urban forests and trees - proceedings n°2

Urban forests and trees

Proceedings No 2

Edited by

C. C. Konijnendijk, J. Schipperijn, K. Nilsson

COSTEuropean cooperation in the field of

scientific and technical research

2005 EUR 21524 EN

COST Action E12

Forests and forestry products

41BL17_Pages_lim 07-07-2005 10:20 Pagina 1

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3

Preface

COST (European Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research) is a

framework for the co-ordination of national research at European Level. The COST

Action E12 ‘Urban Forests and Trees’ was started in June 1997 and ended in June

2002. The aim of the action was to coordinate and promote research on urban forests

and urban trees in Europe.

More than 100 experts in urban trees, parks and woodlands, representing 22 European

countries and 70 institutions, have evaluated the built-up areas of Europe and they also

have developed innovative approaches for maintaining and developing sustainable and

multi-functional benefits of urban forests and trees. The main results of the action

include the first comparative overviews of research and educational capacities in Euro-

pean urban forestry, and the development of a strong European network. The COST

support was crucial in the development of the network, which has already let to

various spin-offs, e.g. a new scientific journal (Urban Forestry & Urban Greening1), the

launch of the European Urban Forestry Research and Information Centre

(EUFORIC2) and various international projects.

These proceedings are the 2nd of two, the first were issued in 2002. In these

proceedings selected papers presented at the COST E12 seminars in Florence,

Ljubljana, Thessalonki and Bruges, as well as the research conference ‘The Changing

Role of Forestry in Europe, between Urbanization and rural Development’, are

included. This conference was organised jointly with the EU-FAIR Multifor.RD

project and Wageningen University and Research Centre. Detailed programmes of the

meetings can be found in the appendix.

The papers illustrate the broad range of topics within urban forestry that has been

covered throughout the existence of the Action. The first chapter deals with policy-

making, planning and design for urban forests and trees. Urban afforestation is one of

main challenges in forest-poor, highly urbanised north-western Europe, as studies in

Belgium and the Netherlands show. Chapter 2 focuses on functions and benefits of

urban forests. Multi-functionality seems to be crucial when managing limited urban

forest resources for a demanding urban society. It also seems crucial to have a better

1

2

http://www.elsevier.de/ufug/

http://www.sl.kvl.dk/euforic/

4

assessment of benefits and costs. Chapter 3 continues with some of the threats to ur-

ban forest sustainability. Pests and diseases are problematic across Europe, e.g. the wild

fires as primary challenge for Mediterranean urban foresters. Management of urban

forests to maintain a healthy and multifunctional resource is the topic of chapter 4.

And finally, chapter 5 describes urban forestry as a challenging field. Urban forest

resources in high-pressure urban environments require extensive partnerships to be

successful. Not only different professionals and political support, but also the

involvement of the private sector, interest groups and the public at large. Some

successful examples of how to generate partnerships for urban forestry are given.

The COST Action E12 succeeded in establishing a good basis for co-ordinated Euro-

pean research in the field of urban forests and trees. The challenge for the coming

years will be to continue along the set path and to further expand both the European

co-operation and the research within the field.

Cecil C. Konijnendijk, Jasper Schipperijn and Kjell Nilsson, Editors

Forest & Landscape Denmark

Finally we would like to thank all authors for their contributions, Nelli Leth and Jette

Alsing Larsen at Forest & Landscape Denmark for the layout and all national experts

that participated in COST E12 activities.

5

Contents

Preface 3

Linking together research on urban forests and trees in Europe 9

Kjell Nilsson and Cecil Konijnendijk

COST E12 Final Declaration 31

Werner Pillmann and other experts of COST Action E12

33

Urban forestry and open space in the urbanised context of western Europe: 35

a policy point of view

Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Bruges, June 13th, 2002

Peter Janssens

Realising urban forests in Flanders: a policy perspective 47


Jeroen Nachtergaele, Rik De Vreese, Raoul Vanhaeren & Jos Van Slycken

Planning new forests in The Netherlands 55

Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Ljubljana, June 28th, 2001

Rien van den Berg

The design of urban woodlands in the Netherlands: development of a ‘polder forest’ 65

Presented at the Symposium ‘The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization

and rural development’ in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001

Dominique Blom

A historical case of peri-urban forestry: the ‘Sotos Historicos’ of Aranjuez, Spain 89



José Luis Garcia-Valdecantos & Maria-Luisa Tello

99

Multifunctionality in urban forestry 101


Janes Pirnat

Chapter 1 — Cost Action E12 „Urban Forests and Trees“

Chapter 2 — Policy-making, planning and design for urban forests and trees

Chapter 3 — Functions and benefits of urban forests and trees

6

Results of changing social demands in Istanbul Bahcekoy Forest Enterprise: a case study 119



Ömer Eker & Kenan Ok

Cost-benefit analysis of urban forests from a research point of view 133


Ellen Moons

155

Analysis of the wildland-urban interface fire problem of Greece 157

Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Thessaloniki, April 11th, 2002

Alexandros Dimitrakopoulos

Pests and diseases of urban forests in Greece 165


Helen Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos

Threats to urban green areas - case study: Mexico City 177


Alicia Chacalo, Jaime Grabinsky, Hector Javier Vazquez & Alejandro Aldama

189

Weed control in the urban environment in Denmark 191



Palle Kristoffersen & Camilla Lophaven

Urban forests of Thessaloniki: Post-fire (1997) restoration perspectives 205


Christos Tourlakidis

Arboricultural research of trees in City of Ljubljana and instructions for their care 217


Primoz Oven

Managing forest fires near urban areas in Mediterranean countries 225


Ramon Vallejo, Susana Bautista, Jaime Baeza & J.Antonio Alloza

Chapter 4 — Threats to urban forests and trees

Chapter 5 — Management of urban forests and trees

7

235

The White Rose Forest - A catalyst for the regeneration of a region 237



Alan Simson

Challenges of neighbourhood participation in city-scale urban green-space planning 249



Ann Van Herzele

Urban forestry in India and Nepal 261


Klaus Seeland

Informing the public about the ecological impact of different methods for road

and pavement winter maintenance in Vienna 269



Monika Sieghardt & Martin Wresowar

Appendix 281

Programmes of meetings in Florence, Ljubljana, Wageningen,

Thessaloniki & Bruges 283

List of participants in the 5 meetings 291

Chapter 6 — Partnerships for urban forestry

9

Chapter 1

Linking together research on urban forests andtrees in Europe together

COST Action E12 Urban Forests & Trees

11

Linking together research on urban forests andtrees in Europe

Introduction

COST was set up in 1971 as an intergovernmental framework for European

cooperation in science and technology. The goal of COST is to ensure that Europe

holds a strong position in the field of scientific and technical research for peaceful

purposes, by increasing European co-operation and interaction in this field. It is based

on so-called ‘Actions’, which are networks of co-ordinated national research projects in

fields that are of interest to a minimum number of participants (at least 5) from

different member states. The Actions are defined by a Memorandum of Understanding

(MoU) signed by the Governments of the COST states wishing to participate in the

Action.

