university of maiduguri maiduguri, nigeria centre for ... 1-5/soc 229... · 1 university of...

1

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURIMaiduguri, Nigeria

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

Social Sciences

SOC 229: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY I (3 UNITS)

Introduction to Social Psychology Units: 3

STUDY GUIDE

GENERAL INFORMATION

Course Code and Title: SOC 229: Introduction to Social Psychology ICredit Unit: 2

Year: 2015Total Hours - 28 hours @ two per Week of Study.

For any queries or Questions contact the Course Lecturer Using your email through the Centre forDistance Learning Portal.You are welcome to this study Unit. Each Unit is arranged to simplify your study. In each topic of theUnit we have introduction, learning outcome, in-text information, in-text questions and answers,summary and self assessment exercises. In-text questions and answers serve as motivation for yourreading and to encourage to pay attention to major points in the text. Tutors will be available atdesignated contact Centre for Tutorial. Meet them to resolve your questions and other guide. TheCentre expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could supplement thestudy with more information from the list of references and suggested reading available in each studyUnit.PRACTICE EXERCISESSELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES (SAES)This is provided at the end of each topic or Study Session. The exercises can help you to assess whetheror not you have actually studied and understood the topic/study session. Solutions to the exercises areprovided at the end of the Study Unit for you to assess yourself.HOW TO PREPARE FOR EXAMINATIONTo prepare for the examination you should read and understand the Study Materials provided for you onC.D.ROM, prints or downloads from the Portal.Other things you need to prepare for examination include understanding all sample questions at the endof every Study Session/topic Reading the suggested/recommended reading texts.ASSESSMENTS

-The continuous assessment for all courses consist of 30%.-The Examination shall make up 70% of the total Marks.-Feedback and advice is a component of the continuous assessment

The Examination shall be conducted at the Centre for Distance learning (Centre). Students are to come

to the Centre on the Examination date with all the necessary requirements. The Examination is

Computer based or e-testing one.


1.0 STUDY SESSION 1: DEFINITION AND USES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Social psychology looks into all facets of human social interaction - how people behave when

interacting and the processes influencing this interaction. It studies how people’s beliefs, feelings

and behaviors are affected by other persons. Topics of interest to social psychologists are

personal perception and attribution processes, attitude formation and change, aggression,

prejudice and interpersonal attraction. Most social psychologists work in academic settings, but

some work in government agencies and private business doing applied research

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of the study session you should be able to:

i. Explain and define social psychology

ii. Explain the various objectives and uses of social psychology.

1.2.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors are

influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. In this definition, scientific

refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

include all psychological variables that are measurable in a human being. The statement that

others’ presences may be imagined or implied suggests that uses are prone to social influence.

The basic questions in social psychology are: How do humans act? How do they know? How do

they develop? And how do they differ among themselves?


1.2.2 AMIS OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY

Scientific psychology is concerned with the explanation, prediction and control of behavior

Question 1: What is social psychology?

Answer 1: Social Psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and

behaviours are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

Question 2: What is culture?

Answer 2: Culture is a set of rules or standard which when acted upon by the members of a

society produce behavior that falls within a range or variance, culture is shared and learned.

1.3 Summary

We started this module with the definition of social psychology, its concerns and aims. Social

psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feeling and behaviors are influenced

by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

1.4 References:

Moscovici, S., Markova, 1(2006) the making of modern social psychology Cambridge,

UK: polity press.

Allport., G. W. (1985). “The historical background of social psychology”.


2.0 STUDY SESSION: PSYCHOLOGY AS A BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Psychology claims to be behavioral science. To what extent is this true? Indeed what is

science and what parameters do we use in describing a discipline as scientific? Having become

familiar with the meaning of, and topics in Psychology we now discuss the scientific status of

psychology as well as its major methods of study.

