l v e d i n l a n g u a g e behav iour ; and i n s h o r t ,

e v e r y o t h e r t h i n g o u t s i d e m i c r o l i n g u i s t i c s ( i . e . t h e s t u d y

o f l a n g u a g e i n i t s e l f and f o r i t s e l f ) .

From t h e f o r e g o i n g , i t i s l o g i c a l t o conclude t h a t

t h e t e rm appJ ied l i n g u i s t i c s is a s u p e r o r d i n a t e te rm which

h a s two co-hyyonyrns - Appl ied l i n g u i s t i c s i n l anguage

t e a c h i n g (i .e. t h e narrow view) , and a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s

i n t h e b r o a d s e n s e ( i . e . macro l ingu i s t i cc ; , complementary

o r extended l i n g u i s t i c s ) . Thus i n o u r view,. t h e term

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n i t s p r e s e n t 13ense i n c l u d e s b u t is

n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o l anguage t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g . Applicd

l i n g u i s t i c s i n l anguage t e a c h i n g i s t h e r e f o r e a ' d e l i m i t e d

a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ' .

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