One of the 19 domains within the COST organisation is that of Forests and Forestry

Products (FFP). Forestry represents the greatest single land use within Europe,

involving some 10 million forest owners. Forest product manufacturing employs an

estimated two million people, making forests an invaluable resource for economic

development.

Europe is a highly urban continent, with soon 75 % of its population residing in urban

areas. In the urban landscape, trees and woodlands are probably the most important

biological elements. They are essential contributors to a high quality of urban life and

environment. Planning and management of urban forests and trees are essential to

encourage production, leisure, and sustainability for future generations. The need to

advance research and development activities on urban forests and trees in Europe by

means of international cooperation led to the establishment of COST Action E12

‘Urban Forests and Trees’ within the COST FFP domain.

Objectives

COST Action E12’s main objective was to improve the knowledge base needed for

better planning, design, establishment and management of urban forests and urban

Kjell Nilsson (Chairman COST E12) & Cecil Konijnendijk (Coordinator COST E12)

Rolighedsvej 23, DK 1958 Frederiksberg, DenmarkForest & Landscape Denmark

COST Action E12 Urban Forests & Trees

12

trees in Europe, and, by doing this, to establish urban forests and urban trees as a

scientific domain in Europe.

The Action aimed to improve this knowledge base through the establishment of a

comprehensive description of the state of the art on urban forests and trees. This

description would include available relevant European research resources and ongoing

work. It aimed to create a lasting European, multi-disciplinary research network on

urban forests and trees and identification and promotion of interactions with relevant

other international networks would be made.

COST Action E12 set out to establish new research tasks and make priorities for urban

forests and trees and propose new research projects, all at the European level. This was

expected to raise awareness of the benefits of urban forests and trees and concerns in

the population at large. Furthermore the Action would:

- Improve the methods of valuation of the benefits and costs of urban forests and

trees.

- Improve the methods of establishment of urban trees, as well as of plant selection

methods.

- Improve the methods of management for urban forests and trees.

Additionally, the Action aimed to establish interactions with other COST Actions and

international organisations as the topics of urban forests and trees are related to many

aspects of the environment and to human behaviour. COST Action E12 would

facilitate the transfer of research results and existing technology. It wanted to lead to

new approaches and management techniques of urban forests throughout Europe.

Technical description and implementation

The scientists and professionals working under this Action originated from many

different backgrounds as researchers within forestry, biology, geography, sociology,

urban planning, horticulture, arboriculture and landscape architecture are all dealing

with urban forests and urban trees. This multidisciplinary character of the research

field needed to be recognised and strengthened. Moreover, the Action aimed to

highlight the European dimension of research issues with regards to urban forests and

urban trees. Traditionally, much of the research in the field had taken place at a local or

regional scale, with a limited exchange of experiences.

The scientific programme for the Action was arranged via three Working Groups, each

of which composed a key element of the Action. In the Working Groups, new

research tasks were formulated and national pilot studies were initiated. In this way,

Working Group coordination elucidated the variation between the participating

13

countries but also facilitated the formulation of new research tasks. The following list

presents the three Working Groups; for each, specific research tasks are mentioned.

1. Objectives and functions of urban forests and urban trees:

− Assessment of urban forest benefits which includes people’s valuation of their

living environment.

− Planning and design of urban forests and trees that incorporate a stand of

uneven structured and aged trees, with amenity values.

− Design of urban tree planting with respect to the infrastructure in order to

secure optimum growing conditions for the trees.

− Development of models for strategic planting of street trees.

2. Establishment of trees for urban uses, including identification and selection of species, provenances

and cultivars:

− Establishment methods of urban forests and urban trees which are superior in

the harsh urban growing mediums.

− Selection of urban tree cultivars against new environmental constraints such as

de-icing salts.

− Selection of trees with good survivability as alternatives to Elm trees (Ulmus spp.)

in Northern Europe and Plane trees (Platanus spp.) in Southern Europe.

− Use of provenance selection for urban purposes (collection of propagation

material from different geographical locations).

3. Management of urban forests and urban trees:

− Development of a management method which can produce a multi-functional,

biodiverse and sustainable urban forest.

− Development of methods to predict weak and hazardous trees in order to

determine the vitality of street trees.

− Exchange of pruning and thinning techniques, supplemented with regional

silvicultural practices throughout Europe.

− Development and exchange of basic knowledge of the pathogens that affect

trees in order to systematise this subject.

− Development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as a planning and ma-

nagement system related to urban forests and trees.

− Development of management methods that ensure optimal coordination

between aesthetics, infrastructure and growth rates for street trees.

Scientific tasks for each of the groups were developed and pilot studies were initiated

(see the next section). All pilot-study trails were or will be presented in publications

containing (i) national results and (ii) a summary of the European dimension within

the topic. The pilot studies were primarily carried out on a national basis but

14

coordinated by the Working Groups and eventually by the Management Committee.

On the basis of the national (but highly coordinated) pilot studies, new international

and multi-disciplinary research programs have been formulated.

The daily coordination of COST Action E12 was in the hands of the Danish Forest

and Landscape Research Institute, where the Action’s secretariat was located. Steering

of the Action was done by the Management Committee and its representative, the

Core Group. This core group consisted of the chairman and vice-chair of the Action,

the three WG-leaders, and the Action’s coordinator, in some cases supplemented with a

local organiser of a seminar and meeting.

Activities and results

State of the art and pilot studies

During 1998 and the first half of 1999, the national experts prepared state-of-the-art

reports on research on urban forests and urban trees in their respective countries.

These reports were standardised, edited and compiled into the report ‘COST Action

E12 – Research and Development in Urban Forestry in Europe’, published by the European

Commission at the end of 1999 (see list of publications). The book includes national

reports from 20 countries and lists over 400 research projects. It is the first overview

publication of research on urban forests and urban trees in Europe. With the

publication of this book, one of the main objectives of COST E12 – i.e. providing an

overview of recent and ongoing urban forestry research in Europe – has been met.

Within COST E12, a review on the state-of-the-art of urban forestry research and

education was carried out. This study was started through the state-of-the-art inventory

of research mentioned above. From March 1999 onwards, the ‘review’ was granted

special funding and extended to include additional countries and analysis, as well as a

review of higher education on urban forests and trees in Europe. The project was

completed in spring 2001, with E12’s coordinator as main researcher, assisted by a

research assistant at the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute. An overview

of higher education on urban forests and urban trees in Europe was compiled by

means of a questionnaire. The final report of this work, with 28 country reports on

higher education on urban forests and trees was published in March 2002 by the

European Communities’ Printing Office.

One of the other aims of COST E12 was the initiation of pilot studies. These studies

had the intention to enlarge the knowledge base within a certain field, and/or to act as

a ‘stepping stone’ towards new research. Various pilot studies were carried out starting

15

from 1999. Below, the studies are briefly presented for each of E12’s working groups.

National experts coordinated these studies, with the assistance of the Working Group

leaders.

• Pilot study within WG 1 ‘Benefits and functions,

• Pilot studies within WG 2 ‘Selection and establishment,

Study

nr.