2.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the session you should be able to

i. Become conversant with the meaning and parameters of the scientific method

ii. Learn the methodology of psychology and its limitations.

iii. Learn to appreciate the necessity of a multiple approach to the study of human and

animal behavior

2.3.1 PARAMETERS OF SCIENCE

Science is not associated only with hardware such as test tubes, microscopes as in the physical

and natural sciences. Neither does it refer to the particular body of knowledge, information or

even accuracy. Nor is Science is clothing or paraphernalia, subject matter or content. According

to Wallace and Sechrest (1973) “....it is not subject matter but method of study that defines

science. The word science does not refer to any particular body of information, nor does it refer

to the accuracy with which various predictions can be made. Disciplines are more or less

scientific as they employ in greater or lesser degree the methods of inquiry that characterize

science in general,” ( p 38-39). The scientific method refers to a set of values and attitudes which


consist of - the search for empirical evidence; maintaining objectivity; abiding by the rules of

conduct acceptable to scientists everywhere; and openness and willingness to recognize and

accept findings that may contradict present theories and hypotheses.

2.3.2 METHODS OF STUDY

Because psychology overlaps with many other disciplines, its methods are as varied as the

problems that it attempts to investigate. In general the methods range from simple observation to

rigorous experimentation

2.3.2.1 NATURALIST1C OBSERVATIONS

Observation as a method of inquiry is appropriate in exploratory or early phases of investigation

when the basic issues and parameters of a problem are not well known. This method involves the

systematic observations of human or animal behavior as it occurs in its natural environment. As

much as possible the observer must maintain a physical and social distance from the subjects in

order to avoid interference with behavior as it ordinarily occurs. This method helps in providing

a “big picture” of the subject’s general behavior. Examples are observing children in a

classroom, the use of video camera in observing driver behavior.

2.3.2.2 CORRELATIONAL STUDIES

This involves taking measurements on two variables and assessing whether there is a significant

relationship between them. A significant correlation provides a basis for prediction of the

quantity of each variable based on the quantity of the other. For example, to examine the

relationship between anxiety and learning we can measure the anxiety levels of anxious and non

Soc 299:

:


anxious persons in learning situations. We then use CORRELATIONAL statistical methods to

establish the extent of this relationship.

2.3.2.3 SURVEY METHODS

This involves the use of questionnaires and structured interview. These two methods are to

measure the opinions, attitudes or values of a large number of respondents in a short span of

time. The respondents complete the questionnaires themselves while for the structured interview

the interviewer or research assistant asks the questions and fills in the answers. Usually a

probability sampling procedure is used to select the respondents for the survey. This random

selection procedure provides an opportunity to all members of a population to be included in the

sample. Sampling is very important to survey techniques because the type of sampling

determines the statistical analyses that can be employed.

2.3.2.4 EXPERIMENTATION

Experimentation is often the ideal and most rigorous method of psychological investigation when

the variables involved are well enough known to allow for control, quantification and

measurement. In a classical experiment, the researcher has control over one or more independent

variables and designs the study to determine the effect of the independent variables upon a

dependent variable. Another set of factors called control variables are held constant so that they

will not influence the effect of the independent variables upon the dependent variable.

Experiments may be conducted in the laboratory or in the “field” (general environment).

Greater control may be established in laboratory experiments by eliminating all “Extraneous

Variables” such as lighting effects, temperature influences etc. For example, if an experimenter

is interested in the effects of room temperature on examination performance she may administer


two comparison tests: one group of “Subjects” exposed to higher room temperatures might be

called the Experimental Group while the second group who might be exposed to more ordinary

room temperatures would be called the “control Group”.

The use of experimentation, unlike the other methods, allows for conclusions about cause and

effect to be made.

2.3.2.5 CASE STUDIES

Clinical settings produce interesting case studies in Psychology. This method studies one

individual (or case) in detail. It was used by Freud in developing his theories of personality and

by Piaget in developing his theories of human development A large quantity of data is gathered

on a single case and certain generalizations made about other individuals with the same

background and symptoms.

