updated small pox yellow fever
TRANSCRIPT
Chris Frasquieri
CULF 3330: History and Evolution
Professor Austin
3 December 2015
Smallpox: The Dire Combination of the Conquest of the Americas and
Disease
Introduction
The Age of Exploration, which occurred through the years 1450 to
1650, was a time of exploration, curiosity, and discovery. Europeans
circumnavigated the world via boat in the hopes of finding new trade routes
east towards Asia, Africa, and India, new goods to sell and distribute to
European citizens, and lastly to learn more about the world and acquire
potential new territory. The Portuguese and Spanish made significant
strides towards global exploration, but sometimes exploration came with
negative costs. Upon discovery of a huge western landmass between Europe
and Asia—as we know it as the Americas—the opportunity for colonization,
harboring of gold and precious metals, and dominating foreign resources
became a reality. With the discovery of the Americas came its indigenous
people, whom were unaccustomed to the life, culture, and especially the
diseases from the East.
Hatuey, chief of the island nation Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican
Republic), lived during the early sixteenth century. The importance of
Hatuey is significant—he was the first man to stand up to the Spaniards
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during the Age of Exploration. Although Hatuey showed great resistance
towards the Spaniards, the indigenous people of South and North America
were desecreated substantially by unseen forces. This hidden enemy lurked
within the immunities of the Europeans—Smallpox. Significance of the
smallpox disease will be shown through understanding the origins and
transfer of the Smallpox disease in the Americas, which caused devastating
effects upon the native population during the 1500s-1600s. Lastly, looking
at two specific events during the Age of Exploration—the explorers
Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés’ arrival—will show how history
was revolutionized with the unfortunate aid of smallpox.
The Basics: Smallpox History
To begin, context of the history of smallpox and its effects on society
will show how relevant its existence has been to world history. Smallpox is
arguably one of the most lethal illnesses—so lethal that over the centuries it
has killed more people combined than any other infectious disease
combined. As the author of Smallpox: A History notes, “men in ranks died
more frequently from disease than from bullets” (Kotar 3). Although the
origins to smallpox have been lost in history, historians believe that the
agrarian societies in northeastern Africa, approximately 10,000 BC, is when
smallpox first arrived. Smallpox has coexisted with humans for centuries;
given this information provided, it is known to have killed a third of those
whom get infected. Smallpox is caused by the Variola major virus and is
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presented with flu-like symptoms, which include the following: high fever,
fatigue, aching from the back and head, and the infamous red sore rash.
Approximately 300 million people died of smallpox throughout the 20th
century alone, resulting in the necessity for a world coalition to eradicate
the deadly disease in the late 20th century. Although the Center for Disease
Control (CDC) was initially created in order to combat malaria, “by 1971
[the CDC] coordinated a national attack on a wide range of diseases that
spread from person to person and from animals and nature to humans,” one
of which included the extermination of smallpox (370). The reason why
smallpox had been easily transferrable between humans was because of
population rise and increased contact with infected individuals. Smallpox
spreads through direct contact of bodily fluids infected with the Variola
virus or contaminated objects like cloths or silverware. With these key facts
in mind, smallpox has definitely shaped the world as one of the most deadly
diseases a person can catch. In terms of history during the 1500s, this
disease caused a monumental pandemic throughout the Americas, which
will be discussed as effects of exploration and colonization.
As mentioned earlier, the America’s remained unknown by the rest of
the world, more or less, until the Age of Exploration, which gave the
invitation for new customs, products, and people to intermingle. As this
occurred, so did diseases, which Europeans had developed an immunity for.
Antibodies, are tiny molecule in the bloodstream and mucus that “are made
by the immune system to neutralize foreign particles entering the body;”
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these antibodies had been present in European society, thus creating an
immunity (Noymer 179). Such diseases, like smallpox, riveted the native
population of the Americas. Instigators of this travesty, Christopher
Columbus and Hernán Cortés, brought smallpox into the current day
Central and North America, but the events that prospered because of their
arrival leads to their individual significance.