Objective and activities Description Outputs

1 The aim was to identify urban forest

resources and their planning and

management in larger European

cities.

By means of a questionnaire, two of

the largest cities for each country

involved (ca. 20) were studied.

Coordination by national experts.

An overview of urban forests and urban

forestry in selected, larger European

cities based on which e.g. research &

development needs could be identified.

Among the study areas were:

• Resource information (e.g. green

area in and near city, division over

diverse types of green space;

ownership, trends).

• Information on use of green areas.

• Planning and management (plans,

practices, responsibilities,

participation).

• Problems, issues and needs.

Publication submitted to scientific

journal (Urban Forestry & Urban

Greening) as well as national

journals. Study also provided

input to the COST E12 reference

book on urban forests and trees.

2 The aim to was to provide a first

overview of recent and ongoing

research on public attitudes and

perceptions towards urban forests

and trees in Europe.

To be included in the COST E12 urban

forestry reference book.

Material from different countries

was compiled for the COST E12

reference book on urban forestry.

Study

nr.


1 Inventory of selection criteria for

breeding new plant material.

Inventory by means of a

questionnaire, distributed via national

experts.

An overview of selection criteria used in

Europe, by means of a questionnaire.

The results were compiled and

provide an important input to the

COST E12 reference book on

urban forests and trees.

2 Tests of Dutch hybrid Elms.

Inventory of state-of-the-art by means

of a questionnaire sent to relevant

research capacities.

Identifying to present location and

condition of hybrid Elms, bred in the

Netherlands in early 1980s. Assessing

the resistance against Dutch Elm

Disease.

Study was concluded and a final

meeting was held in Belgium in

2001. The selection work has

resulted in a new, resistant

cultivar now on the market.

3 Criteria for establishment of urban

trees.

Questionnaire, to be distributed

among local authorities, via national

experts.

An overview of establishment criteria as

used in European cities.

Study was finalised and results

were presented at the COST E12

Wageningen conference. A

scientific article was prepared and

submitted to a scientific journal

(Urban Forestry & Urban

Greening). The Dutch media

presented some of the study’s

results after the conference in

Wageningen. Moreover, the

study provided input to several

chapters of the COST E12

reference book.

16

• Pilot studies within WG 3 ‘Management,

COST E12 reference book on urban forestry in Europe

One of the main activities within COST E12 during 2001-02 has been the preparation

of the first European reference book on urban forestry. This process started in

October 2000. The book will include all main, relevant aspects of urban forestry

science and practice, with focus on the European dimension. Springer has agreed to

publish the book in 2004.

Other activities

Presentations about COST E12 and its activities were given at several occasions. These

included the AREA Arboriculture and Urban Forestry Symposium for researchers and

educators in Chicago, USA (November 1997), IUFRO European Forum on Urban

Forestry in Aarhus, Denmark (May 1999), the International Society of Arboriculture

Annual Congress in Stamford, USA (August 1999), the UK Urban Forestry research

meeting in Birmingham, UK (August 1998), and the 21st IUFRO World Congress

(August 2000), among others. Results of the Action were also presented at various

national meetings and workshops. Articles about E12 appeared in a number of

magazines, journals and newsletters across Europe. Several scientific papers related to

COST E12 were published in peer-reviewed, scientific journals (see list of

publications).

COST E12 stood at the basis of various EU applications, primarily to the Fifth

Framework Programme (The Quality of Life and Living Resources, mainly). Two of

these applications, URGE (City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage) and

Study

nr.


1 To identify the most important pests

and diseases on common European

urban trees.

By means of a questionnaire,

completed by national experts.

An overview of pests and diseases

relevant on common urban trees in

Europe.

Overview publication under

preparation, while input was also

provided to the chapter on biotic

stresses for the COST E12

reference book.

2 To identify the computer systems

used to manage and assess urban

forests and trees in Europe.

By means of a questionnaire,

distributed among local authorities,

by national experts.

An overview of computer systems for

urban forest and tree management and

assessment.

Results were submitted as a paper

to a conference on information

technologies in natural resource

management to be held in Vienna

during 2002.

3 Tentative overview of sustainable

development of (peri)urban

woodlands in Europe.

Literature review, expert knowledge

compiled.

Several papers under preparation.

Pilot project also provided input

to the woodland management

chapter of the COST E12

reference book.

management in Vienna 2002.

17

NeighbourWoods (Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources) were

successful under the EU’s Fifth Framework Programme; the projects were started in

2001. Through its networking function, researchers from across Europe have had the

opportunity to meet each other and coordinate their research activities. At the time of

concluding the Action, an Expression of Interest (NoI) for a Network of Excellence

on Urban Forestry & Urban Greening had been submitted under the EU’s Sixth

Framework Programme. Although the establishment of such a project seemed unlikely

by the time of the first call under the programme, several opportunities for urban

forestry elements in new research have emerged. New activities will be firmly based on

the existing COST E12 network, but includes additional partners in the form of

scientists as well as end users from e.g. local authorities.

Dissemination of results

Publications and reports

During its existence, COST Action E12 was the topic and/or initiator of a wide range

of scientific and professional publications. Here, only those publications are listed that

have been directly linked to the Action. Overall, it is estimated that the national experts

involved in COST E12 issued at least 800-1000 scientific and popular publications on

various aspects of urban forests and trees.

Conferences and workshops

Two research conferences were organised within the frame of the Action. In June

1999, the conference ‘Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture’ was held in

Copenhagen, Denmark, in collaboration with the International Society of

Arboriculture (ISA), the International Union of Forest Research Organizations

(IUFRO), the International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA), and local

Danish organisers. 150 experts from 34 countries, both European and other,

participated in the event. The research symposium ‘The changing role of forestry in

Europe, between urbanization and rural development’ attracted about 130 experts

from approx. 30 countries. The event was organised together with EU/FAIR-project

Multifor.RD that studies the changing role of rural forests in Europe. Local organiser

was Wageningen University and Research Centre.

In addition to the research conferences in Copenhagen and Wageningen, COST E12

seminars were held in Vienna, Leeds, Madrid, Dublin, Reykjavik, Florence, Ljubljana,

Thessaloniki, and Bruges.

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Web site

Scientific and technical cooperation

Cooperation

Throughout the year, regular contacts were maintained with relevant institutions

outside the Action, such as the International Society of Arboriculture, and the

International Federation of Landscape Architects. The joint organisation of the two

research symposiums was a concrete example of cooperation. Regular contacts

between E12 and other COST Actions (such as C3) were maintained. The coordinator

of COST Action E12 was also elected as coordinator of IUFRO’s urban forestry unit

(6.14.00) in August 2000, a position held by the Action’s chairman earlier. During the

second part of the Action, close cooperation was also established with COST Action

C11 on Green Structures and Urban Planning. Some of COST E12’s experts became

active in that Action and some joint activities were undertaken.

Short Term Scientific Missions

20 STSMs were approved within the framework of the Action, of which 1 had to be

cancelled because of personal reasons of the applicant. The first 9 STSMs were carried

out with funding under a 1997 grant; 9 have been carried out under the 1999 grant.

