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UPCYCLED FASHIONABLE CLOTHING FROM MATERIALS SOURCED FROM

NAIROBI FLEA MARKETS FOR YOUNG WOMEN

(A Survey Research on Nairobi Street style)

BY:

ANYANGO YVETTE ANNE-MARIE

A RESEARCH PAPER SUBMITTED FOR THE FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE BACHELOR OF ART IN DESIGN DEGREE TO THE

SCHOOL OF THE ARTS & DESIGN UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

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DECLARATION

This Research Project is my original work and has not been submitted for award of a degree at

the University of Nairobi or any other University.

Signed…………………………………..

Date……………………………………….

Anyango Yvette AnneMarie

Reg No. B05/28336/2009

This Research Project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the University

Supervisor

Signed…………………………………

Date…………………………………..

Joan Ogake Mosomi

School of Art and Design

University of Nairobi.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe my supervisor Miss Joan Ogake Mosomi special gratitude for her immeasurable support

and guidance. Her supportive and positive criticism that greatly enhanced and enriched this

study through her uncompromising stance on quality and detail. I was greatly motivated.

I sincerely acknowledge the invaluable contribution of Dr. Lilac Osanjo who helped keep the

study in focus and for the direction and advice.

This study would be incomplete without the cooperation of the respondents who voluntarily filled

the questionnaires. My encounter with you, your candid discussion about fashion and style was

an awesome eye-opener. May you all be richly blessed.

The joy and relief of completing this research paper is overwhelming and I owe it all to you,

family, friends and School of Art and Design lecturers.

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this paper to my parents, for the inconclusive support, faith and belief in me, for

getting me this far and to my siblings for their encouragement and constant reminder of how

great I will become.

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ABSTRACT

Fashion is a collective cultural phenomenon generated by the individual but linked to actions of a

very large number of garment designers aiming to create distinctive but similar clothes.

Awareness of what clothes are common, contemporary, appropriate, is a universal part of human

experience, though the sharpness of that awareness differs. The aim of this project paper is to

shed light on sustainable fashion consumption in Kenya by analyzing data from the survey

carried out on Nairobi street style. The main objective of this research project is to investigate

street style of young Nairobi women and to create affordable fashionable collection. The

following is a summary of the collection is about:

The floating woman Spring Summer 2013

This collection is inspired by the art movement abstract expressionism in the 19th century. "A term first

used in connection with Kandinsky in 1919, but more commonly associated with post-war American art

in light view to Jackson Pollock’s gestural paintings, techniques and colours. It was Pollock's legacy to

have developed a style that reflected the aesthetic concerns of his time, yet retained a high level of

individuality. The collection will explore the art of draping and layering of fabrics to create garments.

This collection is an expression of my identity. It’s the freedom to choose what to wear to bring out

attitude. A movement in fashion for the young at heart and are not afraid to try out something new that

will set them apart and be the trendsetters, because they will be the trendsetters. The shape inspiration of

the collection is from abstract paintings: the curves and lines created by brush strokes, movement created

in the paintings and the emotions they evoke. The final pieces are a representation of paintings with form.

This collection is part of the sustainable fashion movement using up-cycling method, extending the

lifecycle of garments and fabrics giving them new life by creating unique and fashionable pieces. This

collection represents identity and individuality. This

collection sets out to bring out confidence, youth urban

flare and to create fluid movements.The fabrics used in

this collection will be chiffon, cotton, jersey, silk and

knit collected from 2nd hand clothing and other fabrics.

This is the range of colours that will be used in this

collection; they are bright, bold, and represent urban

flare.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................. 4

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 5

1 CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 9

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................................. 9

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................................... 10

1.3 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. 11

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ......................................................................................................... 11

1.5 SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................ 12

1.6 JUSTIFICATION ....................................................................................................................... 12

2 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................ 13

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 13

2.2 FAST FASHION ........................................................................................................................ 13

2.3 FAST FASHION BRAND STRATEGIES ................................................................................. 14

2.4 FASHION CONSUMPTION ..................................................................................................... 16

2.4.1 TASTE AND NEED FOR SOCIAL DISTINCTION ........................................................ 18

2.4.2 FASHION WASTE ............................................................................................................. 20

2.5 SECOND HAND CLOTHING ................................................................................................... 21

2.5.1 How the trade operates in Nairobi. ..................................................................................... 23

2.5.2 Who benefits from the second-hand clothing trade ............................................................ 24

2.5.3 Impact on the local textile and clothing production ............................................................ 28

2.5.4 The unsustainable consumption of second-hand garments ................................................. 28

2.6 SUSTAINABLE FASHION ....................................................................................................... 29

2.6.1 UPCYCLING ...................................................................................................................... 30

2.6.2 FASHION DECONSTRUCTION ...................................................................................... 32

2.7 DESIGN EXEMPLARS ............................................................................................................. 36

2.7.1 Jackson Pollock-painter ...................................................................................................... 36

2.7.2 Vivienne Westwood ............................................................................................................ 38

2.7.3 Junky styling ....................................................................................................................... 39

3 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 39

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 39

3.1 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 39

3.2 Population of study ..................................................................................................................... 40

3.3 Sample design and sampling design ........................................................................................... 40

3.4 Data Collection ........................................................................................................................... 41

3.5 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 41

4 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 41

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATIONS ...................................................................................... 41

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 41

4.2 Demographic information ........................................................................................................... 42

4.3 Expenditure on shopping ............................................................................................................ 43

4.4 Limitations of the Survey ............................................................................................................ 48

5 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................ 49

FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................... 49

5.1 FINDINGS AND DICUSSIONS ................................................................................................ 49

5.2 RECOMMENDATION .............................................................................................................. 50

5.2.1 Building awareness ............................................................................................................. 50

5.2.2 Engage a willing audience .................................................................................................. 51

5.2.3 Re-evaluating ownership ..................................................................................................... 51

5.2.4 Government Policies ........................................................................................................... 51

5.2.5 Re-opening of closed cotton mills ...................................................................................... 52

5.2.6 Swapping/exchanging clothes ............................................................................................. 52

5.2.7 Up-cycling Fashion ............................................................................................................. 52

5.3 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................... 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 54

BOOKS ....................................................................................................................................................... 54

JOURNALS AND PUBLICATIONS ......................................................................................................... 56

Allison Gill article on Deconstruction Fashion ........................................................................................... 56

WEBSITES ................................................................................................................................................. 58

QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................................................................... 59

INTERVIEW GUIDE ................................................................................................................................. 60

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1 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Fashion is a collective cultural phenomenon generated by the individual but linked to actions of a

very large number of garment designers aiming to create distinctive but similar clothes.

Awareness of what clothes are common, contemporary, appropriate, is a universal part of human

experience, though the sharpness of that awareness differs. Clothes are individual, but we

perceive styles as collective. We recognize clothes as within a particular contemporary style, or

novel, or outdated, or simply strange – outside the boundaries of any acceptable style.

While fashion has become democratized, so the media and technological developments which

characterize the 21st century have supported fashion becoming a cornerstone of many world

economies. The clothing industry is worth over $1 trillion worldwide and ranked the second

biggest global economic activity for intensity of trade. Yet the pressures of climate change and

ethical concerns about how goods have been produced, coupled with a growing realisation that

consumption dominates too many lives means

“Where did you get that?” This is a question often asked by random people on the streets of

Nairobi. The need to look fashionable and to stand out in a crowd is what the mass population

seek to gain. With Nairobi being the capital city, the amount of exposure to fashion is incredibly

large and is still increasing. People have become more aware of how they look whether casual or

office wear. Haute couture fashion is yet to be explored in Kenya as the fashion industry is still

coming up. The seasonal change in Fashion trends by the western countries have resulted in

consumerism as people want to buy more and more without disposing their old unwanted

clothes.

The mass constantly want to own designer labels or sort after cheaper versions of designer labels.

Emulating western celebrities is something practiced by the western society and Nairobi Kenya

is not an exception. T.V programmes and channels such as Fashion T.V, Style Network, E

Entertainment, Gossip Girls, 90210 are one the biggest influencers. Tips and information about a

celebrity’s style secrets are often being dished out to the public on how to dress like the celebrity.

In this day and age where people are trying to impress others by what they own and how stylish

and fashionable they are will not stop them from purchasing more and more clothes either

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second hand clothing, department stores or stalls. With a huge following on fashion trends, sets

people apart. Articles in the papers being posted about what is in fashion, what to be seen in and

what not to be seen in. People dress up with the chance of being photographed so that their

photos could be posted on social media sites, blogs and occasionally seen in the newspaper pull-

outs.

In the fashion world, it is the luxury fashion brands that set the fashion trends for each season

during the various fashion weeks in cities like Paris, Milan and New York. In the previous

century, haute couture designers like Christian Dior or Valentino used to set the standard for

what colour or cut was fashionable that season through their designs. Today the scenario is

different, because of branding there is as a wider choice and variety in brand and product

offering. However, the top designers within the fashion business are still worshipped like gods.

Through their designs they indirectly dictate the taste of the fashion society, telling the public

what to wear and not to wear. The consumer population waits for these dictations and the fast

fashion brands utilize them to predict what trends to produce. If for example Marc Jacobs, chief

designer of Louis Vuitton decides to show designs only in white for a specific season, then the

world of fashion will adopt and follow. (Okonkwo 2007, p.10)

The increasing supply and demand for fast fashion has created a vicious cycle that is spiralling

out of control, and designers are struggling to keep up. In 2010, renowned British and Turkish-

Cypriot designer Hussein Chalayan bought back his brand from fashion conglomerate PPR in an

attempt to relieve the pressure of constantly creating at ever-faster intervals. “Being in those

houses is like running on a diamond-plated hamster wheel,” he has been quoted as saying. “You

have to go faster and faster and faster, and chances are still very high [that] you will fall off.”

