urban air quality. gaseous composition of the atmospheregaseous composition of the atmosphere
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Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Gaseous Composition of the Gaseous Composition of the AtmosphereAtmosphereGas % Volume PPMN2 78.1 780,840O2 21.0 209,460Ar 0.93 9,340
CO2 0.035 350CO 0.00003 0.3Ne 0.0018 18He 0.00052 5.2
CH4 0.00014 1.4N2O 0.00005 0.5O3 0.000007 0.07
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Sources of Urban Air PollutantsSources of Urban Air Pollutants– Stationary SourcesStationary Sources– Mobile SourcesMobile Sources– Non-Point (Area) Non-Point (Area)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Types of Urban Air PollutantsTypes of Urban Air Pollutants– Primary Pollutant - a pollutant Primary Pollutant - a pollutant
that directly enters the air as a that directly enters the air as a result of natural events or human result of natural events or human activitiesactivities
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Types of Urban Air PollutantsTypes of Urban Air Pollutants– Examples of Primary PollutantsExamples of Primary Pollutants
•Carbon monoxide (CO)Carbon monoxide (CO)
•Carbon dioxide (COCarbon dioxide (CO22))
•Sulfur dioxide (SOSulfur dioxide (SO22))
•Nitric oxide (NO)Nitric oxide (NO)•Hydrocarbons (HCs)Hydrocarbons (HCs)•Suspended Particulate Matter Suspended Particulate Matter
(SPMs)(SPMs)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Types of Urban Air PollutantsTypes of Urban Air Pollutants– Secondary Pollutant - a pollutant Secondary Pollutant - a pollutant
that is formed in the air through that is formed in the air through chemical reactions between or chemical reactions between or among primary pollutants or among primary pollutants or between primary pollutants and between primary pollutants and other gases in the atmosphereother gases in the atmosphere
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Types of Urban Air PollutantsTypes of Urban Air Pollutants– Examples of Secondary PollutantsExamples of Secondary Pollutants
•Nitrogen Dioxide (NONitrogen Dioxide (NO22))
•Sulfur Trioxide (SOSulfur Trioxide (SO33))
•Nitric Acid (HNONitric Acid (HNO33))
•Hydrogen Peroxide (HHydrogen Peroxide (H22OO22))
• Tropospheric Ozone (OTropospheric Ozone (O33))
•Nitrate (NONitrate (NO33))
•Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PANs)Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PANs)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Chemical Classes of Urban Air Chemical Classes of Urban Air PollutantsPollutants– Carbon OxidesCarbon Oxides
•COCO
•COCO22
– Sulfur OxidesSulfur Oxides•SOSO
•SOSO22
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Chemical Classes of Urban Air Chemical Classes of Urban Air PollutantsPollutants– Nitrogen OxidesNitrogen Oxides
•NO (nitric oxide)NO (nitric oxide)
•NONO2 2 (nitrogen dioxide)(nitrogen dioxide)
•NN22O (nitrous oxide - “laughing gas!”)O (nitrous oxide - “laughing gas!”)
– Sulfur OxidesSulfur Oxides•SOSO22 (sulfur dioxide) (sulfur dioxide)
•SOSO33 (sulfur trioxide) (sulfur trioxide)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Chemical Classes of Urban Air Chemical Classes of Urban Air PollutantsPollutants– Volatile Organic Compounds Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs)(VOCs)•CHCH4 4 (methane)(methane)
•CC66HH66 (benzene) (benzene)
•CFCs (chlorofluorohydrocarbons)CFCs (chlorofluorohydrocarbons)
•CHCH220 (formaldehydr)0 (formaldehydr)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Chemical Classes of Urban Air Chemical Classes of Urban Air PollutantsPollutants– Suspended Particulate Matter Suspended Particulate Matter
(SPMs)(SPMs)•DustDust•SootSoot•AsbestosAsbestos•PollenPollen
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Chemical Classes of Urban Air Chemical Classes of Urban Air PollutantsPollutants– Photochemical OxidantsPhotochemical Oxidants
•OO33 (tropospheric ozone) (tropospheric ozone)
•HH22OO22 (hydrogen peroxide) (hydrogen peroxide)
•PANs (peroxyacetylnitrates) PANs (peroxyacetylnitrates)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Chemical Classes of Urban Air Chemical Classes of Urban Air PollutantsPollutants– Radioactive SubstancesRadioactive Substances
•RnRn222222 (Radon) (Radon)
– Toxic MetalsToxic Metals•Pb - LeadPb - Lead•Cd - CadmiumCd - Cadmium•Hg - MercuryHg - Mercury•Ar - ArsenicAr - Arsenic
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Air Regulation of Urban Air PollutionPollution– Clean Air ActsClean Air Acts
•Passed in 1970, 1977, 1990Passed in 1970, 1977, 1990• Enacted federal air pollution Enacted federal air pollution
regulations that are enforced by regulations that are enforced by each stateeach state