The final mission was provisionally approved (together with 2 additional proposals).

When COST informed the coordinators that no new grant could be awarded because

of budget limitations, mission no. 19 was about to start. The coordinators therefore

decided to finance this mission from their own means.

1. Vladimir Kusan, Croatia (April-May 1998): Mr. Kusan travelled to Germany (Munich)

to study methods of photogrammetry and remote sensing to be used in urban

forestry.

2. Stephan Pauleit, Germany (April-May 1998): In his own research, Stephan Pauleit aims

to identify promising tree species for large urban areas. Tree health status and

environmental site conditions have proven to be closely related. A comparison of

tree stock in different cities and towns therefore is very useful. Mr. Pauleit visited

Ljubjana, Zagreb, Budapest and Sopron to learn more about the local situation.

A COST E12 web site based at the DFLRI’s server, has been operative since March

2000 at www.fsl.dk/cost_e12. Its main functions have been to enhance communication and the exchange of documents among the E12 experts, as well as to provide information on the Action to those not participating in it. The website was updated on a regular basis by the coordinators and will remain online in the near future. Although the Action has ended, the website will be maintained linked to the website of the European Urban Forestry Research & Information Centre (EUFORIC, www.sl.kvl.dk/ euforic).

19

3. Primoz Oven, Slovenia (August-September 1998): Primoz Oven visited arboricultural in-

stitutions in Hamburg. During his visited, his knowledge on techniques and

methods used for tree control (e.g. diagnosis of tree health, assessment of tree

safety and decay) was enhanced.

4. Minna Komulainen, Finland (August 1998): Ms. Komulainen visited the United

Kingdom and was hosted by the Forestry Commission. The aim of her mission was

to compare Finnish and British community woodland policies and design.

5. Horst Stobbe, Germany (October 1998): Horst Stobbe specialises in the study and

development of tree care and pruning methods. As both France and Germany are

considered to be leading countries in this field, he decided to visit France and learn

from French experiences. Mr. Stobbe studied the differences in aspects of tree and

came to an exchange of experiences with French experts.

6. Cristina Redondo Casero, Spain (June 1999): Ms. Redondo Casero visited Padua and

Florence to compare decay processes in urban trees in some species frequently used

in Spain and Italy.

7. Horst Stobbe, Germany (August-September 1999): Following Mr. Oven’s visit to

Hamburg, Horst Stobbe visited Slovenia to elaborate further on the exchange of

information and experiences between Slovenia and Germany. He studied

differences of wound response in xylem, cambium and bark, as specialisation of the

researchers in Ljubljana.

8. Joanna Schönenberger, Switzerland (November-December 1999): Ms. Joanna Schönenberger

visited researchers at the European Forest Institute, Finland, specialised in tools for

forest and land use planning. Moreover, she interviewed a number of Finnish urban

forestry researchers at a range of institutions. During her stay, she learnt more

about land use planning methodologies.

9. Cecil Konijnendijk, Netherlands/Denmark (March 2000): Mr. Cecil Konijnendijk visited

England to get more familiar with developments in (peri)urban woodland

development. By field visits, discussion with local planners, experts and other

stakeholders, and attending a seminar, he became more familiar with integrated

planning, design and the financing of urban woodlands in England.

10.Zelimir Borzan, Croatia (March 2000): Mr. Zelimir Borzan, an expert of e.g. tree

dendrology and arboriculture, visited Germany to study and discuss urban forestry

standards in gardening, arboriculture and landscaping.

11.Massimo Pilotti, Italy (April 2000): Mr. Massimo Pilotti of the Plant Pathology Re-

search Institute (ISPAVE) of Rome visited INRA in Montpellier. Together with

French experts, Mr. Pilotti studied insects and pathogens of plane trees and ways of

improving their resistance to these.

12.Carlo M. Marini, Italy (August-September 2000): Mr. Carlo Marini of the Municipality

of Florence, DG Environment, visited two institutions in France to identify ways

of improving tree management techniques for the urban environment, as well as to

study ways of fighting canker stain disease of Platanus.

20

13.Art McCormack, Ireland (September 2000): Mr. McCormack visited Finland to study the

planning, design and aesthetics with regards to forests in the built environment.

14.Penny Edwards, United Kingom (October 2000): Ms. Edwards, an expert working with

the Central Scottish Countryside Trust, travelled to Austria, Denmark, Norway and

the Netherlands to study urban & community forestry, with emphasis on small-scale

forestry, policies and structures, the role of the local community, markets, etc.

15.Ann Van Herzele, Belgium (November 2000): Ms. Van Herzele visited England (e.g.

Community Forests) and Scotland (Central Scotland Forest) to learn from

experiences with incorporating people’s perceptions into urban forest planning.

16.Marcello Biocca, Italy (January 2001): Mr. Biocca travelled to Germany (Institute of

Arboriculture) to study and discuss tree assessment methods.

17.Antje Wohlers, Germany (February 2001): Study of pests and diseases; support to WG 3

pilot study on pests and diseases, both in Italy.

18.Jasbinder Gagh, United Kingdom (May 2001): Ms. Gagh, a graduate student in urban and

community forestry, will visit Austria, Switzerland and the Netherlands to look at

forest policy and planning at the urban fringe.

19.Danko Diminic, Croatia (September-October 2001): Mr. Diminic visited Spain to study

diseases on plane trees in urban areas. N.B. this STSM was not funded by COST but

by the Action Coordinators.

Transfer of results

Apart from a range of scientific and popular publications, the main outputs of the

Action could be considered the state-of-the-art reports on urban forestry research and

higher education in Europe, issued by the European Commission. In this way, contacts

between E12 and the Commission have been acknowledged. COST E12 also issued

four proceedings of its seminars, as well as three special issues of scientific journals.

Another major output will be the European reference book on urban forestry. By

means of these publications, the Action has disseminated substantial information and

knowledge on urban forests and trees to researchers, educators, policy-makers and end

users in Europe.

In order to safeguard a proper transfer of the Action’s findings, contacts have been

established with a wide range of relevant institutions. These include networks of urban

forestry scientists and practitioners, such as the International Society of Arboriculture

(ISA), the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO), the

European Forest Institute (EFI) and the International Federation of Landscape

Architects (IFLA). The collaboration e.g. encompassed the joint organisation of

research symposiums. The 2001 event in Wageningen was a joint activity with EU/

FAIR-project Multifor.RD. The national experts, moreover, have been very active in

establishing contacts with scientists, practitioners and policy-makers in their respective

21

countries. In Italy, the UK and Switzerland, for example, national COST E12 meetings

were held.

EFI recognised the importance of urban forestry and the role the Action and its

Coordinator played by establishing a Regional Project Centre on urban forestry based

at the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute in 2001. This centre, named the

European Urban Forestry Research and Information Centre (EUFORIC), will ensure

sustainability of the Action’s network. It has also provided the bases for an Expression

of Interest in establishing a Network of Excellence on urban forestry and urban

greening under the EU’s Sixth Framework Programme.