2.3.2.6 TESTING

This is the most widely used method within psychology. Various tests are available to assess

intelligence, aptitude, achievement, interests, and personality. An example is The Stanford –

Binet intelligence. Achievement tests achievement in a particular discipline. Interest inventories

attempt to measure the breadth and depth of the subject’s interests. Personality tests are usually

designed to give a picture of the subject’s major personality traits. They are divided into

projective personality tests and objective personality tests. In objective tests, subjects can control

what they choose to reveal about themselves, whereas in projective tests, the subjects are unable

to control what is revealed.

Soc 299:


2.3.3 THE USE OF STATISTICS

Statistics is used in both psychological research design and analyses especially in statistical

testing. There are two broad types of statistics: descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive

statistics describes and summarizes the data. Examples are the mode, median and the mean;

graphical representations of data, frequency distributions, cross tabulations and the use of

percentages. Inferential statistics are more complex, because they are calculated using the

descriptive statistics so that some conclusion can be inferred from the data and generalized to

similar populations. Inferential statistics are used to determine whether two conditions are the

same or different (the notion of statistical significance). Examples of inferential statistics are the

chi-square, t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and multiple regressions.

2.4 SUMMARY

In regarding psychology as a behavioral science we started by discussing the parameters of

science and concluded that science refers to a method of doing things rather than to subject

matter. We then proceeded to examine the various methods employed by psychologists in their

study of human behavior. These methods range from observations to experimentations to the use

of statistics.

2.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

Answer the following questions (True or False)

i. What is a science depends on the subject matter (True or False)

ii. Psychology is not a true science (True or False)

iii. Observation as a method of inquiry is appropriate in later phases of study (True or False)

iv. Survey methods are qualitative in nature (True or False)


v. Experimentation is the best method in the social sciences (True or False)

vi. Correlation techniques are used establish causation (True or False)

2.6 REFERENCE

Aliport, G. W (1985). “The historical background of social psychology”. In Lindzey, G;

Aronson, E. The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.p.5

Sewell, W. H (1989). “Some reflections on the golden age of interdisciplinary social

psychology”. Annual Review of Sociology 15: 1—17:10. 1146/annurev.so.

15.080189.000245.

Moscovici, S; Markova, 1(2006). The Making of Modern Social Psychology. Cambridge, UK:

Polity Press.

Elmes, D. G., Cantowitz, B. H., & Rodiger, H. L. (1995). Research Methods in Psychology. (5th

Ed.). St. Paul: West.

Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psycho1o’y. Idah: Adura Printers.

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of Psychology.Tasca, Illinois: Peacock

Publishers.


3.0 STUDY SESSION: A SHORT HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Although there were some older treatises about social psychology, such as those by Islamic

philosopher Al-Farabi (Apharabius), the discipline of social psychology, as its modern day

definition, began in the United States at the dawn of the 20th century. However, the discipline

had already developed a significant foundation. Following the 18th century, those in the

emerging field of social psychology were concerned with developing concrete explanations for

different aspects of human nature. They desired to discover concrete cause and effect

relationships that explained the social interactions in the world around them. In order to do so,

they believed that the scientific method, an empirically based scientific measure, could be

applied to human behavior.

This section is concerned with an outline of the historical development of psychology.

Psychology is both old and new. It has emerged from several disciplines. Psychology is thus both

a natural and a social science. As such, a detailed history of the discipline is not possible here.


At the end of the session you should be able to

i. Gain an understanding of the origins and development of psychology;

ii. Become fascinated by the study of behavior and mental processes.

3.3.1 THE BEGINNINGS

Psychology is both an old and a new discipline. It is old because it was always part of the

philosophy especially ancient Greek philosophy. With its roots in ancient Greek Philosophy,


psychology has also been regarded as a philosophical science. Psychology is new because

scientific psychology emerged ‘between 1860 and 1880. Modern psychology started with the

establishment in 879 of the first psychology laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Wundt is

regarded as the father of experimental psychology. As a science it has its roots in biology,

medicine and physics.