• Established Established National Ambient Air National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Aair Regulation of Urban Aair PollutionPollution– NAAQSNAAQS
•7 Criteria Pollutants7 Criteria Pollutants– SPMsSPMs– Sulfur OxidesSulfur Oxides– Carbon MonoxideCarbon Monoxide– Nitrogen OxidesNitrogen Oxides– Tropospheric OzoneTropospheric Ozone– VOCsVOCs– LeadLead
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Aair Regulation of Urban Aair PollutionPollution– NAAQSNAAQS
•Primary NAAQS - standards Primary NAAQS - standards established to protect human healthestablished to protect human health
•Secondary NAAQS - standards Secondary NAAQS - standards established to protect all organismsestablished to protect all organisms
•Nonattainment Area - any area that Nonattainment Area - any area that does not meet primary or secondary does not meet primary or secondary NAAQS for a criteria pollutant NAAQS for a criteria pollutant
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
National Ambient Air Quality National Ambient Air Quality StandardsStandards
Carbon MonoxideCarbon Monoxide9 ppm over 8-hr period, not 9 ppm over 8-hr period, not to to be exceeded more than be exceeded more than once a once a year; 35-ppm for year; 35-ppm for 1-hr period1-hr period
Ozone Ozone 0.12 ppm for 1-hr period, not 0.12 ppm for 1-hr period, not to to be exceeded more than be exceeded more than once once per yearper year
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
National Ambient Air Quality National Ambient Air Quality StandardsStandards
Sulfur DioxideSulfur Dioxide 0.03 ppm annual 0.03 ppm annual average; 0.14 average; 0.14 ppm for 24-ppm for 24-hr period, not to be hr period, not to be exceeded more than once per exceeded more than once per
yearyear
Nitrogen OxidesNitrogen Oxides 0.05 ppm annual average0.05 ppm annual average
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Air PollutionRegulation of Urban Air Pollution– Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants
• Tropospheric OzoneTropospheric Ozone– Source:Source: Chemical reactions between VOCs, Chemical reactions between VOCs,
nitrogen oxides, and sunlightnitrogen oxides, and sunlight– Health EffectsHealth Effects: Reduced lung function; asthma; : Reduced lung function; asthma;
congestioncongestion– Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts: Reduced visibility; : Reduced visibility;
plant damage, reduced photosynthesis and plant damage, reduced photosynthesis and nutrient uptake, crop destruction; forest nutrient uptake, crop destruction; forest diebacksdiebacks
– Property DamageProperty Damage: Rubber; plastics: Rubber; plastics
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Air PollutionRegulation of Urban Air Pollution– Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants
•Carbon MonoxideCarbon Monoxide– Source:Source: Incomplete combustion of fossil Incomplete combustion of fossil
fuelsfuels– Health EffectsHealth Effects: Reduced oxygen levels; : Reduced oxygen levels;
impaired visual perception; reduced lung impaired visual perception; reduced lung function; asthma; congestionfunction; asthma; congestion
– Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts: Reduced visibility; : Reduced visibility; plant damageplant damage
– Property DamageProperty Damage: Rubber; plastics: Rubber; plastics
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Air PollutionRegulation of Urban Air Pollution– Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants
•Nitrogen and Sulfur OxidesNitrogen and Sulfur Oxides– Source:Source: Incomplete combustion of fossil Incomplete combustion of fossil
fuelsfuels– Health EffectsHealth Effects: Lung damage; respiratory : Lung damage; respiratory
illnessesillnesses– Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts: Acid deposition; : Acid deposition;
plant damage; photochemical smog; crop plant damage; photochemical smog; crop destructiondestruction
– Property DamageProperty Damage: Enhanced chemical : Enhanced chemical weatheringweathering
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Air PollutionRegulation of Urban Air Pollution– Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants
•SPMsSPMs– Source:Source: Incomplete combustion of fossil Incomplete combustion of fossil
fuels; agriculture; unpaved roadsfuels; agriculture; unpaved roads– Health EffectsHealth Effects: Lung damage; respiratory : Lung damage; respiratory
illnessesillnesses– Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts: Reduced visibility : Reduced visibility
(haze(haze– Property DamageProperty Damage: Discoloration of clothing : Discoloration of clothing
and structuresand structures