A recent cooperation was established with FAO’s staff involved with urban and peri-

urban forestry. The forest resources division of FAO participated in the Florence

meeting. The former and current coordinator of E12 then became involved in the

preparation of a new strategy for urban and peri-urban forestry for FAO. The

development of this strategy was started at the end of 2001. North-South networking

was enhanced by having the theme ‘Threats to urban forests and trees: the North-

South dimension’ as theme for the meeting in Thessaloniki.

The former and current coordinator of COST E12 were asked by Urban & Fischer

Publishers to set up a new scientific journal called ‘Urban Forestry & Urban Greening’

(www.urbanfischer.de/journals/ufug). The first issue of this journal was published in

August 2002.

Evaluation

The main framework for evaluating COST Actions is the Memorandum of

Understanding prepared and signed at the outset of each Action. In the case of COST

E12, the experts feel that the Action succeeded in meeting its main objective, i.e. to

improve the knowledge base needed for better planning, design, establishment and

management of urban forests and urban trees in Europe, and, by doing so, to establish

urban forests and urban trees as a scientific domain in Europe. Through its networking

and coordinating activities, and wide range of publications, COST E12 established

urban forests and urban trees as a pan-European research domain with a large

potential for further development. Moreover, the state-of-art and pilot studies

undertaken and disseminated provide a sound basis for future research, development,

education and implementation at the pan-European as well as national and local level.

It is believed that a lasting network was created, and also that new research was

stimulated.

22

The success of COST E12 can be derived from, for example:

- The high number of countries (22), institutions (79; universities, research institutes

as well as end users) and individual experts (close to 100) that participated in the

Action.

- The success of the pilot studies as well as the review of research and knowledge on

urban forests and urban trees in Europe.

- The quality and quantity of the publications issued by the Action.

- The preparation of a first European reference book on urban forests and urban

trees in Europe.

- The success of the two research conferences organised by the Action.

- The interest of e.g. high-level local and national politicians as well as the media

during COST E12 seminars.

- The successful networking with other institutions involved in urban forestry and

urban greening, such as other COST Actions and EU-funded initiatives, FAO, ISA,

IUFRO, EFI, and other.

- The submission of an Expression of Interest to establish a Network of Excellence

on urban forestry and urban greening, based on the COST E12 network and

experience.

- The establishment of an EFI Regional Project Centre on urban forestry during the

Action.

- The setting up of a new scientific journal specifically on urban forestry (‘Urban

Forestry & Urban Greening’) by the Action Coordinators and network.

The experts also feel that the Action could have been more successful in some matters,

for example:

- Due to funding restrictions, a number of meetings within the Action could have a

limited participation of experts only, thus limiting the networking and activity of

the Action.

- The number of STSMs carried out. E.g. due to lack of interest at the outset of the

Action and later funding restrictions, the number of STSMs was limited to 19.

- Although some new, pan-European research projects were set up, the COST E12

network had hoped to be more successful especially in attracting EU-funding for

R&D projects. New activities are undertaken to mend this situation within the 6th

Framework Programme.

- Due to the wide scope and limited resources involved in a COST Action, some re-

search topics could not be explored in full depth. The Action has, however,

provided a sound basis for further detailed R&D during the years to come.

23

List of publications

COST E12 books issued by COST/EU or major publishers:

Forrest M, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB (Eds.) (1999).COST Action E12 - Research and development in urban forestry in Europe. Euro-

pean Commission, Luxembourg. (Includes 20 country reports prepared by the Acti-

on’s national experts.)

Konijnendijk CC, Schipperijn J & Nilsson K (2003).COST Action E12 ‘Urban Forests and Trees’ – Proceedings No. 2. Printing Office

of the European Communities, Luxembourg. (Includes approx. 20 papers presented

at various COST E12 conferences and seminars.)

Nilsson K, Randrup TB & Konijnendijk CC (Eds.) (in prep).Urban forests and trees in Europe. Reference book on European urban forestry.

Springer Academic Publishers.

Randrup TB, Konijnendijk CC & Andersen F (2001).Review of higher education on urban forestry in Europe. Report of COST Action

E12 Urban Forests and Trees. Printing Office of the European Communities,

Brussels. (Includes 28 country reports on the status of higher education on urban

forests and trees.)

Randrup TB, Konijnendijk CC, Christophersen T & Nilsson K (Eds.) (2002).COST Action E12 ‘Urban Forests and Trees’ - Proceedings No. 1. Printing Office

of the European Communities, Luxembourg. (Includes approx. 20 papers presented

at various COST E12 conferences and seminars.)

Proceedings and reports of COST E12 seminars and conferences:

Collins K & Konijnendijk CC (Eds.) (2001).Planting the idea - the role of education in urban forestry. Proceedings of COST

Action E12 ’Urban Forests and Trees’ seminar, Dublin, 23 March, 2000. The Tree

Council of Ireland et al., Dublin.

Randrup TB (Ed.) (1999).Proceedings from the Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture research sym-

posium. The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark,

June 23-25, 1999. Proceedings No. 2. Danish Forest and Landscape Research

Institute, Hoersholm.

Special issues of peer-reviewed scientific journals:

Journal of Arboriculture (2000). Papers from the COST E12 research symposium ‘Ur-

ban Greening and Landscape Architecture’, edited by Randrup TB:

24

Pedersen LB, Randrup TB & Ingerslev MEffects of road distance and protective measures on deicing NaCl deposition and

soil solution chemistry in planted median strips.

Tello ML, Redondo C & Mateo-Sagaste EHealth status of Plane trees (Platanus spp.) in Spain.

Sæbø A & Johnsen JGrowth and morphology differ between wind-exposed families of Sorbus aucuparia

(L.)

Drénou CPruning trees: the problem of forks.

Stobbe H, Dujesiefken D & Schröder KTree crown stabilization with the double-belt system Osnabruck.

Galvin MF, Wilson B & Honeczy M Maryland’s Forest Conservation Act: a process of urban greenspace protection

during the development process.

Landscape and Urban Planning (Volume 52(2-3) (2000)), with papers presented at the re-

search symposium ‘Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture’, edited by Randrup TB

and Konijnendijk CC:

Randrup TB & Konijnendijk CCUrban Greening and Landscape Architecture. Prepared on the basis of the Re-

search Symposium on Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture, Copenhagen,

Denmark, June 1999.

Fukamachi K, Oku H, Kumagi Y & Shimomura AChanges in landscape planning and land management in Arashiyama National

Forest in Kyoto.

Konijnendijk CCAdapting forestry to urban demands - role of communication in urban forestry in

Europe.

Florgård CLong-term changes in indigenous vegetation preserved in urban areas.

Jensen MB, Persson B, Guldager S, Reeh U & Nilsson KGreen structure and sustainability - developing a tool for local planning.

25

Pirnat JConservation and management of forest patches and corridors in suburban

landscapes.

Attwell KUrban land resources and urban planting - case studies from Denmark.

Oguz DUser surveys of Ankara’s urban parks.

Millard AThe potential role of natural colonisation as a design tool for urban forestry - a pi-

lot study.