Hernán Cortés and Strife in Mesoamerica
First, we will begin with Mesoamerican history, (which in my opinion
has been a fairly neglected topic in the overall perspective of world history,)
followed by its relation to Hernán Cortés, the conqueror of the Tenochtitlán
capital of the Aztecs. Throughout the history of Mesoamerica, civilizations
are constantly shifting between powers throughout current day Central
America, but originally, Mesoamerican civilizations grew just like
Mesopotamia in the Middle East. Hunter-gatherers eventually stopped
moving, developed more agrarian, community dependent tribes and
villages, which subsequently developed into large civilizations. In
Mesoamerica, tribes grew quickly and conquered, only to be taken shortly
thereafter. This is seen as the Olmec Kingdom rises and falls in power,
Mayan kingdoms start to conquer areas like Guatemala, and then the Toltec
Empire rises as quickly as it falls from the 9th to 10th Century (Funk &
Wagnalls 6). Most notably, the relationship between the Aztec Empire,
which flourished through the late 14th Century and into the 15th Century
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under the rule of Montezuma, and Cortés begins as he travels to
Mesoamerica in 1519.
Hernán Cortés, born in 1485 in Medellín, Castile, is known for his role
in the conquering of Mexico and his ingenious strategies of turning native
populations against one another. Notably associated with the New World,
Cortés initially went to Hispaniola and Cuba, developing a fairly positive
relationship with the Governor of Cuba at the time, Diego Velázquez de
Cuéllar (Funk & Wagnalls 13). Unfortunately, animosity arose as Cortés
went on yret another expedition, this time leading him to the continent of
Mesoamerica, specifically Mexico. Intercontinental strife and a smallpox
epidemic weakened the Mexicans and helped Cortés conquer them in 1521,
with help from allying with indigenous peoples against the Aztecan Empire:
“Cortez sailed from Cuba to the coast of Mexico, then moved inland,
reaching Tenochtitlán in November 1519 … According to reports from
the period, among the latter’s crew was a Negro suffering from
smallpox; introduction of the disease into the unprotected population
resulted in horrific suffering and death throughout the indigenous
population. So many Aztec warriors were lost that those left had little
ability to prevent further inroads by the invaders, making conquest
inevitable.” (Kotar 24)
All in all in the short term, with the underlying help of smallpox, Hernán
Cortés destroyed the Aztec Empire. He gave Spain—his homeland—the
ability to begin taking resources from the rich lands of Mesoamerica. To
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add, they would gain lands unconquered by any other country. As well, in
the short term, significant damage was done—besides the occurrences of
Cortés’ conquest of Tenochtitlán. The effects of smallpox significantly
decreased population because of the introduction of the disease into a
completely isolated continent. Without the underlying assistance of
smallpox in Mesoamerica (and subsequently South America), conquest
wouldn’t have been possible, thus making its presence if Mesoamerica
significant.
Colonization of North America
Although, in the present day, we commemorate Christopher Columbus
for finding the Americas, Columbus Day has been so controversial because
of the demise and demonization of the indigenous peoples through
colonialism. Columbus, who appealed to King Ferdinand and Queen
Elizabeth of Spain, wanted to find a trading route by travelling west that
would inevitably go to Asia. Columbus calculated the distance between
Europe and Asia correctly by travelling west, approximately 3000 miles, but
he did not take into account the unknown landmass that was between
Europe and Asia—America. Although, technically speaking, Columbus was
not the original discoverer of the Americas, there has been constant
interaction and communication between the continents through exploration
and inevitable colonization. With these inevitable waves of explorers, which
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followed by colonization, came spikes of smallpox epidemics, along with
other nonnative diseases in the isolated Americas, causing “massive
numbers” of indigenous peoples to die in the 1500s (Tischauser 2). Along
with diseases came brutal and atrocious acts committed by Europeans; the
direct impact of killings, maiming, rape, abduction, and depredations on the
conquered population must have been directly associated with the ratio of
conquerors to conquered, and therefore inversely correlated with the
natives’ population size” (Livi-Bacci 201). To be clear, although Christopher
Columbus’ significance falls between the late 15th to the early 16th Century,
the positions that Columbus takes towards the indigenous people is seen
generations later. Perpetuating racism begins with Columbus’ arrival to the
American Continent.