3.3.2 SEPARATION OF PSYCHOIDGY FROM PHILOSOPHY

Psychology emerged as a separate discipline in the 9 Century as a result of the development of

two lines of reasoning, the Rational Approach by Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) and the

Empirical Approach by John Locke (1632-1704).

According to Rene Descartes the human body is like a machine but it also has a conscious soul.

There human being is unique because of this dualism of body and soul. Both are separate. He

argues that many of the human ideas ‘are inborn and determined by the structure of the conscious

mind itself.

John Locke challenged this view, arguing instead. that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa, a blank

slate. Human experiences transmitted through the senses mold each of our minds to make us

unique. This led to the emphasis on the effects of experience, perception, and the role of learning

and memory in the explanation of human behavior. We should understand the mind by analyzing

its components instead of discussing a mystical “soul”. This means that an experimental study of

the human mind was possible.


3.3.3 DISCOVERIES IMPORTANT TO PSYCHO1DGY

i. Pierre Flowers (1794-1867) discovered that distinct parts of the brain controlled distinct and

different functions of the body.

ii. Charles Bell (174-1842O and Francois Magerdie (1783-1855) discovered that most nerves in the

human body were concerned with EITHER sensory functions (sending information to the brain)

or motor functions (taking messages from the brain) to the muscles and the other structures but

not with both.

These experiments led to the realization that an experimental science of the mind was possible.

The mind was not just a spiritual construct but a biological reality that could be explored through

research. This gave rise to the birth of physiological psychology.

3.4 SUMMARY

Psychology is an old discipline having emerged from ancient Greek philosophy. However, as a

scientific discipline it is relatively recent with the establishment of a psychology laboratory in

1879. Because of its diverse background psychology is both a social and natural science.


1. Psychology is an old discipline because __________________

2. Psychology is a new discipline because _________________

3. The father of modern psychology is _____________________

4. The Rational Approach developed by_______________ states that _________

5. The Empirical An1roach developed by ____________states that ______


6. Which part of the brain controls the right side of the brain?

___________

3.6 REFERENCE

LeabLey, T. H. A History of Modern Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.


Enwuchola, j. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah: Adura Printers.

Wallace, J. and Sechrest, L.(1973) The Nature and Study of Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: PeacockPublishers.


4.0 STUDY SESSION: MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

These are schools of thought or perspectives that people shared while working in the field.

Historically speaking, these schools of thought were generally led by a primary thinker with

many practicing psychologists as followers. For many, their particular perspective dominated

everything they did in the field in their practice, in the way they analyzed their clients, their

prescriptions for treatment, and their diagnoses. Some of these schools of thought died out due to

insufficient methodologies to sustain them. Others are still around today and have been

integrated into current models.


At the end of the topic you should be able to

i. Become aware of the major schools of psychology;

ii. Become familiar with the contributions of early major figures in the field.

4.3.1 STRUCTUALISM

Founded by Wilhelm Wundt of Germany structuralism attempted to find the structural properties

of mind and consciousness. Their method of investigation was known as analytic introspective

techniques which was a way of isolating elements of which experiences are made. Structuralists

argued that psychology should focus on the structure of consciousness. This structure had 3

components: objective sensations, subjective feelings, and images. They wanted to know what

the mind (or consciousness) contained and in what quantity.


4.3.2 FUNCTIONALISM

The functionalist school, which was based on Charles Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory, was made

popular by William James of Harvard University. He argued that psychology should be

concerned with the adaptive functions of behavior. According to him the mind is a functional

organ that contributes to the survival of the individual. William James thus has a practical

approach to p6ychology and was more interested in what the mind does rather than what it was

made of, Psychology should emphasize the function and purpose of thought or consciousness.