Similarly, designer Tom Ford left Gucci in 2004 and has since relaunched his eponymous brand,

which now shows only two collections per year (BSR, 2012)

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

―I am against fashion that doesn’t last. I cannot accept that you throw your clothes away

just because it is spring.‖ Coco Chanel

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Kenya is one of the countries that import second hand clothing that are resold in flea markets.

These shipments are old, unwanted and sometimes new clothes that are still in good condition

that are available. As we all know women will always shop, either as a way of therapy (fashion

therapy) or they just need new clothes or there is an event that they need to go to and have

nothing in the closet to much the occasion or an update of their clothes according to the trends

that are in.

Most of the young women we see wear similar clothes; they have no sense of style and

uniqueness that well describes them. There is no individuality when it comes to dressing. They

will buy what they like and continue filling their closets without noticing how much they have

bought in a short time span. Since Kenya is not in the position to resell these items or donate,

where do they go?

Based on the problem statement, the purpose of this study is to create fashionable clothing for

young women in Nairobi the fashion capital of Kenya and to create awareness on sustainable

fashion a subject that has minimal attention pertaining to the environment and is yet to be

explored by designers in Kenya.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

To investigate the fashion sense of young women in Nairobi

To examine the influence of fashion trends on young women in Nairobi

To establish awareness on sustainable fashion consumption

To find out the impact of second hand clothing on its consumers

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

How are the old unwanted clothes disposed?

Where do women in Nairobi shop?

How much is spent on shopping for clothes in a month.

How frequent does one go shopping.

What is the frequently bought item?

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1.5 SCOPE

This study will be carried out in Nairobi due to its proximity to the researcher. Since Nairobi

is the fashion capital of Kenya, there is readily available information on Nairobi fashion

scene as “Nairobians” are always willing to say something about their street style and the

general outlook of street style in Nairobi.

1.6 JUSTIFICATION

The reason for undertaking this research is to create fashionable and creative wear for the young

women in Nairobi as most people wear the same type of clothing and don’t have a sense of

identity or style. The research also seeks to shed light on the issue of fashion consumption and

sustainable fashion consumption.

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2 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

This review looks at the information on fast fashion and brand strategies, fashion

consumption, fashion waste, sustainable fashion and consumption, second hand clothing

industry in Kenya.

2.2 FAST FASHION

Fast fashion is like fast food it’s cheap, addictive and unsustainable. ‘We now buy 40% of all our

clothes at value retailers, with just 17% of our clothing budget.’ (TNS World panel (2006) -

Fashion Focus issue 29). A Cambridge University study reports that in 2006, people were buying

a third more clothes than they were in 2002. Brands began competing against each other for

market share by introducing more lines per year at lower costs, culminating in a situation where

‘fashion houses now offer up to 18 collections a year’ and the low cost, so called ‘value end’ is

‘booming; doubling in size in just 5 years.‘ This naturally has led to pressure on the supply

chain. “Buyers pressure factories to deliver quality products with ever-shorter lead times. Most

factories just don’t have the tools and expertise to manage this effectively, so they put the

squeeze on the workers. It’s the only margin they have to play with.” (Oxfam report, 2004)

Fast Fashion gathered pace from the end of the 1990’s when brands began to look for new ways

to increase profits. Globalization had grown rapidly in the 80’s and 90’s and paved the way for

value and mid price brands to shift the bulk of their production to the developing world where

labour and overheads cost a fraction of those in Europe. High street brands were coming under

increasing pressure from supermarket chains developing their own lines of low cost clothing.

Initially they sold items like simple T shirts and underwear; however the move of George Davies

from Next to Asda signaled a new era for supermarket clothing and a move into high fashion,

low cost items. Traditionally, most fashion labels have produced two main collections a year,

spring/summer and autumn/winter. However, in order to keep the customer focused on the high

street, High Street brands needed to create some interest within their stores mid season. Certain

companies re-examined their supply chains and developed a system which several other brands

then followed. They segmented their supply chain, keeping basic items manufactured in the far -

east but brought the production of the more high fashion items closer to home. This had several

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benefits. Firstly it decreased their financial outlay on forward orders and also allowed them to

make decisions about the fashion items much later in the season. This added flexibility and

ensured they were able to react to the market quickly and deliver ‘on-trend’ items within their

stores. This model could then be developed through the use of new technological systems which

linked all parts of the supply chain together. This new system allowed for the development of

‘just in time’ manufacturing and has now developed to a stage where they are able to turn a

garment around from drawing to shop floor in just two weeks. Consumers reacted positively to

this trend which in turn has resulted in the widespread speeding up of fashion.

A fast fashion system combines quick response production capabilities with enhanced product

design capabilities to both design “hot” products that capture the latest consumer trends and

exploit minimal production lead times to match supply with uncertain demand. Fast fashion is a

clothing production strategy that emphasizes moving high-end catwalk trends into stores in the

shortest amount of time possible at the cheapest possible price point. It was introduced in 1980s

and ’90s by brands like Zara and Benetton, and gained notoriety over the past decade with stores

like Forever21 and H&M. Now, fast fashion a bona fide juggernaut. H&M—which has over

2,200 stores globally—can design, manufacture, and distribute new products in as little as three

weeks, a timeline that allows the company to remain agile and at the forefront of trends, and to

constantly update its massive inventory. Low-grade fabrics, cheap labor from over-seas, and

flimsy construction allow the company to keep prices bargain-basement low, a key factor in

luring customers back weekly or even daily to check out the always-new inventory. Why pay

$25 at Nordstrom for a T-shirt that’s available at H&M for $4.95?

2.3 FAST FASHION BRAND STRATEGIES

Firms in the fashion apparel industry such as Zara, H&M, and Benetton have increasingly

embraced the philosophy of “fast fashion” retailing (Passariello2008, Rohwedder and Johnson

2008). Generally speaking, a fast fashion system combines at least two components:

1. Short production and distribution lead times, enabling a close matching of supply with

uncertain demand (which we refer to as quick response techniques);

2. Highly fashionable (“trendy”) product design (which we refer to as enhanced design

techniques).

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Short lead times are enabled through a combination of localized production, sophisticated

information systems that facilitate frequent inventory monitoring and replenishment, and

expedited distribution methods. For example, Zara, primarily a European retailer, produces the

majority of its designs in costly European and North African factories (rather than outsourcing to

less expensive Asian facilities), and continuously monitors inventory levels in stores to

effectively match supply and demand (Ghemawat and Nueno 2003, Ferdows et al. 2004). The

second component (trendy product design) is made possible by carefully monitoring consumer

and industry tastes for unexpected fads and reducing design lead times. Benetton, for example,

employs a network of “trend spotters” and designers throughout Europe and Asia, and also pays

close attention to seasonal fashion shows in Europe (Meichtry 2007).

From an operational perspective, quick response strategies have been relatively well studied, and

are known to yield significant value to firms by better matching supply and demand (see, e.g.,

Fisher and Raman 1996, Eppen and Iyer 1997, Caro and Martínez-de-Albéniz 2010, Caro and

Gallien 2010) and by influencing consumer purchasing behavior by reducing the frequency and

severity of season-ending clearance sales (Cachon and Swinney 2009). However, the second

component of fast fashion systems—creating trendy, highly fashionable products—has received

far less attention. Indeed, despite the intense recent interest in lead time reduction, Meichtry

(2007) describes how some firms are attempting to focus on design and develop trendier

products without reducing their production lead times because of the difficulties (both logistical

and cultural) that can accompany drastically redesigning the supply network.

Anna Wintour, the editor-in-chief of American Vogue (Vogue, 2011) has credited Zara for

creating a „seasonless cycle for fashion‟. Zara has with the help of computer technology been

able to spot new trends and produce about ten thousand new products a year, causing the shelf

life of a garment to fall from six months to a couple of weeks. (Thomas 2007, p.316) Zara is also

one of the brands that have made the two seasons, Spring/Summer and Autumn/Winter more

obsolete and the fashion customer is becoming more and more used to this. (Roberts, 2010)

The fast fashion brands have changed customer’s expectations concerning speed and variety and

showing that style is possible at low prices. Even loyal high-end customers have started to mix

their luxury fashion with fast fashion. Attracted by the speed at which new styles are in stores

and the fun of buying 10 cheap knockoffs for the price of one authentic jacket, many wealthy

consumers are becoming loyal to fast fashion as well.‟ (Rohwedder, 2004, p.1)

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2.4 FASHION CONSUMPTION

Fashion consumption is the practice of purchasing and adorning oneself with fashion garments

and it is inextricably linked to all aspects of living in an affluent modern society. The origins of

dress and adornment are debated within fashion literature. There are four key theories are

commonly explored by fashion theorists. These theories are based on whether the need for dress

emerged from the desire for symbolic adornment, protection from the environment, social

modesty or from the desire to be immodest for the purpose of attraction and procreation

There are additional factors increasing the rate and volume of fashion garment consumption.

From the production angle, manufacturing developments within the fashion industry such as

increased production speed and access to cheaper labour have enabled garment prices to drop

and consequently, consumers can afford to buy more garments for their money. They are buying

in binges rather than making more discerning purchasing decisions. This increase in the speed

and volume of production does not equate to an increase in the diversity of fashion garment

styles or the quality of their manufacture.

In the book Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash, Susan Strasser, a professor of history at

the University of Delaware, traces the “progressive obsolescence” of clothing and other

consumer goods to the 1920s. Before then, and especially during World War I, most clothing

was repaired, mended, or tailored to fit other family members, or recycled within the home as

rags or quilts. During the war, clothing manufacturers reduced the varieties, sizes, and colors of

their productions and even urged designers to create styles that would use less fabric and avoid

needless decoration. By the mid-1920s consumerism was back in style. Industrialization grew in

the twentieth century, providing the means of increased production of all consumer goods.