This violence and maltreatment was only continued through the
generations of Europeans, and then Americans as they gained their
independence, that subsequently followed through history. Instances of
horrid treatment and disenfranchisement of the Native Americans
reoccurred as America expanded, but especially during the time period
known as the Age of Jackson (1829–1837). The Indian Removal Act, enacted
in 1830, sought to incentivize the voluntary movement of Native Americans,
but when the government saw it fit, it would forcefully remove Indians from
their land (Funk & Wagnalls 17). With all of this subjugation towards
populations like the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Seminole led to
overall diseases in population. Specifically in 1738-39, the Cherokee tribe
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experienced its worst epidemic to smallpox yet. 7,000 to 10,000 Cherokees
died because of the increasing contact with English through relocation,
traders, and expeditions.
Ultimately, these losses in population—this example above led to the
approximate deaths of half the tribe—resulted in distrust and increased
animosity with the ruthless and insensitive English. Death, strife, and
anguish followed the Native Americans as Europeans conquered their land
through war, manipulation, and the unfortunate effects of disease.
Perpetual violence and stigma towards the indigenous populations of
America led to a harsh reality of racism; treatment of indigenous
populations as “savages” and “lesser beings” cultivated a volatile culture. In
terms of smallpox, the intermingling of isolated Native Americans and
Europeans led to the increasing occurrences of smallpox outbreaks,
desecrating populations significantly to the point of extinction.
Conclusion
In summation, smallpox has killed more people total than any
infectious disease known to man. One major reason for this is because of
the isolation the America’s had towards the disease until the Age of
Exploration, explorers like Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés were
the catalyses’ to a pandemic of smallpox within Mesoamerica and the whole
continent of America lastly centuries until its eradication. Cortés, history
known as the conqueror of the Aztecan Empire, had the unfortunate
consequence of smallpox riveting the Aztec’s, which led to the capital,
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Tenochtitlán, being conquered. Christopher Columbus, notoriously known
for his greed, ruthlessness and racism, incentivized a culture of cruelty
towards the indigenous Americans; seen generations later by events like the
Indian Removal Act (1830) and the Trail of Tears (1838-39). Ultimately,
smallpox’s presence throughout history has had significance all across
America’s development into the nation it is currently. With this, I conclude
with evidence proving that smallpox has changed the course of history.
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Chris Frasquieri
CULF 3330: History and Evolution
Professor Austin
3 December 2015
Yellow Fever: The Young Nation of America’s First Enemy
Introduction
As the idiom goes, seeing is believing, but in a time where
technological advancement isn’t as profound as it is today, how do you
explain that something the human eye alone cannot see could result in your
demise? Post the invention of the microscope, it would be absurd to believe
in the possibility of something microscopic could end your life. With such
symptoms as bleeding from your eyes and mouth, dark red, almost black
vomit, and discoloration of your skin because of liver damage, life’s most
destructible weapon is around us at all times. Diseases, viruses, germs, and
parasites are unescapable—they live inside us and all around us. We are
surrounded by an enemy we know exists without the ability to see them
with the naked eye. Although this is common knowledge today, we have
seen that sickness can lead to death just as severely as a bullet can.
Humans have become resilient to many hardships in life, but time and
time again it has been shown that the spread and evolution of disease
through human exploration has led to death and strife. This natural
phenomenon is only exacerbated by increasing population, proximity to
foreign factors, and lack of proper sanitation which has riveted people
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worldwide. Until the early mid 1800s early 1900s, there was no real
correlation between disease and sanitation. In the case of the 1700s
through the 1800s, a formidable disease becomes the foundation for change
to American history: yellow fever. Knowledge of the origins and transfer of
yellow fever in the United States, its infamous epidemic in Philadelphia
during the 1790s, and an evaluation of the relationship of events like the
expansion of the railroads and immigration will prove the overall
significance yellow fever had in human history.
The Basics: Yellow Fever’s History
Time and time again, mosquitoes have been the culprit behind
diseases spread to man, some of which are: the West Nile Virus, Malaria,
and even Heartworms in canines; yellow yever is not an exception. Although
its origins stem from Africa through the beginning of slave trade, wherein
which it became endemic to the United States, its transfer from Africa to
the Americas caused it to become its own unique species. As highlighted in
Juliet E. Bryant, Edward C. Holmes, and Alan D.T. Barret’s findings
presented in their research report, “rigorous examination using gene
sequence data and modern phylogenetic techniques for estimating
divergence times” suggests that geographic isolation occurred resulting in
the distinction between yellow fever in Africa and the United States. (78).