William James is often regarded as the Father of Contemporary Psychology, not just because of

his voluminous book on Psychology but also because of his effort in directing psychology to

relevant and practical everyday human concerns.

4.3.3 BEHAVIORISM

This school was made popular by John B Watson and B. F Skinner. Watson believed that

structuralism, functionalism and psycho dynamic theories are superstitions because we can’t

measure what they claim to study. They argue that psychology as the science and study of

behavior should be concerned with observable, measurable behavior, not mind. Observable

behavior was more important because you could not measure thinking or feeling. Watson held

that internal events such as thoughts, images, feelings, and intentions are unmeasurable, and so

should not be part of the subject matter of psychology.

4.3.4 THE GESTALT SCHOOL

Led by Max Wertheimer, this group of psychologists focuses on the organization of perception

and thinking in a “whole” sense, rather than on the individual elements of perception. Gestalt

theory argues that people’ see patterns and wholes rather than distinguish object from


background. The “credo” of this school of psychology is “The whole is greater than the sum of

the parts.” It is the organization of elements rather than ‘the elements themselves that is

important.

The Gestaltists created many interesting laws and phenomena relative to how we typically see or

interpret the world around us. Much of their work, especially the Psychology of perception, is

still very prevalent and relevant today. The school is one of the most intriguing fields in

psychology today.

4.3.5 PSYCHOANALYSIS

Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud, a medical doctor in Vienna, Austria in the latter

part of the 19th century. Sigmund Freud focused on unconscious causes of behavior. The basic

concepts of the theory include the “unconscious”, two powerful instincts which emanated from

the unconscious, “Eros” (life instinct) and “thanatos” (death instinct), the three components of

personality, Id, Ego, and Superego, and the psychic energy which he called “libido”. Some of

Freud’s early ideas include, “infantile sexuality”, personality completion by the age of five and

the reservoir of hidden motives which had the potential to cause illness. Dr Freud believes that

free will was an illusion and that behavior was motivated by unconscious instincts not available

to consciousness. The major goal of psychoanalysis is to bring repressed material to

consciousness.

According to this school, the human personality has three parts. The id consists of our primitive

inherited urges. It is unconscious and operates on the basis of the pleasure principle. The ego, the

executive arm of personality operates on the reality principle. It restrains the id until the impulses

can be satisfied appropriately. The superego, the third part of personality, the moral arm, is our


conscience or superego. It permits gratification of the id only when it is morally appropriate. The

ego mediates between the conflicting aims of the id and superego.

The method of study and therapy Freud calls “free association” (patients talk freely about

themselves) and Freud tries to interpret these verbalizations in terms of unconscious motives and

ego defense mechanisms.

4.3.6 HUMANISM

The Humanist movement launched in the 1950s was founded by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,

and Rollo May. They believe that neither behaviorism nor psychoanalysis took into account that

which he considered best about humans: freewill and ability to make choices. The humanists

emphasize every person’s potential for self-development - people are basically good. They

believe that people will strive to achieve positive social goals and the highest and best for

themselves.

4.4 SUMMARY

As mentioned in the last lecture psychology has developed from a convergence of both natural

and social sciences. Many founding fathers and schools have therefore contributed to the

discipline. In this lecture the major schools that contributed to the development of psychology

were examined.


1. The three components of consciousness emphasized by the Structural school

are______________, _____________ and _____________


2. The functional school insists that psychology should be interested in the

_______________________of behaviour.

3. According to the behaviourists, psychology should be concerned with __________

___________ behavior, not mind

4. To the gestalt school “The whole is _____________

5. Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the ____________________ sources of behaviour while the

three systems of personality are the ________, _________, and the_______________

4.6 REFERENCES

Heidbreder, B. (1933) Seven Psychologies. New York: Appleton Centuiy-Crofts

Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock

Publishers.


Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah: Adura Printers.