During World War II, consumption rose with increased employment as the United States

mobilized for the war. The production and consumption of many household goods, including

clothing, grew by 10–15% even in the middle of the war and continues to expand to this day.

Industrialization brought consumerism with it as an integral part of the economy. Economic

growth came to depend on continued marketing of new products and disposal of old ones that are

thrown away simply because stylistic norms promote their obsolescence.

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The textile and fashion consumption in the world has been consistently increasing over the years.

According to the World Apparel Fiber Consumption Survey 2005-2008 by Food And

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and International Cotton Advisory

Committee, “Encompassing an annual average growth of the world gross domestic product

(GDP) of 4.2% during 2000 - 2007, per capita world fiber consumption increased by nearly 35%,

from 8.3 kilograms in 2000 to 11.1 kilograms in 2007. However, the economic stagnation in

developed countries in 2008 resulted in a reduced rate of GDP growth for the world (3%), and a

6.4% contraction in per capita world fiber consumption, to 10.4 kilograms” (Food and

Agricultural Organization, UN, 2011). According to “The Fiber Year 2011”, the annual report of

the Dutch manmade fibre manufacturer Akzo that provides a comprehensive survey on world

textile industries, “The world textile industry in 2010 has experienced the most potent growth in

twenty-five years. Manufacturing volumes of natural and manmade fibers rocketed upwards by

8.6%, or 6.4 million tonnes, at 80.8 million tonnes. This corresponds to an average per capita

consumption of 11.8 kg” (The Fiber Year 2011).

On the contrary, fashion commentators such as L’Oreal Fashion Festival Head Karen Webster,

are lamenting the homogenization of fashion design- where the over-exposed globalised industry

is suffering as copying seemingly supplements innovation (Webster, 2004). Fashion consumers

are now offered limited stylistic choices from what appears to be a plethora of garments and thus

their cravings for distinction are going unsatisfied. Additionally, these cheaply produced

garments are not constructed to last and are deteriorating quickly and necessitating replacement

and thus increasing the rate of consumption (Thomas and van Kopplen, 2002).

The issue of consumption and concomitant discard has been further accentuated by the societal

behavior. With the availability of resources and the dynamics of consumption, the consciousness

to utilize the goods to its full potential is reducing and economic growth came to depend on

continued marketing of new products and disposal of old ones that are thrown away simply

because stylistic norms promote their obsolescence (Claudio, 2007). Globalization has made it

possible to produce clothing at increasingly lower prices, prices so low that many consumers

consider this clothing to be disposable (Claudio, 2007), some call it fast fashion‟, the clothing

equivalent of fast food.

So consumption is not for its own sake, but a vehicle for individuals to discover and display the

characteristics of their personality, taste and individuality. Hamilton, like many economists,

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presented the concept that consumption is a by-product of income generation, believing that

people spend money on goods because they have the means (Hamilton, 2003). Joanne

Finkelstein, in agreement with the social psychologists, believes that the consumption and

adornment of fashion is a process of self actualization (1996). As fashion theorists Joanne Eicher

and Mary Ellen Roach-Higgins explained, the meaning of an identity is social, and relates to an

individual’s social status. The pursuit of fashion becomes the act of reconciling one’s identity in

social terms. Consumption critics Joseph Heath and Andrew Potter elaborated, presenting the

view that people consume either to represent how they are distinctive, or to socially conform

(Heath and Potter, 2005).

Consumers react to changes in fashion, both in clothing and household interior designs.

Seasonal changes in fashion mean that clothes can become outdated very quickly, and this

encourages the replacement and disposal of outdated, yet good quality garments (Katkar &

Bairgadar, 2010). This results in issues of over consumption and disposal of unused clothes

leading to burdening of the resources throughout the world (Hawley, 2008). This presents a

double-edged sword, in that while at the same time it stimulates the economy, it also gives rise to

the increased problem of apparel and textile disposal. Piles of unfashionable, unsuitable clothing,

not yet worn out but no longer wearable are further wasted (Joseph,

2001).

.

2.4.1 TASTE AND NEED FOR SOCIAL DISTINCTION

Arthur Windermere says that one may think about what one wears or one may not. If thinking for

oneself is freedom, then one cannot be free unless one thinks for oneself about what to wear.

Everyone deliberates, but not all deliberation is thinking for oneself. Deliberation is the bare

minimum of choosing. With deliberation one decides upon one course of action or another. But

if the principles from which one deliberates are from someone else, the conclusions one reaches

are not one's own; one's thinking is being done by another.

Consumer researchers have shown considerable interest in values because they are argued to

be an important influence on behaviour. Having more materialistic values has been associated

with using possessions for portraying and managing impressions (Belk 1985). Greater levels of

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materialism seem to be associated with an understanding by individuals that possessions serve as

part of a communication or signal to others informing them of who the individual is and what

they are (Douglas & Isherwood 1979). Materialism may, therefore, represent a key variable in

the development of a consumer’s involvement with products that allow the fulfillment of such

values and assist in portraying acceptable images.

Fashion’s immediate social visibility and largely consumption orientation thus provides a potent

site for exploring the construction of postmodern identity and cultural taste. Traditional

understandings of the use of fashion as a social tool focus heavily on class perspectives. In

Bourdieu’s analysis of taste expression, he argues that cultural taste is a reflection of the

struggles for social recognition or status (Jenkins 1992, p.129). From this perspective, fashion is

consumed as a marker of class status. Traditional understandings of the use of fashion in social

settings have focused heavily on class perspectives. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu’s analysis of

taste expression argued that cultural taste is a reflection of the internal struggle for social

recognition or status (Jenkins 1992, p.129). Status recognition is inextricable woven with style:

one’s social position incorporates dress, speech, outlook and bodily dispositions, in addition to

political entitlement and legal location within that society (Turner 1988). Fashion is employed by

elite social groups, to distinguish themselves from lower classes. Fashion then filters down

through lower classes as they in turn employ their own habitus and attempt to follow the

styling’s of their ‘cultural superiors (Bourdieu 1990). This filtering process within fashion was

also explored by Veblen (1899) who argued that the imitation of higher society was used by

lower classes in order to gain prestige. Bourdieu also

emphasizes that cultural capital maintains the

distinction and inequalities between different classes.

Bourdieu defined the field of fashion as the unequal

distribution of cultural capital between high and low

‘couture houses’, presenting the structural components

of social structure in general. Fashion is then essentially

contradictory, simultaneously providing both social

cohesion and individual expression. (Finkelstein

1996).

[ Marie Antoinette –Painting] source :philosophy of

fashion by Arthur windermere

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People can resist the hegemony of taste and culture, such as through the purchase of vintage

clothing, but is seen by Bourdieu as a functional conflict that only reinforces the structure of

fashion’s reproduction and distinction. A major limitation of this perspective is that both the

groups and specific use of objects remain homogenous throughout all forms of production and

consumption. It is seen, constantly during red carpet shows with people of high class showing of

their clothes and mentioning who the designer is. Successful designers are usually associated

with quality and finesse and most people would sort after this designers for their red carpet looks

rather than play it safe with an upcoming designer.

The selection of clothes is influenced by a variety of conflicting motivations. The force that

drives fashion forward is the desire to be seen both as individual and as a particular kind of

person – especially the desire to be seen as in touch and up-to-date and daring (and thus wearing

what is new). The countervailing desire not to be seen as weird or eccentric is the force that

keeps fashion coherent – as fashion rather than unrestrained variety. For some people, this

expression of attitudes and personality is carefully thought through; for others it consists of

active conformity to or rebellion against the demands of a particular culture; for still others it is

often entirely tacit. While designers have little interest in achieving intellectual coherence in their

designs, they are acutely aware of the impression-creating effects designs will have in

contemporary social environments, and thus how they can be used for social self-expression.

(Claudia Eckert and Martin Stacey)

2.4.2 FASHION WASTE

Fashion waste refers to the inactive garments that are hoarded in wardrobes rather than landfill

(Waste Profile Study of Victorian Landfills 1999). Garments become fashion waste when they

no longer fit, cease to appeal visually and ideologically, or are superseded by a superior version.

Once bought, an estimated 21% of annual clothing purchases stay in the home, increasing the

stocks of clothing and other textiles held by consumers, according to Recycling of Low Grade

Clothing Waste, a September 2006 report by consultant Oakdene Hollins. The report calls this

stockpiling an increase in the “national wardrobe,” which is considered to represent a potentially

large quantity of latent waste that will eventually enter the solid waste stream. According to the

EPA Office of Solid Waste, Americans throw away more than 68 pounds of clothing and textiles

21

per person per year, and clothing and other textiles represent about 4% of the municipal solid

waste.

The issue of consumption and concomitant discard has been further accentuated by the societal

behavior. With the availability of resources and the dynamics of consumption, the consciousness

to utilize the goods to its full potential is reducing and economic growth came to depend on

continued marketing of new products and disposal of old ones that are thrown away simply

because stylistic norms promote their obsolescence (Claudio, 2007). Globalization has made it

possible to produce clothing at increasingly lower prices, prices so low that many consumers

consider this clothing to be disposable (Claudio, 2007), some call it, fast fashion‟, the clothing

equivalent of fast food. Seasonal changes in fashion mean that clothes can become outdated very

quickly, and this encourages the replacement and disposal of outdated, yet good quality garments

(Katkar & Bairgadar, 2010).

This results in issues of over consumption and disposal of unused clothes leading to burdening of

the resources throughout the world (Hawley, 2008) resulting in post consumer waste. Post-

consumer waste is defined as any type of garment or household article made from manufactured

textiles that the owner no longer needs and decides to discard (Hawley, 2008). These items are

sometimes given to charities but often are put in trash and end in landfills (Textile Recycling

Fact Sheet).