As the World Health Organization propositions, yellow fever is an acute
viral hemorrhagic disease, meaning that an episode of blood loss has to
occur. As mentioned earlier, yellow fever is a difficult disease to eradicate if
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you have the severe strain, which presents itself with symptoms such as
black vomit, bleeding from the eyes, and jaundice—a discoloration of the
skin and eyes. Ultimately, these symptoms can lead to hallucinations, coma
and 50% of severe cases result in death.
Although currently the United States is, for the vast majority, free of
yellow fever, this virus is still prevalent in tropical areas of Latin America as
well as where it originated—Africa. Despite the technological advantages
that have occurred since epidemics of this disease in the United States,
conditions worldwide—where this disease is prevalent—like deforestation,
population movements, and urbanization have ultimately caused the
number of cases to rise. Most cases, specifically 85%, are only sick for a
week with symptoms like the common flu: fever, muscle pain, back pain,
headache, shivers, loss of appetite, and nausea or vomiting (“World Health
Organization”). Although most cases are not severe, what riveted history in
the 1700s was an outbreak of yellow fever in Philadelphia that caused even
the current president at the time, George Washington, to flee the state. In
order to establish the overall severity of this disease, there are a couple of
outbreaks in particular that capsulate the hypothesis of how much havoc a
virus can have on society. The yellow fever outbreak in Philadelphia in 1793
displays the brutality behind diseases, and history, as a whole.
The Yellowing of the U.S.: Outbreak Begins
Although there have been at least five notable instances of outbreaks
in the United States of yellow fever, two of which were in 1798 (in
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Philadelphia, New York, and Boston) and 1878 (the Mississippi Valley), the
most notorious and renown case of yellow fever was the first. In 1793 in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, ten percent of the overall population succumbed
to this illness. Because of very wet spring seasons followed by a hot
summer, the perfect conditions for mosquito larvae prospered. Standing
water, the perfect breeding ground for Aedes aegypti, the species of female
mosquitos that harbored the yellow fever virus (Abrams 52). Within two
weeks of its arrival in Philadelphia, the whole city was put under
quarantine. Interestingly enough, it was found that the infected weren’t the
usual victims—the elderly—but the young and middle aged crowd (Abrams
54). It was noted that African Americans got yellow fever in lesser
percentages than white Americans primarily because of immunity from
living in Africa. All in all, the terror stopped in October when vastly cooler
temperatures diminished the mosquito population.
The rise of yellow fever epidemics throughout the United States had
short term significances as well as long term significances. To begin,
“social, political, and economic life was at a standstill” as the epidemic
raged through Philadelphia (54). Residences and businesses, especially near
the Delaware River where the percentages of death were much higher, all
forms of commerce and communication stopped. Yellow Fever even
prevented Philadelphia from partaking in the colonist’s original reason for
founding the community—the ability to practice religious tolerance. This
displays the sheer anguish this virus had on the city. Another short term
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significance of yellow fever was the effects it had on our first President,
George Washington. As briefly mentioned earlier, George Washington was
displaced from his residency because of the severity of yellow fever and the
outbreak that occurred in Philadelphia. Although George Washington never
lived in the present day White House, which was built in 1800 and has
housed every president since John Adams, George Washington, out of fear
of catching yellow fever, fled from the presidential house in Philadelphia
and went to the Germantown White House. Although I’m sure there have
been instances where a President was displaced for his own protection by
enemy, this is the only instance of a president fleeing in order to avoid a
biological threat; a fairly significant event to note in history.
Relationships in a Larger Context
Overall, this virus has made significant and unique marks in United
States history in comparison to other diseases outbreaks that have
occurred. To recap, this was the only instance of a president vacating the
sanctity of his home because of a biological threat; a virus that killed ten
percent of the population in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the original home
of the president. Although in the short term the effects of yellow fever were
fairly significant, such as the immediate response of community shutdown
economically, socially, politically, and even spiritually, this was only the
beginning of the problems yellow fever had on the country. In the long
term, there was a substantial relationship between two large events that
take place in the 1800s that propagated a need to take the spread of disease
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as a national concern. These two relationships—an expanding railroad and
increased immigration—are noteworthy in the United States’ reaction to
disease.