5.0 STUDY SESSION: AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION AND USES OF PSYCHOLOGY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Psychology consists of a number of sub disciplines concerned with the study of the different

levels and contexts of human thought and behaviour. Psychology is also an interdisciplinary

science. It has a relationship with other subjects such as ‘biology, sociology, anthropology and

neurology. There are therefore many areas of specialization in psychology.

5.2. LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of the topic you should be able to

i. Become familiar with the major areas of specialization in Psychology

ii. Become familiar with the contributions of the major areas in the field of psychology.

5.3.1 CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Clinical Psychology has undergone rapid growth in recent years and is now the largest sub

discipline consisting of a third within psychology. Clinical psychologists work in academic

settings, in hospitals, in clinics, community health centers, and in private practice. Their main

concerns are the diagnoses and treatment of disturbed and maladaptive behaviours. Clinical

psychologists work with a wide variety of populations ranging from individuals suffering from

chronic psychiatric disorders, groups like children, the elderly, or those with specific disorders

such as schizophrenia. Many conduct psychological research along with their applied work.

Clinical psychologists are trained graduates in psychology departments.


5.3.2 COUNSELLNG PSYCHOLOGY

The work of counselling psychologists is similar to that of clinical psychologists. However,

counselling psychologists tend to focus more on individuals with normal problems of everyday

living. They assist persons with adjustment problems (educational, vocational, or social) rather

than on persons suffering from severe psychological disorders. Many counselling psychologists

work in the universities and other higher institutions of learning and social welfare centres.

5.3.3 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social Psychology looks into all facets of human social interaction, how people behave when

interacting and the processes influencing this interaction. They study how people’s beliefs,

feelings, and behaviours are affected by other persons. Topics of interest to social psychologists

are person perception and attribution processes, attitude formation and change. aggression,

prejudice, interpersonal attraction. Most social psychologists work in academic settings, but

some work in government agencies and private businesses doing applied research.

5.3.4 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

This is concerned with the human relationships at work. Topics covered are worker motivation,

leadership and communication processes and decision-making practices. They are employed in

business, government agencies, and academic settings.

5.3.5 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

One of the areas of applied psychology is concerned with personnel problems in the work place.

The topics include personnel recruitment and selection, placement, training, promotion, appraisal

and morale.


5.3.6 ERGONOMICS OR ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY

Also one of the areas of applied psychology, it is concerned with person-machine relationships

and the design of manufactured products. Some industrial psychologists, for example, are

involved in the design of dashboards, which are used in airplanes and automobiles. Their aim is

to apply knowledge of human capabilities and limitations to the design of instrumentation that is

to be used by humans; the aim is to produce the maximum degree of efficiency, safety, worker

comfort and efficiency.

5.3.7 PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY OR PSYCHO BIOLOGY

Physiological Psychology is concerned with studying the biological bases of behaviour

particularly the brain and central nervous system and all the neurological and physiological

events that underlie human thought and action. Some physiological psychologists are concerned

with mapping the functions of various parts of the brain while others examine both the

transmission of electrical information in the brain: and the neurotransmitters that facilitate or

inhibit such transmissions. Physiological psychologists assess the effects of drugs on human

behaviour.

5.3.8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

This group of psychologists study the behavioural, emotional and intellectual growth of human

beings from conception in the womb to death. However, the main focus is on infancy, childhood

and adolescent periods. Some of the areas they are interested in are children’s peer relations,

language comprehension, computational models of congestive development, parent-infant

interactions, social and communicative behaviour in infants, and language acquisition across

299:


languages and cultures. There are more women in these areas than men. Most developmental

psychologists work in university settings.

5.3.9 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

This field is concerned with the study ad application of psychological processes to Education.

Educational psychologists conduct research and develop theories about all aspects of education:

classroom instruction, teacher training, measurement of educational achievement, problem of

school administration, etc. They attempt to understand the basic aspects of learning and the

development of materials and strategies for enhancing the learning process.