Post-consumer textiles are often resold via a commodity market (primary consumer) to traders

and then to stall merchants for resale at local markets to other consumers at lower price,

exporting in bulk for sale in other countries that is what we receive in our flea markets in Kenya.

In many countries on the African continent, over 80% of the population dress themselves in

second-hand clothing. Western clothing is very popular and second-hand clothing is often of

better quality than the new clothes offered (Ouvertes Project, 2005).

2.5 SECOND HAND CLOTHING

Cloth and clothing were among the primary historical commodities linking Africa with an

increasingly globalizing economy and gradually altering the subjectivities of the population,

creating consumers. The nineteenth and early twentieth century presence of colonial

administrations and missionaries prompted a profound shift in the clothing worn in communities

throughout the continent - particularly in areas where the predominant coverage came from skin,

hides, and backcloth (Comaroff and Comaroff, 1997). Both voluntary and forced migration

22

brought men, in particular, together in urban and other concentrated settlements where new

clothing and the wearing of western fashions became increasingly the norm, particularly in

Southern and East Africa (Hansen, 2000).

The secondhand clothing trade in colonial Africa began in the immediate Post-World War I

period with an influx of surplus military uniforms shipped by used clothing dealers in Europe

and from production areas in the United States (Hansen, 2000:66). The amount of clothing

appearing as cast-off articles increased throughout the industrial states of the North in the

twentieth century with the initial success of Fordist policies and concomitant increases in

disposable income. The countries of sub-Saharan Africa now form the world’s largest

secondhand clothing destination, receiving 30% of total world exports in 2001 with a value of

USD $405 million, up from $117 million in 1990 (United Nations, 1996, 2003). The post-

independence period throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa was characterized by an increased

emphasis on domestic production of textiles and finished apparel for local consumption.

Governments turned to clothing as a visible and potentially lucrative expression of pride and

solidarity in new nations. African print cloth was the focus of campaigns encouraging or

otherwise imposing ‘dress codes’ or national dress, using domestic print cloth from these new

industries.

The importation of secondhand clothing was banned in Kenya, and elsewhere throughout much

of Sub-Saharan Africa, as import substitution policies were adopted to strengthen domestic

manufacture. Despite the ban, secondhand clothing began entering Kenya in the 1970s and 1980s

as a consequence of regional political crises.

The first post-independence shipments of secondhand clothes into Kenya were linked to

geopolitical upheavals in Eastern Africa. Conflict in neighboring Uganda, Sudan, and Ethiopia

resulted in increasing populations of refugees in Kenyan camps. Kenya is one of the largest

importers of second-hand clothing (referred to as ‘mitumba’ meaning ‘onslaught’) in SSA .At

this time, refugees from these countries flocked into Kenya and along with them came charitable

aid in the form of tents, food, medicine and clothing. As more clothing came in through charities

and churches it was also given freely to the urban and rural Kenyan poor who could not afford to

purchase new garments. But, by the mid-1980’s, following high demand for cheap second-hand

clothing, donors revised their distribution policy and started to charge for clothing items. It was

at this point that it became commercialized and accessible to the whole population.Charitable

organizations working with displaced persons were able to import used clothing to serve the

needs of these impoverished communities during this period, with some of the donations

23

reportedly finding their way into surrounding villages and later urban areas as commodities for

resale (Kimani, 2002:4).

Protectionist measures implemented after independence to foster domestic industrial growth

were eliminated under trade liberalization policies begun in Kenya in 1991. Previously banned

imports of used clothing were now legally allowed into the country for resale, and at prices far

below that of new, domestically manufactured apparel. The absence of foreign exchange

controls, eliminated restrictions, and reduced tariffs resulted in a rise in value of Kenya’s imports

by nearly half between 1996 and 2000 (McCormick et al., 2002). The garment industry was the

most noticeably affected by the surge in imports, particularly the widespread availability of

secondhand clothing, or mitumba (ibid). Mitumba, literally “bales” in Swahili, denoting the form

in which the secondhand clothing arrives in East African ports, were cheaper than Kenyan

products and rapidly gained favor with consumers (Ongile and McCormick, 1996). This

popularity was achieved despite the stigma of the garments being associated with “dead

Europeans”or “kafa Ulaya” – an earlier term for mitumba.

The increasing volume of used clothes entering Kenya throughout the 1990s corresponded with

the closure of the vast majority of clothing and textile factories creating products for local

consumption in those sub-Saharan African countries which legalized imports. Secondhand

clothing is seen as a primary cause for factory closure. While the importation of mitumba is

viewed as a fundamental contributor to the cessation of domestic textile and apparel manufacture

throughout the 1990s, the rise in the current export apparel market complicates this scenario.

Many of the world’s largest importers of secondhand clothing are also among the top exporters

of textiles and garments, including Pakistan and Hong Kong (Hansen, 2004:4).

2.5.1 How the trade operates in Nairobi.

These are between 60-80 second-hand clothing importers in Kenya. The majority of them are

concentrated close to Mombasa port, at the industrial centres in Nairobi, and around the

periphery of Gikomba market (the largest informal market in Kenya and the biggest second-hand

clothing exchange in East Africa). These importers sell either the whole container, or a large

number of bales (usually the most popular ones that are the ‘fastest movers’), to wholesalers.

They, in turn, sell the bales to other wholesalers or direct to small retailers that trade from

24

informal markets in Nairobi. At Gikomba market, there are at least 100-150 wholesalers. They

range from small to very large traders and they supply the majority of bales to the 10 000-15 000

retailers that trade at the market. At around 8am every morning retailers buy approximately 1-3

bales from the wholesale stores. At their market stall, they cut the bales and unpack the different

qualities of clothing by separating them into 3 different piles. 1st camera refers to high quality

clothing that is immediately purchased by a ‘cameraman’ who gets exclusive choice of the best

items. 2nd camera clothing is sold for a lower price.

Once the retailer has made sufficient profit from the bale, the remaining items – the 3rd camera-

are usually ‘cleared’. This means they are sold in bulk to a small retailer who will often purchase

up to 50 low quality garments. The clothes that have been cleared at Gikomba are transported to

smaller markets in Nairobi and surrounding rural areas. At these new markets, once the original

clearer has made their profit on the clothes, someone else will clear form them-and the camera

process starts again (quality declines as the process repeats). Eventually, the final consumer

(often in rural areas) will buy the clothing for a very low price.

2.5.2 Who benefits from the second-hand clothing trade

This section highlights the main beneficiaries of the trade, by tracing the various actions

involved in the supply chain i.e. from commercial importers to the final consumer.

2.5.2.1 Importers

Commercial importers in Kenya undoubtedly provide a lucrative commodity that benefits many

Kenyan people. On average, importers based in Mombasa and Nairobi import 2-4 consignments

per month. Most buyers have a contract with two different suppliers, i.e. one in Europe (for a

high quality product) and one in the US (for al low-cost product). Average profits cited per

month ranged from £800-£4000 depending on the grade, origin and type of clothing sold.

Commercial importers also provide an important source of employment creation. Most

businesses employ between 3-5 local staff, as well as truck drivers, security officers, manual bale

transporters and casual staff to run errands.

2.5.2.2 Wholesalers

25

Wholesalers also benefit from the second-hand clothing trade. In general, they make an average

gross profit of Ksh 800-1000 per 45 Kg bale. However, financial gains are dependent on the size

of their business. For example:

• Small wholesalers buy and sell approximately 50-100 bales per week

• Medium sized purchase around 150-300, and

• Large wholesalers buy and sell 400-600 (whole consignments)

2.5.2.3 Market Traders

The following quote is from the Kenyan Department of Trade and Industry: “In terms of the

traders, it is a misconception that they are employed. What are they getting out of it-sitting in the

sun all day? It is disguised unemployment. At the end of the day, there is no dignity in this

work.” In contrast, others estimate that the second-hand clothing trade directly or indirectly

affects 5 million people through employment and income generation. And, when you consider

that the current unemployment rate in Kenya is 40%, the impact of this trade on employment

creation is very substantial.

In Gikomba market, over half of the traders interviewed have previously been unemployed or

recently retrenched. The rest have been in temporary or seasonal jobs (like construction) or

working in low paid service sectors. For these traders, second-hand clothing has provided an

alternative solution by offering them the opportunity to start their own self-employed venture. A

frequent response by traders is:

“I decided to create employment for myself. I sell clothes for my own survival and the survival

of my family”

In comparison to the low wages of unskilled and semi-skilled employees in the formal sector, for

example, factory workers who earn around 4000-7000 Ksh per month, the majority of

secondhand clothes traders relatively earn a much higher income with 10 000-15 000Ksh

recorded as average monthly takings, But this figure accounts for gross takings rather than net

profits and fluctuation demand for clothing results rather than net profits and fluctuation demand

for clothing results in unpredictable daily, weekly and monthly sales. However, even taking this

into account second-hand clothing still represents a productive and lucrative trade especially

when compared to other trades in the informal sector. The trade is also considered a good

training ground for business-in terms of learning marketing skills, direct sales and keeping

financial records. Therefore, even if the trade stopped altogether, informal traders would still

survive by transferring the skills they have learnt to setting up other businesses.

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The second-hand clothing trade has also increased opportunities for women to earn a living.