Coles RW & Bussey SCUrban forest landscapes in the UK - progressing the social agenda.

Simson AJThe post-romantic landscape of Telford New Town.

Selected papers from the research symposium in Wageningen were included in the new

scientific journal Urban Forestry & Urban Greening (Vol. 1, issue 1).

Jönssen A & Gustavsson RManagement styles and knowledge cultures, past present and future, related to mul-

tiple-use and urban woodlands.

Ode Å & Fry GVisual aspects in urban woodland management.

Samyn J & Vos B DeThe assessment of mulch sheets to inhibit competitive vegetation in tree plantations

in urban and natural environment.

Seeland K, Moser K, Scheuthle H & Kaiser FGPublic acceptance of restrictions imposed on recreational activities in the peri-ur-

ban nature reserve Sihlwald in Switzerland.

Vries S de & Goossen MModelling recreational visits to forests and nature areas.

Other international, peer-reviewed articles:

Andersen F, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB (2002).Higher education on urban forestry in Europe: An overview. Forestry 75(5): 501-511.

26

Konijnendijk CC, Randrup TB & Nilsson K (2000).Urban Forestry research in Europe: An overview. Journal of Arboriculture 26(3): 152-

161.

Ottitsch A (in review)Urban forest policies: Objectives and functions, trend and developments. Results

from a comparative European study. Submitted to Urban Forestry & Urban Greening.

Pauleit S, Jones N, Garcia-Marin G, Garcia-Valdecantos GL, Rivière LM, Vidal-Beaudet L,Bodson M & Randrup TB (2002).

Tree selection and establishment practices in Europe - results from a European

survey. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 1(2).

Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1998).Research note: Co-ordination of European research on urban forests and trees.

Arboricultural Journal 22(2): 173-177.

Other publications:

Andersen F & Randrup TB (2001).Plantning og pleje af bytræer i Europa. Grønt Miljø 2001(7): 44-47. (In Danish.)

Bianchi M, de Rogatis A, Motta E, Mutto Accordi S & Salbitano F (1998).Per una rete di richerche europee sugli alberi e le foreste in città: l’azione COST E12

‘Urban forests and trees’. In: Atti del nono seminario dell’International Association

for Environmental Design ‘La città sostenible’. IAED, Roma. (In Italian.)

Bouter H (2001).Stedelingen maken van bos een topattractie. WB 15/11/01. (In Dutch.)

Collins KD & Konijnendijk CC (2000).COST Action E12, Urban Forests and Trees, comes to Ireland. Arborist News, June

2000: 45-46.

Couenberg E (2002).Symposium Wageningen 2001: interessante ontwikkelingen in het stedelijk groen.

KPB Nieuwsbrief 5(11): 8-9. (In Dutch.)

Dansk Træplejeforening (2000).Beskæring af træer - European Tree Pruning Guide. Copenhagen. (In Danish.)

Duhme F & Dujesiefken D (1998).COST Action E12 ‘Wälder und Bäume im städtischen Raum’ (Urban Forests and

Trees). Stadt und Grün 1998(1): 10-11. (In German.)

27

Dujesiefken D & Duhme F (1999).Eine neue europäische Zusammenarbeit zur Pflege und zum Erhalt von Bäumen im

urbanen Bereich (COST Aktion E 12). In: Dujesiefken, D. and Kockerbeck, P.

(eds.). Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 1999. Verlag Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig. Pp.

260-261. (In German.)

Dujesiefken D, Konijnendijk CC, Randrup TB & Nilsson K (2000).Forschung in Europa über Bäume in urbanen Gebieten. Stadt & Grün, 2000(13),

Sonderheft (special issue): 21-22. (In German.)

Dujesiefken D, Konijnendijk CC, Randrup TB & Nilsson K (2000).Review of research and knowledge on urban forests and urban trees in Europe. In:

Backhaus GF, Balder H, Idczak E (Eds.) International Symposium on Plant Health

in Urban Horticulture, Braunschweig, Germany, from May 22 to May 25, 2000: 19-

22. Mitteilungen aus der Biologischen Bundesanstalt für Land- und Forstwirtschaft

Berlin-Dahlem, Heft 370.

Embo T (1998).COST E12: Urban Forests and Trees. De Boskrant 28(4): 96. (In Dutch.)

García-Martín G & García-Valdecantos JL (2001).El arbolado urbano en las ciudades españolas. In: Montes para la sociedad del nueve

milenio, III Congreso Forestal Español, Granada, 25-28 septiembre 2001: 467-474.

(In Spanish.)

Gundersen V & Sæbø A (2001).Bynært skogbruk - behov for utvikling og kunnskap. Norsk Skogbruk 2001(10): 24-

25. (In Norwegian.)

Konijnendijk CC (1999).Greener European cities: A COST review of research and knowledge on Europe’s

urban forests. European Arborist News June 1999, supplement to Arborist News 8(3).

Konijnendijk CC (2000).Skove som løftestang for bedre lokalområdet. Park og Landskab Videnblade 3.1-26.

Based upon a COST E12 STSM. Skov og Landskab, Hørsholm. (In Danish.)

Konijnendijk CC & Simson A (2000).Community Forest, Jaguarbos en Faith Wood - nieuwe bosbouw, English style. Ne-

derlands Bosbouwtijdschrift 72(6): 240-246. (In Dutch.)

Konijnendijk CC (2002).The urban face of forestry. EFI-News: 3-6.

28

Löfström I & Tyrväinen L (1997).

Kunnat tarvitsevat viheralueohjelmat (vieraskynä-artikkeli). Helsingin Sanomat. (In

Finnish.)


Suomi mukana COST -hankkeessa. Viherympäristö 1. (In Finnish.)


Maisemalliset ja ekologiset arvot taajamametsien vuorovaikutteisessa suunnittelussa.

Julkaisussa: Virtanen, E., Saarinen, J. & Raivo, P. (Eds.). Metsä, Harju ja Järvi:

suomalainen maisematutkimus ja -suunnittelu uuden vuosituhannen kynnyksellä: 8.

Abstract, pp. 8. (In Finnish.)

Nilsson K (1998).

Presentation of COST Action E12 ‘Urban Forests and Trees’. In: Krott, M. and K.

Nilsson (eds.). Multiple-use of town forests in international comparison.

Proceedings of the first European Forum on Urban Forestry, Wuppertal, May 1998:

101-105. IUFRO, etc.

Nilsson K, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB (2000).

State-of-the-art of research and knowledge on urban forests and trees in Europe.

Abstract. In: Forests and society: the role of research. Volume 2: abstracts of group

discussions. Proceedings of the XXI IUFRO World Congress, Kuala Lumpur, 7-12

August 2000: Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 270-271.


Urban forestry: where people meet trees. In: Community Forestry - a change for the

better. Conference Proceedings: 28-31. 7-8 December 1999, London. Forestry

Commission & Countryside Agency. Pp. 28-31


Linnanmetsandus - Euroopa perspektiiv. Linnanmetsad ja linnanmetsandus Eestis.

Akadeemilise Metsaseltsi toimetised XVI: 17-24. Forest Research Institute of EAU,

Tartu. Pp. 17-24. (In Estonian.)