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Regulation of Urban Air Regulation of Urban Air PollutionPollution– Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants
• LeadLead– Source:Source: Leaded gasoline; lead paint; Leaded gasoline; lead paint;
smelters; lead-acid batteriessmelters; lead-acid batteries– Health EffectsHealth Effects: Damage to nervous system; : Damage to nervous system;
cancer; mental retardation; digestive cancer; mental retardation; digestive disordersdisorders
– Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts: Harmful to wildlife: Harmful to wildlife
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Photochemical (Brown-Air) Photochemical (Brown-Air) Smog Smog – A mixture of primary and A mixture of primary and
secondary pollutants (mostly secondary pollutants (mostly tropospheric ozone) formed tropospheric ozone) formed under the influence of sunlightunder the influence of sunlight
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Photochemical (Brown Air) Photochemical (Brown Air) SmogSmog– Factors of FormationFactors of Formation
• Topography Topography • Local climateLocal climate•Population densityPopulation density•Amount of industryAmount of industry• Industrial fuel types Industrial fuel types
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Photochemical (Brown Air) Photochemical (Brown Air) SmogSmog– Factors of FormationFactors of Formation
• Topography Topography – Hills and mountains reduce air flow in Hills and mountains reduce air flow in
valleys and allow pollutant levels to build valleys and allow pollutant levels to build up at ground levelup at ground level
– Buildings in cities slow wind speed, Buildings in cities slow wind speed, reducing dilution and dispersal of reducing dilution and dispersal of pollutantspollutants
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Photochemical (Brown Air) SmogPhotochemical (Brown Air) Smog– Factors of FormationFactors of Formation
• Topography Topography – Thermal InversionThermal Inversion
» Sunny climateSunny climate» Light windsLight winds» Mountains on three sides, ocean on the Mountains on three sides, ocean on the
otherother» High population densityHigh population density» High motor vehicle usageHigh motor vehicle usage» High industrialization using fossil fuelsHigh industrialization using fossil fuels
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Photochemical (Brown Air) SmogPhotochemical (Brown Air) Smog– Factors of FormationFactors of Formation
• TopographyTopography– Los Angeles BasinLos Angeles Basin
» Hemmed in by mountains on 3 sides and Hemmed in by mountains on 3 sides and ocean on the otherocean on the other
» 14 million people; 23 million motor 14 million people; 23 million motor vehiclesvehicles
» Frequent thermal inversions Frequent thermal inversions » Air pollution capital of U.S.Air pollution capital of U.S.
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Photochemical (Brown Air) Photochemical (Brown Air) SmogSmog– Factors of FormationFactors of Formation
• Local ClimateLocal Climate– Areas with high average annual Areas with high average annual
precipitation and wind speeds have less precipitation and wind speeds have less smog due to dilution and dispersalsmog due to dilution and dispersal
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Industrial (Gray-Air) SmogIndustrial (Gray-Air) Smog– Mixture of sulfur dioxide, suspended Mixture of sulfur dioxide, suspended
droplets of sulfuric acid, and SPMsdroplets of sulfuric acid, and SPMs
– Found mostly in LDCs where coal Found mostly in LDCs where coal and heavy oils are burnedand heavy oils are burned•ChinaChina•UkraineUkraine• Eastern EuropeEastern Europe
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– The falling of acids and acid-The falling of acids and acid-
forming compounds from the forming compounds from the atmosphere to the Earth’s atmosphere to the Earth’s surfacesurface
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– ComponentsComponents
•Primary PollutantsPrimary Pollutants– Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)– Sulfur Oxides (SOx)Sulfur Oxides (SOx)
Secondary PollutantsSecondary Pollutants– Nitric Acid (HNONitric Acid (HNO33))
– Sulfuric Acid (HSulfuric Acid (H22SOSO44))
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Acid SourcesAcid Sources
•Coal-burning power plantsCoal-burning power plants•SmeltersSmelters• FactorsFactors•Urban areasUrban areas
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Mechanisms of Acid DepositionMechanisms of Acid Deposition
•Dry DepositionDry Deposition•PrecipitationPrecipitation
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition•Regional environmental problem Regional environmental problem
because acids remain in atmosphere because acids remain in atmosphere for only a few daysfor only a few days