At Gikomba market, women comprise a large proportion of informal traders, i.e. they make up

about 60% of the trading population. This is mainly because the trade is relatively non-gendered

and accessible to anyone regardless of formal training and access to capital. Women can also sell

second-hand clothing at the same time as attending to many of their domestic responsibilities,

something which is not always possible to balance in formal employment. The majority of

female traders entered the trade:

• To supplement their family income

• Bring money into the household if their parents were unemployed, or

• To become self-reliant by owning their own businesses and working for themselves

These results indicate that the second-hand clothing trade in Kenya has provided an important

opportunity for employment and income generation. Faced by the increasing cost of living,

falling real wages, and rising unemployment, many Kenyans have found an alternative solution,

selling clothing to generate a livelihood or diversify household incomes. It is also clear that

entering the second-hand clothing trade is not just a last resort for the economically desperate

during a period of extreme hardship. Instead, many have pro-actively entered the trade because it

offered a relatively lucrative means of generating an income.

2.5.2.4 Spin off Employment

As well as providing jobs and income to informal traders at Gikomba market, the second-hand

clothing trade also supports a large number of different types of employment: - from, repairing

and ironing (where traders usually have a contract with tailors and ironers to add value to good

quality clothing);

to - bag making (for traders to transport clothing to sell in rural areas);

security (to protect the clothing stored at the market at night and prevent thefts during

the day);

manual bale carriers (who transport bales from warehouses to market stalls)

All these activities take place on a large scale at the market site.

2.5.2.5 Consumers

27

Studies have shown that among African countries that are large importers, second-hand clothing

usually accounts for over one –third of all garments purchased, and Kenya is no exception. In

fact, by the mid-1990s, second-hand clothing accounted for 50% of the textile market; locally

produced clothing took 30%; and cheap new imports from the Far East, Europe and the US

comprised 20% of the domestic market.

Considering, over half of Kenya’s 30 million people live below the absolute poverty line, with

56% of the population subsisting on less that US$1 per day, most Kenyans cannot afford to buy

new clothes sold in shops, where prices are comparable to those in Europe or the US. For

example, while a man’s new shirt cost approximately 350-400 Ksh from a formal retail outlet, a

second-hand shirt sold at a flea market can be purchased for 50Ksh. So clearly, at a time when

poverty is increasing in Kenya, second-hand clothing provides a very welcome cheap alternative

to new clothing.

Most importantly, the availability of such cheap clothing has allowed very poor people to clothe

themselves and their families who (in the absence of the trade) could not afford to buy any

clothing at all. The majority of customers that have been interviewed, they were able to combine

their purchases by selecting second-hand clothes for informal occasions and new garments from

retail outlets for formal, ‘special’ occasions; this meant that they could save their limited

resources to finance other basic requirements. Indeed, many Kenyans are only able to maintain a

middle-class façade in the face of falling real incomes by relying on second-hand clothing.

“At Nairobi dinner parties, smartly dressed Kenyan women will discreetly compare their

mitumba purchases in the same way that British women appraise buys from the January sales”.

(Vasager, 2004). The trade also gives customers the opportunity to generate an income by

reselling items of clothing in rural areas. At Gikomba market, nearly half of the customers

interviewed, supplemented their weekly wage by buying clothing in bulk at the weekends to take

back and sell in their hometown.

Finally, the second-hand clothing trade also offers increased consumer choice, regardless of

affordability and consumer income levels, through the provision of a wider and different

selection, quality, and style of clothing in contrast to the expensive and limited choice available

at retail outlets. So, overall, second-hand clothing appeals to low, middle and high-income

earners as well as different ethnic groups.

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2.5.3 Impact on the local textile and clothing production

Much of the existing literature on the second-hand clothing trade has focused on claims by

textile and clothing industries in developing countries, and their associated councils,

Associations and Trade Unions, that the trade has a negative impact on local textile and clothing

production in recipient countries. As a result, the governments of Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Cameroon,

Chad, Tanzania, South Africa and Kenya have all at one time banned or imposed high tariffs on

imports of second-hand clothing.

In Kenya, the general attitude by government officials to the trade was very negative. Typical

comments were “the trade is killing out textile and clothing industry”. A number of other factors

need to be considered include:

• The drought in 1995-7 that hit the cotton sector hard

• The rise of cheap cotton lint producers e.g. Pakistan and India, i.e. Kenyan producers that

provided the domestic and export sector went out of business

• The collapse of the Cotton board of Kenya – this meant that domestic cotton was no longer

subsidized by the government and cotton became far too expensive for manufacturers

• import of very cheap Asian textile products in 1997-98 that textile producers could not compete

with

lack of locally produced synthetic raw material

• Trade liberalisation (the most important factor). In 1990 the economy was opened up to

international competition at a time when Kenyan textiles and clothing were not competitive in

price and quality.

Overall, the decline of textile and clothing companies in African countries is less about

secondhand clothing than about a combination of structural adjustment policies that encourage a

rapid increase in import penetration via trade liberalization without providing incentives to

promote production and employment. Nevertheless, local African markets are still unlikely to

support any considerable growth of the textile and clothing industry unless countries experience

substantial economic growth combined with a more equitable income distribution.

Second hand clothe is the result of the emphasis of the current world on beauty and economy.

Beauty and quality can be borrowed and business cycle can be developed to nowhere and even

recycle it.

2.5.4 The unsustainable consumption of second-hand garments

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It has been proposed that “investing now and storing clothes to age, as one does wine, is advised

as a form of future vintage consumption that validates buying contemporary fashion”(Palmer &

Clark, 2005). Consumers adopting the role of a fashion forecaster can result in overflowing

wardrobes. This advanced consumption encourages the practice of hoarding where garments are

retained with the hope of being popularized by fashions to come. Consumers can become

overzealous and make impulsive purchases because the financial outlay is considered to be

insignificant.

It is difficult for a younger audience experiencing nostalgia for fashions before their time, unless

they are encouraged to feel as though they have missed something important. Brown summarizes

the phenomenon; “with hindsight, we know we missed out on something genuinely inspiring and

progressive and re-edit our histories to include them” (Jones, 2005). It is a form of ‘faux-

nostalgia’ that is also based on the fact that upon reflection, young people identify with certain

eras indicative of certain values that align with their own. As young people do not experience

true nostalgic feelings due to their age, they become highly educated and can enjoy nostalgia

through becoming an informed authority. This younger demographic is choosing to adopt past

fashion at a primarily aesthetic level, but are also appropriating the historical dress within the

contemporary environment.

In addition to the interest of regular consumers, fashionistas, designers and fashion

commentators are embracing vintage styles to inspire a ‘new’ fashion direction or design. This

has imbued the practice of consuming second-hand garments with additional market value

through the inflation of their perceived fashion credibility. The editions of Vogue magazine and

Harpers Bazaar regularly feature vintage pieces within their fashion pictorials.

2.6 SUSTAINABLE FASHION

The Brundtland Report supplied the most common and enduring definition of sustainability as

finding a way to meet the current needs of all people today without compromising the needs of

generations to come. Sustainability expert David Suzuki defined the task of sustainable

development for individuals to be about assessing all kinds of human behaviour with the view to

re-develop those that prohibit the development of a sustainable future (Suzuki & Dressel, 2002).

In terms of sustainable consumption as explored by economist Paddy Dolan, the production

solution is the relatively straight forward task of introducing sustainability regulations regarding

selection of materials and manufacturing processes (Dolan, 2002).

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2.6.1 UPCYCLING

Up-cycling refers to reuse of a garment where its quality remains the same or is increased by the

process, attempting to counter the common problem of recycling practices reducing the quality

of the original materials, as occurs when glass is recycled (adapted from a workshop text for

‘Ever & Again, Rethinking Recycled Textiles: Introduction and Context setting for textile

recycling’, Oct 2005)). Up-cycling confers an environmental benefit by reducing, or at least

delaying, the addition of trash to our landfills. (Andrea Anderson, Holland & Hart 2009)

The process of up-cycling is more than just use old and raw material. By this kind of re-use the

raw material is augmented into an object of higher status than the original object. It is about

upgrading used material and making it more desirable than it was at the start. Reformulate the

basic logic of fashion: making new of the old and create diversity by using unique garments with

using existing design and methods. Every piece that is made according to this method,

regardless of how many versions there may be, is a unique piece, because the materials that are

used in it are unique. (Barbara Vinken)

Broken, damaged and redundant objects can be refashioned and value added through the process

of up-cycling, which in the work from Plunkett and Sales on the use of decorative textile

techniques such as printing and embroidery. As a sustainable strategy for design, up-cycling

provides a designer with the opportunity to reassess the real worth and value of a waste material

through the design and manufacture of new products. Rather than recycling, which can result in

the downgrading of a material up-cycling seeks to further prolong the life and value of a product

and material. (Allison Gwilt, Timo Rissanen 2012)

Murray in the book Zero Waste explains that up-cycling textiles is not merely conserving the

resources that went into the production of a particular materials, but by adding the value

embodied in them by the application of knowledge in the course of their recirculation.(Murray,

2002)

Up-cycling method, or upward re-processing, is defined as bringing waste back into the

consumption chain through design by placing it higher up in the chain than it previously was –

this includes environmental as well as commercial and aesthetical value – while also accounting

31

for the product’s future (McDonough and Braungart 2002). Compared To recycling waste

recovery strategies, up-cycling brings about the greatest change with the least amount of energy

use. Via up-cycling, the source material moves from the lowest to the highest level of the

production cycle. By allowing the largest possible amount of textile waste to be given new value,

up-cycling solves the problems associated with fashion textile waste (Reet Aus Trash to Trend

2011).

Up-cycling method also respects the principle of local production. The source material in up-

cycling is usually gathered in the same region where production take place which, in turn, also

contributes to resolving

environmental and social

issues related to the

globalization of the

fashion textile industry

and its reliance on

transportation.