Nilsson K & Randrup TB (1997a).

Urban and periurban forestry. In: Forest and tree resources. Proceedings of the XI

World Forestry Congress, 13-22 October 1997, Antalya. Volume 1: 97-110. Antalya.

Nilsson K & Randrup TB (1997b).

What is urban forestry? BUFPRA Newsletter 1(2): 2.

Nilsson K & Randrup TB (1998).

Internationell fokus på parker och parkforskning. Utemiljö 1998(4): 33-38. (In

Swedish.)

29

Oven P (2000).Kaj pravzaprav je arboristika. (Actually, what is arboriculture, English abstract).

Proteus 63(2): 78-81. (In Slovenian.)

Pauleit S (1999).Study in Southeastern Central Europe identifies need for urban forestry approach.

European Arborist News, August 1999, supplement to Arborist News 8(4): 43.

Pillmann W (2002).Tree preservation legislation in European cities. Results of a COST E12 pilot study.

Unpublished manuscript. (In German.)

Randrup TB & Konijnendijk CC (1999).Urban Greening - Research symposium ‘Urban Greening and Landscape

Architecture’, Denmark, June 23-25, 1999, IUFRO 6.14.00. IUFRO News 28(3): 7.

Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1997a).Fokus på bytræer i europæisk samarbejde. Grønt Miljø 1997(6): 72-75. (In Danish.)

Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1997b).Research on urban trees in Europe. In: ISA. Proceedings of the III: Europäischer

Baumpflege-Kongress, Merano, 14-16 May 1997. Pp. 133-141.

Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1999a).Co-ordination of European research: Urban Forests and Trees. EFI News 7(1): 3.

Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1999b).Internationalt forskertræf om byskove og bytrær- Holdes i København til juni som

led i verdenskongres for landskabere. Grønt Miljø 1999(1): 54. (In Danish.)

Sander H (1999).Symposium ‘Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture Research’. Baltic Forestry

5(2): 75.

Seeland K (1999).Die sozialintegrativen Wirkungen von Parks und Wäldern als gestaltete Naturräume.

Erste Ergebnisse zweier Untersuchungen in der Schweiz und in Deutschland.

(Results of Swiss COST E12 study.) Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen 10: 362-369.

(In German.)

Seeland K (1999).Peri-urbane Natur im Spiegel zukünfstiger Nutzungsbedürfnsse. In: Eidg.

Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft, Forum für Wissen 1: 7-11.

30

Seeland K & Nicolè S (1999).

Studio sulle potentialità d’integrazione sociale offerte da spazi naturali. Due essempi

di progetti con persone disabili in Svizzera e Germania. (Results of Swiss COST

E12 study.) Forstwissenschaftliche Beiträge der Forstprofessur Forstpolitik und

Forstökonomi 22. 140 p. (In Italian.)

Seeland K, Chiari Ch & Nicolè S (2000).

Gardino per tutti. Sociale negli spazi naturali. (Results of Swiss COST E12 study.)

Architettura del paessaggio 5: 4-7. (In Italian.)

Simson A (1999).

The three net/works. Landlines July 1999: 6.

Siwecki R, Szyper L & Rosiak S (2000).

Management and protection of urban forests and urban trees in Kolberg. In:

Backhaus GF, Balder H, Idczak E (Eds.). International Symposium on Plant Health

in Urban Horticulture, Braunschweig, Germany, from May 22 to May 25, 2000: 224-

230. Mitteilungen aus der Biologischen Bundesanstalt für Land- und Forstwirtschaft

Berlin-Dahlem, Heft 370. Pp. 224-230.

Steidle-Schwahn A (1999).

Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture - Forschungssymposium vom 23.-25.

Juni 1999 in Kopenhagen. Stadt und Grün 11(1999): 742-744. (In German.)

Sæbø A & PA Pedersen (2002).

For få treslag brukt langs gater og veier. Trepleie 2002(1): 13-15. (In Norwegian.)

Smith K & Oven P (2000).

Arboriculture in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Arborist news 9(4): 43-45.

Broeck A Van den (2001).

Inheemse olmen behoeden voor uitsterven - Internationale bijeenkomst van

wetenschappers. Groenkontakt 2001(6): 23-24. (In Dutch.)

31

COST E12 Final Declaration, Brugges 2002

Green Health of Cities

This text was prepared by the experts of COST E12 under the coordination of WernerPillmann ÖBIG – Austrian Health Institute, Stubenring 6, A-1010 Vienna, Austria.Urbanisation

Urbanisation continues to take place throughout Europe. As more and more people

live in towns and cities, the quality of the urban living environment becomes ever more

important. Green areas are a vital part of any urban infrastructure, contributing

environmental, social and economic benefits. Trees in parks and woodlands, streets and

gardens are the most important elements of such green areas, yet their benefits are

often overlooked and their proper care neglected.

The group of concerned experts

After five years of work, the most comprehensive study URBAN FORESTS AND

TREES was concluded. We - 100 experts in urban trees, parks and woodlands and

representing 22 European countries and 70 institutions - was evaluated the built-up

areas of Europe. We was developed innovative approaches for maintaining and

developing the sustainable and multi-functional benefits of urban forests, trees and

open areas. We was studied the whole spectrum of green space and how it is

influenced by administrative, political and economic factors, and also ways to involve

communities in decision-making processes affecting the local environment.

Green space: an asset - not a liability

There are tremendous benefits to be gained from a high quality green environment.

However, green space is continually under threat, due to a wide range of reasons:

political and economic dominance of land use planning, poor growing conditions (soil,

water, growing space, pollution), pests and diseases, damage during building and road

construction, and excavation for cables and supply networks. These problems are

heightened by the fragmentation of administrative responsibilities for planning,

implementation and management of green space.

Tasks for local governments

Street trees are frequently expected to grow in inadequate rooting space and in soil

lacking sufficient water, nutrients or structure. Technical solutions for most of these

32

problems was brought together by the group during the course of the COST Action2

and are highly advisable for implementation. Spatial considerations of trees and green

space should be an increasing aspect of design and landuse planning. The monitoring,

design and management of urban greenery have to be fully integrated throughout all

aspects of city administration.

Tasks within Europe

There is a real need to strengthen legislation designed to protect urban greenery. A

consistent approach to tree preservation within and between European countries

would be advisable. Good practices should be introduced at all stages.

We call upon local and national politicians in all European countries to develop sound

policies for the appropriate planning, management, funding and long-term administra-

tion of urban green areas. Properly managed forests and trees are essential for

underpinning the quality of urban life, enabling European towns and cities to develop

as sustainable and enjoyable places for people to live, work, recreate and play.

2 COST: European Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research, Action E12

„Urban Forests and Trees“

33

Policy-making, planning and design forurban forests and trees

Chapter 2

35

Urban Forestry and Open Space in the UrbanisedContext of Western Europe: A policy Point of View

Peter JanssensSecretariat General of the BeneluxRegentschapsstraat 39,B-1000 Brussels, Belgium

Introduction

This contribution deals with the role and the function of open spaces, and more

specifically urban forestry, in the development of a spatial policy for Western Europe

in general and for the Benelux countries more specifically.