5.3.10 SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

School psychology is different from educationa1 psychology in that it is more concerned with

individuals’ educational failure. They assess the difficulties and potentialities of individual

students usually at secondary, teachers’ colleges or elementary schools. They also counsel

parents, teachers and school administrators on the psychological aspects of school problems.

5.3.11 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Encompasses many different fields of psychology that are very oriented to pure research and that

employ experimental procedures.

Experimental psychologists conduct basic research on a variety of processes such as sensory

mechanisms: vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, perception, learning and language,

cognition, motivation, determining reaction times and reaction thresholds (the amount of

stimulation needed to produce a response for any given sense) as well as developing

Soc 299:


psychological scales for physical stimuli, called psychophysics. Most of these psychologists

work in universities and research centers.

5.3.12 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY OR PSYCHO PATHOLOGY

This group of psychologists receives the same training as clinical psychologists. However, in

practice they are engaged more in research on the origins of abnormal behaviours and the

processes of treating them rather than doing therapy. They study such behaviours ranging from

simple habit disorders such as thumb sucking, nail biting, alcohol and gambling addictions to the

most severe mental disturbances, the psychoses. Abnormal psychology investigates the causes

and dynamics of mental and behavioural disorders and tests the effectiveness of various

treatments

5.3.13 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

This area is concerned with the relationship between people and their physical environment,

specifically the effects of the physical environment on human behaviour and mental processes.

Issues of interest are (1) how environmental stimuli such as noise, temperature and weather

affect people’s emotions, cognitive processes, performance and social interactions; (2) the effects

of the social environment, crowding, personal space; and (3) environmental disasters and their

psychological effects.

5.3.14 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY

Forensic psychologists are concerned with questions and issues relating to law and the legal

system. They offer expert psychological opinions on various court related matters such as expert

Soc 299:


testimony, jury selection, child testimony, pretrial publicity, repressed memories, the death

penalty, domestic violence, drug dependence, and sexual disorders.

5.3.15 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

Health psychologists are concerned with the promotion and maintenance of good health and the

prevention and treatment of illness. They examine the ways life style and behavioural factors

contribute to physical disease and help design effective health oriented psychological

interventions. They also advise and design programmes to help people stop smoking, lose

weight, manage stress and stay physically fit. They work mostly in hospitals, medical schools,

rehabilitation centres, public health agencies, academic settings, as well as private practice.

5.3.16 SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Sports psychologists assess the psychological factors associated with effective participation and

performance in sport, exercise and other types of physical activity. They focus mainly on two

areas: helping athletes to use psychological principles and skills to achieve optimal mental health

and to improve performance; understanding of how an individual & participation in sport,

exercise, and physical activity affects their psychological development, health, and well - being.

5.3.17 VOCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Is concerned with how specific personality traits contribute to success in different vocations.

They are also concerned with assessing the traits and aptitudes that contribute to successful

career development.

Soc 299:


5.3.18 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Focuses on the intellectual processes such as thinking, knowing, perception memory etc. The

computer revolution has influenced and aided the development of Cognitive Theory because

computer scientists were interested in contemplating the human mind as a computer model

applies to the study of thinking, concept formation, and problem solving. Computers are used to

present problems and tasks to subjects and to model the thinking and problem-solving processes.

5.4 SUMMARY

Psychology has grown over the years and now has so many areas of specializations. The areas

continue to grow by the day although overlapping does take place among them. This lecture

reviews the major areas of modern psychology.



1. Clinical psychology is concerned with_____________________

2. Counselling psychology is concerned______________________

3. Industrial and organizational psychology are______________ social psychology

4. Development psychology examines the development of human beings

from___________________ to death

5. Ergonomics deal_______________________ relationships

5.6 REFERENCE

Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah: Adura Printers.


Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1 973) The Nature and Study of Psycholo. Tasca, Illinois: PeacockPublishers.

university of maiduguri maiduguri, nigeria centre for ... 1-5/soc 229... · 1 university of...

Documents