[junky styling] source: www.junkystyling.com

Up-cycling is most efficient if used within the production company itself and under the same

brand, sending all generated waste back to the production process. This entails implementing up-

cycling in the design process of the main product – pre-calculating the textile waste generated

and designing the patterns for side products so that they can be easily made of the textile

leftovers. The availability of waste material in fashion design is essential in implementing up-

cycling, since the design and production process is much determined by the material used. For

the sustainable fashion industry to be cultivated, it is also important to increase the demand for

sustainable fashion. It is therefore essential that sustainable fashion becomes a part of the regular

fashion scene, increasing its supply. In terms of environmental impact as well as economic

32

viability and the complexity of the design, up-cycling is most efficient. Implementing a DIY (do

it yourself) approach to up-cycling minimizes the environmental impact of the design and

creation of a garment.

A common phenomenon in fashion over the last 20 years has been the tactic of reusing old

garments into new creations. However, to call the haute couture techniques by for example

Maison Martin Margiela as simply “recycling” would be an understatement. What happens in

this process of reuse is that the raw material is augmented into an object of higher status than its

original incarnation. If these garments are in some way “cycled”, they are “upcycled”. This

concept, initially explored by the Austrian artist group WochenKlausur, is a process of upgrading

used material, making it more desirable than it was at the start. “Upcycling is a procedure akin to

recycling in which waste material and worn out goods are reprocessed directly into new products

without being reduced to raw materials.” (Zinggl: 87)

What this form of recycling is doing to fashion has purposefully been going on in the art world

since Duchamp, and the raw material of used clothes are the objet trouve of fashion. The

“upcycled” haute couture garments are often remade in such way that they leave the consumer

object cycle. Their mundane and ephemeral status enters the timeless state of unique artworks

with very few signs of the zeitgeist manifested into their re-sewn fabric. This process of reuse

reformulates one of the basic logics of fashion; making new of the old and in the procedure get a

singularity of unique garments out of general methods or designs. A kind of shortcut to the

unique object, as the fabric itself is distinctively heterogeneous. This is a fascination of the single

piece, as highlighted by fashion theorist Barbara Vinken, something that traditionally was

exclusively reserved to the artwork. It is the initiation of a fashion based on duration rather than

change. (Vinken: 143) In her book Fashion Zeitgeist she raises the approach on fashion design as

one aspect of what she calls “post-fashion”: Every piece that is made according to this method,

regardless of how many versions there may be, is a unique piece, because the materials that are

used in it are unique.

2.6.2 FASHION DECONSTRUCTION

Flavia Loscialpo in her book “Fashion & philosophical deconstruction” ,“Deconstructionism”

was the brainchild of French philosopher Jacques Derrida who named the process of breaking

33

down established forms. The term is normally applied to text but also describes breaking down

conventions and normal boundaries. His idea was to contradict, challenge and destabilize the

universal truth. It’s a fashion item that looks unfinished and the designer is still in the midst of

experimenting with the product. Normally, the fashion item has exposed seams, raw edges,

displacement of certain component and some sort of treatment to make it look distressed.

According to Martin Mcquillan, deconstruction is the rethinking of the conceptual and non-

conceptual foundations of the western tradition. It examines the way in which Western thought is

structured. Jacques Derrida suggested that Western thought is structured in terms of binary

oppositions, the separation of conceptual material such as Man/Woman; Black/White equally.

Deconstruction suggests that opposite concepts are constructions. Yes and no are words that

represent opposing feelings but the words themselves are not opposites. Black and white

represents associations that change from culture to culture. Deconstruction, Mcquillan thinks,

reminds us of the different perceptions of each individual of the world. In an example, the term

‘Here and now’ is never identical to the actual moment in which one was referring to.

Deconstruction fashion is meant to challenge the traditional perception of beauty. In the 1980’s a

generation of independent thinking made an appearance in fashion that incarnated a sort of

‘distress’ in the comparison to fashion at the times. The works resided not only in the undoing of

the structure of a garment but re-thinking the functions and the meaning of the garment itself. It

questioned the relationship between the body and the garment and the concept of ‘body’. As

recalled by fashion experts, 1981 is the year in which both Yamamoto Rei Kawakubo showed for

the first time their collection in Paris. Their appearance forced “the representatives of the world’s

press to examine their consciences”. Rejecting every clichéd notion of what glamour should be,

or the fashionable silhouette should look like, they disclosed in fact a new approach to clothing

in the post-industrial, late 20th century society. Their major contribution consisted, and still

consists, in their endless challenging the relationship between memory and modernity, enduring

and ephemeral. At first, the austere, demure, often second hand look of their creations induced

some journalists to describe it as ‘post-punk’, or ‘grunge’.At the same time, it aims to destabilize

fashion with impeccable garment finishing.

In “Deconstruction Fashion: The Making of Unfinished, Decomposing and Re-Assembled

Clothes,” Alison Gill uses the idea of deconstruction borrowed from Jacques Derrida philosophy.

Gill suggests the fashion style of deconstruction, called “Le Destroy,” by the French, is an

intentional effort at unfinished forms that are coming apart, recycled or transparent. The basis of

34

all deconstruction clothing is aestheticized non-functionality that amounts to anti-fashion. Gill

then moves on to relation "deconstructionism" to "Le Destroy," describing the practices of anti-

fashion (which has some deconstruction elements but is far too focused on negative critique of

the industry), recession zeitgeist (which creates a political connection between the instability of

eastern European ideologies and an instability of fashion codes), eco-fashion (which emphasizes

the use of recycled/eroding materials to send a message for more environmentally friendly

textiles), and theoretical fashion (most closely related to deconstructionist fashion in that it links

philosophical ideologies to the practice of fashion). Gill claims that "deconstruction fashion

liberates the garment from functionality by literally undoing," making the reader ponder exactly

what the functionality of fashion is.

She states that deconstruction in fashion is somewhat like an auto-critique of the fashion

system, revealing the draw and attraction of fashion such as the glamour, fantasy and exclusivity

and technical aspects such as form, stitches and fabrication. Deconstruction, in a literal level,

conotates the reversal of construction, thus the unfinished or destroyed look of garments.

Deconstruction was first seen as a rebellion against fashion in the 80s and the acceptance and

movement into the domain of fashion was deemed contradictory and deconstruction was seen as

another superficial trend.

[from left: Karl Lagerfeld,

Dries Van Noten, and Hussein

Chalayan, F 2009]

Gill then goes in depth on the

term "deconstruction" and its

named critique by creator

Jacques Derrida. Derrida

claims that deconstruction

should not be linked to a negative critique (it is not to be called 'destruction') on society, or in

this case the normalized fashion industry, but rather the introduction of a new discourse in the

way we view the working of social codes. This type of thinking may be related to post-

modernism.

35

The works of Maison Martin Margiela are indeed classical artworks: exclusive. According to

fashion theorist Alison Gill, Margiela “deconstructs the hierarchical relation that persists

between the exclusivity of designer fashion and everyday clothes.” (Gill: 31) Indeed, Margiela’s

upcycled garments are highly exclusive, fashionable, and pricy; they still represent the top of the

fashion hierarchy, unattainable to most of us. Gill’s assumption that Margiela’s deconstructed

garments somehow should bridge the gap between fashion and the everyday might be true on a

material level, but hardly from a perspective of participation. The upcycling of fashion into art or

the temporal readjustment into postfashion is interesting, but is not the main interest in this

process. Instead, fashions of up-cycling puts a focus on postproduction processes open to people

outside of the fashion system (the once “passive” consumers). With hardly any means of

production to create the new, they can now recreate the old into the new, and still be in fashion.

It enables new interfaces open for fellow amateurs (lovers) and other laymen to share their skills.

Interfaces for new explorations of craftsmanship, outside, but still in relation with, the dictations

of fashion.

Gills’ interpretation of Margiela, she means that the act of unstitching can be defined as “a

practice of ‘undoing’, deconstructionalist fashion liberates the garment from functionality, by

literally undoing it.” (Gill: 35) This notion of liberation is no coincidence. It can trigger us to

further explore the hidden logics of fashion that are at the same time trapped in and performed

through every garment

For deconstruction to take place, the binary must be

reversed, as showing that binary opposition at work

is necessary. Deconstruction is a false opposition

working, however, stopping it would restore the

inequality and there would be no changes towards

the unequal system in the first place. Therefore, it is

necessary to remove the whole system of binary

thinking and binary logic which is the only way the

binary is said to be undone.Comme de Garcons,

2006, the design combines two opposing aesthetics

giving both a presence but denying either totality.

Both aesthetics are in play with one another.

[Rei Kawakubo]

36

The general definition of deconstruction as a practice of undoing construction would mean the

liberation of garments from its function, which is not applicable. Gill’s point is that

deconstruction is the dressed down version for its application to fashion and that fashion could

possibly have a prescribed function.

[Comme-de-garcons –Paris Fashion Week-Rei Kawakubo : right]

How can we create practices of

liberation and empowerment with the

tools at hand – with old clothes and

sewing skill? Perhaps this process

opened by up-cycling can make us

also update the world of fashion in

small and beautiful steps, up-

fashioning it with our own

craftsmanship. We can use fashion as

a workshop for collective enablement

where a community shares their

methods and experiences. Liberating a

part of fashion from a phenomenon of

dictations and the anxiety to become a

collective experience of

empowerment through engaged craft.

2.7 DESIGN EXEMPLARS

2.7.1 Jackson Pollock-painter

He is a painter that practiced action painting that was part of the Abstract Expressionism art

movement that was a term first used in connection with Kandinsky in 1919, but more commonly

associated with post-war American art. Robert Coates, an American critic, coined it in 1946,

referring to Gorky, Pollock and de Kooning. All were influenced by Existentialist ideas, which

37

emphasized the importance of the act of creating, not of the finished object. With regards to

technique, what is meant is the formal process used in the production of their compositions. The

elements of line, shape, scale, texture, and medium are great examples of what constitute form.