Railroad Expansion: Yellow Fever Riding Coach?
Flash forward approximately 50 years from the outbreak in 1793;
these were times that were bloody, cruel, and especially violent. After the
Civil War and during the Reconstruction Era harbored a new, innovative
process highly develops throughout the eighteenth century. As discussed in
class, from the 1840s to 1890s, approximately 175,000 miles worth of
railroads were set throughout the developing Unites States of America. This
means of transportation exacerbated the developed of the United States,
which was already expanded from the original colonies all the way to the
west coast. Other than the intended effect of rapid transportation, economic
growth, and the development of unsettled lands that railroads brought
about, there came an unintended effect—the spread of unwarranted
disease. Time and time again, instances of outbreaks spread via the
Southern states by train became an unfortunate common place
phenomenon.
As mentioned earlier, there were other outbreaks that occurred
throughout the United States that were only worsened by the long distances
trains could travel, for instance the two Outbreaks that occurred in New
Orleans—and subsequently the whole Mississippi Valley—in 1855 and 1878.
Because trains could harbor passengers fleeing from cities where an
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outbreak had occurred, it could be taking unsuspecting passengers with
yellow fever to new areas of the country without knowing because of the
virus’ two day incubation period (Huffard Jr. 84). Adding to this, mosquitoes
could also be transported by the trains, which would be the perfect, damp
environment they’d need to survive and reproduce. The start of a new
epidemic would then causally occur “once the train stopped in the town,
these mosquitoes could [then] exit the train [and] bite new victims” (84). In
order to combat these issues, serious conversation occurred. Ultimately,
and most significantly, discussion of quarantine took place within New
Orleans and other cities in the late 1870s because of the implications that
not only the railroads were transporting yellow fever but immigration as
well were both factors contributing to the lack of control and the
distribution of this virus throughout the United States.
Wave Three: Immigration into the United States
In parallel with the transfer of yellow fever via railroads, an influx of
immigrants were arriving to the United States from Europe from the 1870s
through the 1920s. This time period is commonly referred to as the “Third
Wave” of Immigration to the United States, primarily consisting of poorer
Eastern Europeans (“UV School of Public Health and Community Medicine”
I). The densely packed ships ultimately became a breeding ground for
diseases. The potential for yellow fever outbreaks were exacerbated with
the amount of immigrants coming into the United States along with the
other diseases propagating within these large ships, like cholera and
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typhus. Ultimately, sigma was associated with third wave immigrants—they
were perceived as “dirty and tainted harboring filth, disease, and death (2).
In response to yellow fever, among other illnesses, spreading across
borders within the country, the national government decided it was time to
take authority over disease. In 1878, The National Quarantine Act was
signed taking a two pronged approach to handling disease spread. First, it
took “quarantine powers away from the states and [putting] it into the
hands of a federal entity” and eventually reestablished the need for a
maritime health service (3). Although quarantine was socially used as a tool
to exclude the addition of a lower class into an America that was
prospering, the National Quarantine Act systematically provided health care
services and decontaminating services which “disinfected” all newly
arriving Americans as a precaution to thwart off the spread of disease.
Conclusion
With the evidence provided, it is apparent that yellow fever had
significant strides within United States History. Yellow Fever, a disease that
is described with having symptoms like the yellow discoloration of one’s
eyes and skin color, black vomit, and hemorrhaging, caused significant
damage to citizens of the U.S. living primarily near stagnant water sources
as well as railroad junctions. Yellow Fever, in the short term, affected the
common citizens’ means to a normal, functional life; commerce, politics, the
market place, and the ability to practice one’s religion became impossible
with the outbreak of yellow fever within Philadelphia. Our first president,
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George Washington, had to flee his home in Philly because of the viral
disaster that desecrated the population by approximately 10%. With the
information provided, specifically in the long term effects of yellow fever,
one can decipher that it impacted the United States with a vigor
unparalleled to most viruses. Yellow Fever gave us the National Quarantine
Act, which has provided vast resources and benefits towards the health
community as a whole.
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