• Environmental impacts depend on Environmental impacts depend on buffering capacitybuffering capacity of soils of soils
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition• Ecosystems most harmed by acid Ecosystems most harmed by acid
deposition are those with thin soils deposition are those with thin soils that lack natural bufferingthat lack natural buffering
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition•Damage to materials Damage to materials
– StatuesStatues– BuildingsBuildings– MetalsMetals– Car finishesCar finishes
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition•Human HealthHuman Health
– BronchitisBronchitis– AsthmaAsthma
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition•Aquatic EcosystemsAquatic Ecosystems
– Acid ShockAcid Shock– Aluminum toxicityAluminum toxicity
» Stimulates excessive mucus Stimulates excessive mucus formation leading to asphyxiation of formation leading to asphyxiation of fish by clogging their gillsfish by clogging their gills
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition•Aquatic EcosystemsAquatic Ecosystems
– Formation of methylmercuryFormation of methylmercury» Highly toxicHighly toxic» Soluble in fatty tissue of animalsSoluble in fatty tissue of animals» BioaccumulationBioaccumulation
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition•Aquatic EcosystemsAquatic Ecosystems
– Fun FactsFun Facts» 16,000 lakes in Norway and Sweden 16,000 lakes in Norway and Sweden
contain no fishcontain no fish» 9,000 lakes in U.S. are threatened 9,000 lakes in U.S. are threatened
with excess acidity (most in the Great with excess acidity (most in the Great Lakes!)Lakes!)
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition• Terrestrial EcosystemsTerrestrial Ecosystems
– Most damage when pH < 5.1Most damage when pH < 5.1– Damage to tree foliage bathed in acidic Damage to tree foliage bathed in acidic
fogfog
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Acid DepositionAcid Deposition– Environmental Impacts of Acid Environmental Impacts of Acid
DepositionDeposition• Terrestrial EcosystemsTerrestrial Ecosystems
– Increased susceptibility to various stressorsIncreased susceptibility to various stressors» Cold temperaturesCold temperatures» DiseasesDiseases» InsectsInsects» DroughtDrought» Depletion of plant nutrientsDepletion of plant nutrients
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Urban ClimateUrban Climate– Cities are generally warmer, Cities are generally warmer,
rainier, foggier, and cloudier than rainier, foggier, and cloudier than suburbs or rural areassuburbs or rural areas
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Urban ClimateUrban Climate– Cities generate enormous Cities generate enormous
amounts of heatamounts of heat•AutomobilesAutomobiles• FactoriesFactories• FurnacesFurnaces• Lights Lights •Air conditionersAir conditioners•PeoplePeople
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Urban ClimateUrban Climate– Urban Heat Island - the buildup of Urban Heat Island - the buildup of
heat in the atmosphere above an heat in the atmosphere above an urban areaurban area
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Indoor Air PollutionIndoor Air Pollution– SourcesSources
•CombustionCombustion•Building materials and furnishingsBuilding materials and furnishings•Household cleaning productsHousehold cleaning products•Personal care productsPersonal care products•Central heating/cooling systemsCentral heating/cooling systems•Outside sources - radon gas and Outside sources - radon gas and
pesticidespesticides•Poor ventilationPoor ventilation
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Indoor Air PollutionIndoor Air Pollution– Most Dangerous Indoor Air Most Dangerous Indoor Air
PollutantsPollutants• FormaldehydeFormaldehyde•AsbestosAsbestos•Cigarette smokeCigarette smoke•Radon-222Radon-222• FiberglassFiberglass
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Indoor Air PollutionIndoor Air Pollution– Leading cause of cancerLeading cause of cancer– High-risk health problem for humansHigh-risk health problem for humans– ““Sick Building Syndrome”Sick Building Syndrome”
•CoughingCoughing•SneezingSneezing•NauseaNausea•Burning eyesBurning eyes• Flulike symptomsFlulike symptoms
Urban Air QualityUrban Air Quality
• Indoor Air PollutionIndoor Air Pollution– ““Sick Building Syndrome”Sick Building Syndrome”
•17% of all buildings in U.S. are 17% of all buildings in U.S. are “sick”, including the U.S. EPA “sick”, including the U.S. EPA headquarters in Washington, DCheadquarters in Washington, DC
•Mineral fibers falling from ceiling Mineral fibers falling from ceiling tiles are main culprittiles are main culprit