The truth to their principle was determined by how "in the zone" the painter was at the time he or

she was working on the composition. That is, how completely attuned the artist was in the piece

with which they were involved. As well, some Abstract Expressionists painted representational

images. In some cases, an Abstract Expressionist painter would leave the image unfinished.

However, the composition was finished. In regards to Abstract Expressionist techniques, the

creation of patterns and shape, colour, scale, and medium were very important. The work was

less a presentation of colour than a manifestation of spontaneous lines and shape. A

characteristic of many Action Painters was their approach to the canvas. Typically, the paint was

aggressively stroked, poured, splashed, or thrown onto the canvas. The paintings of the Action

painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions. Instead they were

meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and

tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting

"unconsciously," and spontaneously, creating a powerful arena of raw emotion and action, in the

moment. Action painting was clearly influenced by the surrealist.

Their works of art provide a good inspiration for the creation of my prints and the pleasure of

working on a big canvas. The

freedom to express emotions

through art not is restricted.

Their use of colour will help in

choosing the colours for the

2013 women’s collection. The

lines and shapes created in their

painting provide shape

inspiration for the collection to

have a common ground.

[Jackson Pollock- Converge]

photo source: Google images

38

2.7.2 Vivienne Westwood

A global icon as well as an iconoclast. In the 1970s, she electrified the fashion world with the

launch of punk and went on to become one of the most inventive and influential designers of

our time. Fashion to her became “a baby I picked up and never put down.” Known best for

her willingness to take risks and to disregard conventions, she also has a profound respect for

the past and such as corsets and crinolines and reinvents them in new ways. Another

hallmark of her ever-evolving work is her use of thoroughly British fabrics such as tartans

and tweeds to create fashion that gently parodies Establishment styles and the royalty.

Regardless of how outrageous or provocative the result may be however, her approach has

always been practical. She is driven by a curiosity about how things work. Vivienne

Westwood revolutionized fashion, and her impact can still be felt. Her clothes are full of

historical references, particularly to the 17th and 18th century, which serve as an

inexhaustible source of inspiration for her. In addition, with her own technique for draping

and pattern cutting, Westwood creates clothes with a characteristic volume.

[Vivienne Westwood- red label collection] photo source : Google images

39

2.7.3 Junky styling

Annika Sanders and Kerry Seager established Junky Styling on Brick Lane in London. A

clothing label, shop, and design team, Junky Styling built a reputation over the last ten years, not

only for their tailor-detailed fresh styles, but for also encouraging customers to get involved in

recycling. Junky Styling aims to change the way people consume clothing. Their work consists

of one-off ‘wardrobe surgeries’ for customers as well as an internationally stocked ready-to-wear

collection. The business idea developed from their experimentation with recycling second-hand

clothes into club-wear; being part of the same generation this sounded warmly familiar.

[junky styling-up-cycling] photo source www.junkystyling .com

3 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

40

The research design is exploratory survey research that is used “to answer questions that have been

raised, to solve problems that have been posed or observed, to assess needs and set goals, to determine

whether or not specific objectives have been met, to establish baselines against which future comparisons

can be made, to analyze trends across time, and generally, to describe what exists, in what amount, and in

what context.” (Isaac & Michael, 1997, p. 136). This study aimed at getting an in-depth study of the street

style fashion based in Nairobi. It therefore fits the descriptive study appropriately. The components of the

Research project included:

i. Investigating the fashion sense and style of young women in Nairobi

ii. Examining the influence of fashion trends on young women in Nairobi and how

they have adapted it into their own style

iii. The impact of second hand clothing on its consumers within Nairobi.

iv. The amount young women in Nairobi spend on shopping and how they dispose of

excess clothing or old clothing.

3.2 Population of study

The population of interest in this study consisted of respondents who are within Nairobi city

between the ages of 18-30. The population was considered because of their exposure to:

fashion and style

Nairobi as the fashion capital of Kenya

the biggest informal market/flea market is in Nairobi [Gikomba Market]

3.3 Sample design and sampling design

The sample size consisted of 40 young women based within Nairobi area. The sample

respondents were randomly selected from a sample frame obtained from the public, flea markets

[toi market], stalls and department stores [Mr.Price] in two localities in Nairobi. The flea markets

were considered because they have the greatest number of shoppers’ everyday compared to stalls

and department stores where they had few shoppers that go into the stalls in a day. Deming

argues that the quality of a study is often better with sampling than with a census. He suggests

that sampling possess the possibility of better interviewing (testing), more thorough investigation

41

of missing, wrong, or suspicious information, better supervision and better processing than is

possible with complete coverage.

3.4 Data Collection

Data was collected using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire were given to respondents

to fill in under close supervision by the researcher who waited to explain to the respondent

questions not well understood and pick up the completed questionnaires [self administered

questionnaires] . The researcher also collected data by sending mails to the respondents via their

personal e-mail accounts that saved the researcher quite a lot of time and helped reach the

respondents even via social media sites.

3.5 Data Analysis

Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Mean scores were used to determine the amount

of money spent in a month by the respondents, the frequency of their shopping sprees, which

shopping places have the most number of shoppers and what is the frequently bought items in

their wardrobe. The data collected was presented in tables and pie charts.

4 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATIONS

4.1 Introduction

The study targeted 40 members of the sample that were based within Nairobi area the closest

proximity to the researcher. Questionnaires were given to all members of the sample but only 32

42

members responded representing a response rate of 80%. The rule of thumb states that any

sample which is greater or equal to 30 is adequate. In addition, studies never attain 100%

response rate.

4.2 Demographic information

This section shows information on demographic variable of the respondents which is their age

shown by the table below

Table 1: Respondent’ age

The above table shows the age groups that I used in the sample. The most number of people that

I interviewed were between the ages of 22-26 years.

Figure 1: Respondents’ age

Age group frequency percentage

18-22 years 8 25

22-26 years 17 53

26-30 years 7 22

Total 32 100

43

4.3 Expenditure on shopping

Table 2: Expenditure on Shopping

Amount frequency Percentage %

500-1000 5 16

1000-2000 8 25

2000-5000 13 41

Over 5000 6 19

Total 32 100%

The table above shows that a higher percentage of young women spend between 2000-5000

shillings on shopping in a month.

18-22 years25%

22-26 years54%

26-30 years21%

figure 1: age group

44

Table 3: the most frequently shopped places

Shop Frequency Percentage%

Flea Markets e.g. Gikomba market 18 56

Department stores e.g. Woolworths 4 13

Stalls e.g. Jamia Mall 6 19

Thrift shops e.g. Closet 49 3 9

Online 1 3

Total 32 100%

500-1000 kshs16%

1000-2000 kshs25%

2000-5000kshs40%

over 5000 kshs19%

figure 2:expenditure in kshs per month

45

Table 4: Awareness of sustainable fashion

Awareness on sustainable fashion frequency Percentage%

Yes 22 69

No 10 31

Total 32 100%

Table 5: where old unwanted clothes are discarded

flea markets56%

department stores13%

stalls19%

thrift shops9%

online3%

figure 3: Shopping Areas

Yes96%

No4%

figure 4: sustainability awareness

46

Frequency Percentage%

Donate 23 72

Burn 1 3

Throw away 3 9

Resell 0 0

Up-cycle 5 16

Total 32 100%

Table 6: those who are aware of Up-cycle

Frequency Percentage%

Yes 19 59

No 13 41

Donate72%

Burn3%

Throw away9%

Resell0%

Up-cycle16%

figure 5: discard of unwanted clothes

47

Total 32 100%

Table 7: Those willing to try Up-cycle fashion

Frequency Percentage%

Yes 31 97

No 1 3

Total 32 100%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Yes No

pe

rce

nta

ge

respondents

figure 6: awareness on up-cycling

48

4.4 Limitations of the Survey

The limitations of the study was the small sample size that allowed the researcher to get limited

information and statistics, if the sample was larger the conclusive evidence would have matched

a larger populations, behavioral aspects about fashion and style in general.

Conduction an online survey also had its limitations where respondents did not get back in time

with their questionnaires. A number of them declined to fill in the questionnaire so the researcher

had to work with what she had.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Yes No

pe

rce

nta

ge

respondents

figure 7: willingness to try up-cycling

49

5 CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 FINDINGS AND DICUSSIONS

After conducting the survey through interviews and questionnaires it was duly noted that the

pursuit of fashionable dress is motivated primarily by the social desires of the individual. Rather

than consuming fashion garments to appease basic needs. A higher percentage of young women

in Nairobi bought clothes for the sake of being fashionable and in trend without looking at the

bigger picture of why they need the clothes, where they will take the old ones or the room to

accommodate both old and new clothes. The researcher also falls victim to these tendencies. The

typical Nairobi woman will shop till she drops.

While conducting an observation in Nairobi CBD [Central Business Unit] the number of women

sorting through masses of second hand clothing and shoes from hawkers is indeed a great

number. The women are in between the age bracket of 18-30; from students to working class

women all bent down looking for clothes and trying them out in public. With a percentage of

56% it was noted that flea markets are the most visited places for shopping. The respondents said

that the second hand clothing are cheaper, affordable and have a variety of clothing items. Its

clear that second-hand clothing is becoming more desirable for distinction-seeking consumers

who are dissatisfied with the homogenization of new fashion garments in the mass market and

this is leading to its popularization by fashion at the current time.

From the survey the researcher also noted that a small percentage of Nairobi women are

completely unaware of wasteful consumption, if they don’t go shopping its simply because they

don’t have money but as soon as they get some cash a percentage of it will go into buying

clothes and accessories and they term it as “treating” themselves after handworks’ month or day.

Some are impulse shoppers that they buy and buy and forget about some important things that

need to be attended to rather than materialistic things. With the sample of 32 respondents 72 %

of the sample donates their excess clothes to make room for more clothes that they buy with a

frequency of 5 to 10 times in a month.

On analyzing information gathered from the online survey on sustainability and up-cycling

method, 59% of the sample had knowledge concerning sustainability and wasteful consumption.

50

[See table 4 and 6]. The rest have no knowledge of how they buy second hand clothing which is

[clothes that have been donated by the West as a way of practicing sustainable fashion

consumption] resold in the flea markets such as Gikomba, Toi and Ngara markets. They are

blindly following trends, all they know is “that dress looks so good on me, I must buy it” or

‘blankets and wine is happening this weekend and I have nothing to make an entrance with”. The

high percentage of the sample on willingness to try out up-cycling gives hope that Nairobi is the

starting point to experiment and have people adopt up-cycling as way of practicing sustainable

fashion

Closet 49 a company in Kenya that started having discovered lack of trendy, affordable,

accessible fashion items online. It is the only company in Kenya that is practicing sustainable

fashion consumption where people resell their own clothes and accessories in closet49 a way of

de-cluttering their wardrobe and earning a few coins when their items are bought by other

people. During my interview with Serah Kinyua a correspondent with Closet49, she shed light on

the sustainability conference dubbed “Fashion Africa 2012” which was a vehicle to create a

social forum that was aimed to raise awareness elevate the perception of fashion design from the

continent and sustainable fashion. The idea for the conference was in conjunction with

Jacqueline Shaw of Africa Fashion Guide and its aim was to create an opportunity to discuss and

promote the full supply chain of African fashion Design, Textiles and Manufacturing and thus

communicate this to a larger global audience through media. They also stock up-coming

designer’s clothes and accessories, a way of promoting the new-comers. Kenya’s very own e-bay

(online shopping site).

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

5.2.1 Building awareness

It is increasingly important that the objectives of sustainability be translated and clarified for a

Kenyan audience. As the globe is warming, it is essential that consumers be made aware of the

need to address all unsustainable behaviours with the view to challenge, re-evaluate and

redevelop in a sustainable way. With regard to fashion consumption, this involves raising

awareness about the ethical and environmental ramifications of new garment production to foster

a willingness to engage in more sustainable consumption.

51

5.2.2 Engage a willing audience

The goal for sustainable development in the short term should be to position sustainable

consumption as an ongoing political project (Dolan, 2002). The public needs to be exposed to

and engaged by the political nature of the sustainability debate and consumerism in this way.

Individuals need to be encouraged to respond to their personal politics and feel empowered to

initiate related action. As campaigning is arguably a method of dictating action that captures an

obligatory response. Allowing individuals to test and trial alternative fashion consumption

practices encourages them to make an informed decision about the validity of integrating the

practice into their lifestyles. If an individual decides to adopt a particular sustainable behaviour,

they will do so because it aligns with their values and fits within their lifestyle.

5.2.3 Re-evaluating ownership

According to a recent survey conducted by Cotton Incorporated, approximately 35% of women

clean out their closets and 27% do it twice a year. Rather than throwing out inactive garments or

giving them away, they are simply organizing and consolidating them in order to make room for

new garments to come. Garments are hoarded because they are imbued with the potential to

become useful. Organizing a clothing exchange that is designed to be a catalyst for editing the

fashion waste from wardrobes is a way of re-evaluating ownership of one’s wardrobe. This

process aims to extract surplus clothing while affirming the lasting value of garments kept.

Swapping inactive fashion waste for a new, active wardrobe reduces the need for new clothing

consumption. The aim of sharing goods is to increase the intensity of their use while reducing the

material intensity (Mont, 2004).

5.2.4 Government Policies

The Kenyan government should implement policies that govern the importation from second

hand clothing. In as much it are getting little revenue from it, they should keep in mind about the

local fashion industry that will generate more revenue and boost the Economy just as in the UK

where the fashion industry is the 2nd most earning industry. Second hand clothing will also end

up in our dumping sites e.g. Dandora

52

5.2.5 Re-opening of closed cotton mills

The government should re-open the cotton mills in Kenya that were shut down. They created

massive job opportunities for so many Kenyans like cotton farmers, cotton pickers, and cotton

workers to work in the mills and factories, managers, engineers, technologies and so forth.

Kenya was among the leading exporters in Africa for quality cotton, reviving the factories will

boost up the economy. Kenya will then have fewer importation of cheap Asian fabric and

designers will use cotton produced in Kenya hence having Kenyans to purchase their designs

because of the reduced importation of fabric that increases cost of design. Reduction of

importation also means fewer carbon prints.

5.2.6 Swapping/exchanging clothes

The clothing exchange is an ideal transitionary strategy between wasteful consumption and a

sustainable future. It revitalizes the familiar practice of sharing with the new values and ideas of

the sustainability movement. This form of gentle activism empowers the individual because they

test the experience for themselves and make an informed decision about whether to include it in

their lives. As they become acquainted with the practice of sharing clothing, it is anticipated that

they may apply this to other areas of consumption within their life, thus taking a larger stride

towards sustainability

5.2.7 Up-cycling Fashion

This is a way of giving old garments a new look. Instead of going to buy new clothes or just

clothes, people can give a new twist to their old garments, which elongates their cycle buying it

some time for its place in your closet. Taking it to a tailor or a designer benefits all parties

involved, however the designer will have a whole different approach that will make the garment

unique, trendy fashionable according to the client’s needs. Holding events such as “wardrobe

surgery” by junky styling also gives a whole new aspect of up-cycling. Wardrobe surgery is

about inviting people to come with their old garments and showing those different ways and

techniques to up-cycle them. This engages the audience, the more involving they are the more

they get to know about up-cycling and ways of sustainable fashion consumption.

53

5.3 CONCLUSION

The research clearly shows how fast fashion has had an impact on the global scene as fast

fashion brand keeps producing more and more cheaper clothes on the western world that

encourages consumerism. This has taken a tall on the environment by letting the fashion waste

pile up at landfills all over the world because they are few designers and organization practicing

sustainability and sustainable consumption. It is however evident that in order to practice

sustainable consumption the fashion waste from the west is being shipped to developing

countries like Kenya as second hand clothing which only minimizes the problem at small

percentage. In as much second hand clothing has provided a cheaper option and job employment

for the poverty stricken, the local fashion industry in Kenya has a slow growth rate due to the

public relying so much on second hand clothing and not giving a chance to the local design

industry. Promoting Kenyan designers is promoting Kenya’s Economy and thus putting Kenya’s

Fashion Industry on the map. This will also create job opportunities for the unemployed youth in

Kenya.

By the end of the project what I hope to achieve is shedding light to the second hand

consumption in Kenya, Nairobi to be specific. Hoping to enlighten and educate the public on

sustainable fashion consumption by using this second hand garments to create a collection that

reflects sustainable fashion that will give insight on how to up-cycle clothes using the philosophy

of fashion deconstruction as stated in this paper. As an up-coming designer it is our duty to come

up with new ways and designs that practice sustainability creatively and getting the public to be

more involved with the movement of eco-fashion. We are the future of sustainable fashion

consumption. It’s our duty to create a safer environment for ourselves and future generations to

come

54

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59

APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE

The researcher is a 4th year Bachelor of Arts in Design student at the School of Art and Design,

University of Nairobi, seeking to study “Up-cycled Fashionable Clothing From Materials

Sourced From Nairobi Flea Markets For Young Women” . Kindly assist by filling in the

questionnaire. The report will strictly by for scholarly purposes only.

Name:

Age group

[ ] 18-22 [ ] 22-26 [ ] 26-30

Do you consider yourself fashionable

[ ] Yes [ ] No

Do you follow trends

[ ] Yes [ ] No

Where do you shop?

[ ] Flea Markets e.g. Gikomb a [ ] Department Stores e.g. Woolworths, Mr. Price

[ ] Stalls e.g. Jamia Mall [ ] Thrift shops e.g. Closet 49 [ ] Online

How often do you shop in a month

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[ ] Once [ ] 2-4 times [ ] 5-10 times [ ] Over 10times

How much do you spend on shopping in a month

[ ] 500-1000 [ ] 1000-2000 [ ] 2000-5000 [ ] Over 500

What is the frequently bought item in your wardrobe

[ ] blouse/t-shirts/vests [ ] pants/shorts [ ] dresses/skirts [ ] coats/sweaters

Are you aware of sustainable fashion?

[ ] Yes [ ] No

Have you practiced sustainable fashion?

[ ] Yes [ ] No

What do you do with old, unwanted clothes?

[ ] donate [ ] burn [ ] throw away [ ] resell [ ] up-cycle

Do you know about Up-Cycle Fashion?

[ ] Yes [ ] No

Are you willing to try out Up-Cycle Fashion

[ ] Yes [ ] No

Thank you for taking your time to fill in the questionnaire.

APPENDIX II

INTERVIEW GUIDE

The researcher is a 4th year Bachelor of Arts in Design student at the School of Art and Design,

University of Nairobi, seeking to study “Up-cycled Fashionable Clothing From Materials

Sourced From Nairobi Flea Markets For Young Women” . Kindly assist by filling in the

interview guide. The report will strictly by for scholarly purposes only.

Company Name:

What is the idea behind your company?

Where do you source your clothes?

61

Which age bracket do you sell to?

What do you do with the items that are not purchased?

A short brief on the sustainable fashion talk that you hosted at Sarakasi Dome.

How did you come up with the idea?

Where did you sort consultations?

Did you achieve what you set out to accomplish?

Will you hold other talks and conferences in the future about

sustainability?

Would you partner up with a designer who practices sustainable fashion?

A short brief on the event you held for people to swap clothes.

62

Your say about Kenya’s Fashion Industry

Comment about Nairobi street style, the good or the bad

Thank you for taking your time for the interview