The spatial context

Western Europe can be characterised as a very urbanised area in the European Spatial

context. The study on the Central and Capital Cities and Regions (the so-called ‘CCC

study’), one of the studies in the framework of the program Europe 2000+ of the

European Commission in the beginning of the 1990s, dealt with the spatial

developments in the area covering the south–east of the United Kingdom, the western,

southern and eastern parts of the Netherlands, the whole of Belgium and

Luxembourg, the northern part of France, and the western part of Germany. The

northern part of the area is characterised by population densities of more than 500

inhabitants/km² while in the southern parts 145 is the average. The CCC study

estimated that 66,5 % of the CCC population lives in urban areas, which is much

higher than the EU average of 55,7 %. About 54 % of the CCC population lives in

urban areas of more than 50,000 inhabitants; more specifically 39,3 % is living within

the six metropolitan systems (London, Paris, Rhine-Ruhr, Rhine-Main Randstad and

ABG-stad (Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent)). 14.8% lives in urban areas of more than

50,000 inhabitants outside these six metropolitan systems. In contrast to that, 74,3 %

of the CCC area is considered as non-urban and is populated by 33,5 % of the CCC-

population (see Figure 1).

This study was aimed at exploring and defining the issues relevant for a transnational

spatial policy. The study had a so-called prospective character and defined a macro-

spatial structure as well as making a comparison between two spatial development

scenarios. The first was a trend scenario based on the assumption that each region and

estate continues to develop their own spatial policy, trying to develop their practical

answers to the issues and problems that arise (see Figure 2). The second, policy

36

scenario, however demonstrates the impact and rule of the more coherent and

commonly developed transnational spatial policy (see Figure 3).

Together with a wide range of issues the environmental issues demonstrated some

transnational and commonly recognised problems all over the CCC area. Some of

them, relevant in relation to forestry, dealt with the over-exploitation and the lowering

of the groundwater level, a problem which seems to be intensively related to the

presence of large population numbers in the urbanised neighbouring regions. Other

issues dealt with pollution of ground water and surface water reserves e.g. by pesticide

leaching. The wood production in the CCC area was estimated to be 21,5 million m³

while the consumption was estimated at 66,5 million m³. This means that annually 45

million m³ has to be imported.

In the development and comparison of the two spatial development scenarios, two

separate but important aspects of forestry in this very urbanised context became

visible. The first issue was the recognition of the very important role of forests in the

‘heads’ of the river basins. As one can observe the most urbanised areas and the large

population concentration are situated in the lower parts of the main rivers, such as the

Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt. The water provision to these population masses is

Figure 1. Population density in the CCC area.

37

served directly by the rivers, but indirectly also by feeding the groundwater reserves.

This means that upstream parts of the river basins play a role as regulator of the

quantity and quality of water, in relation to the lower situated and densely populated

areas. Especially woodlands are very important in playing this role. In the CCC study

this double role was described as the ‘Sponge’ and the ‘Filter’ function of woodlands.

Forests, as they are very present in for example the Ardennes, the Eiffel, and Saarland,

Figure 2. Trend scenario for the CCC area.

Demography:Urban growthStationary or recoveringDominant patterns of declineUrbanization in progress

Urban areas:Metropolitan areasCitiesInner-city declineUrban and semi-urban reconversion areas

Rural areas:Intensively used by agriculture facing economic threatsWith limited agricultureUnder urban pressureMain woodlandAreas with rural tourism

Coastal areas:Coastal areas with concentrations of human activityNatural and semi-natural coastal areas

Infrastructure:Eurocorridors in formationAirportsSeaportsCongestion in air trafficBarriers to integration

Environmental issues:Consentration of urban environmental problemsConsentration of safety risks (nuclear, Seveso, ...)Main riversMost polluted riversCoastal pollution

Trend scenario

38

therefore have a crucial role to play in relation to the quantity and also the quality of

these water reserves. Beside that, the forests play a crucial role in what planners often

call ‘spatial quality’. More specifically, in their role as a counterweight for the very

urbanised areas, woodlands constitute building stones for rural areas or open spaces.

This is true on two levels: on the transnational level, the green areas of the Ardennes,

Eiffel, Saarland and the northern part of Luxembourg were considered as very

important counter weights for the lack of openness and the high population densities

in the urbanised metropolitan systems. The growth of different kinds of rural tourism,

Figure 3. Policy scenario for the CCC area.

Metropolitan cooperation and connectivity to be improvedEurocorridors to be developed

Existing metropolitan areas, need:internal restructuringquality improvementreduced congestion

Potential for crossborder metropolitan development to beplannedCluster of urban areas for coordinated planning

Urban areas with different development characteristicsnear a metropolitan system

´freestanding’ urban areas

in econversion areas

in coastal areas

in border areas

Rural areas with agriculture to be regenerated

Environmental issuesImprovement of urban environment recommended

‘Green Belt’ strategy

Environmental sanitation in rural areas

Tentative main ecological structure

Increased inter-regional water management

Accelerated economic restructuring necessary

Development possibilities

39

and the increase of short holidays, demonstrates this role and the tourist potential

becomes a very important issue in the spatial policies of these areas. Secondly, on a

more regional or local level, forests play a very important role in structuring the

developments of the urban fringes. The CCC study also demonstrated the need for a

common application of the so-called ‘Green Belt’ strategies for the surroundings of

the large urban areas. This is necessary, not only to maintain the contrast between

urban and non-urban areas but also to structure the urban development and avoid

unstructured and space consuming sub urban developments, which hampers dynamic

and attractive urban development.

An attractive urban and suburban environment was even considered sometimes as a

prerequisite for attracting important economic functions, as demonstrated by the case

of Frankfurt, where the concentration of financial business is (partly) explained by the

presence of attractive woodlands in the neighbourhood.

In the development of the different variations of these kind of greenbelt strategies, the

development of common spatial patrimony, recognised and given a high symbolic

value by the urban people, is considered as very important for the protection for these

open areas. Public recognition and the public symbolic value can best be demonstrated

by means of urban forests, in a harmonised balance with non-forest landscapes with a

high cultural value. They contribute to the spatial qualities of urban areas and urban

fringes.

Policy answers

The CCC study was a study with a high political character that demonstrated the

common aspects of spatial policies in the north-western European context. Since the

beginning of the 1990s, several efforts have been attempted towards the development

of spatial policies on a transnational level.

Second outline for the Benelux

A first political fact relevant in this context is the development of the Second

Structural Outline of the Benelux. This second structural outline is a commonly

developed point of view and a basis for the Benelux partners (the Netherlands, the

Belgian regions Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels and the Grand Duché Luxembourg)

for transnational spatial policy. The document was accepted by the Ministers of spatial

planning of the five partners in 1997 and ultimately approved in 2000.

The Second Outline starts from the aim to at improve spatial quality as the main

principle. The document recognises the presence and the importance of the

metropolitan systems, in this document called ‘urban networks’, as basic building

40

stones in the transnational spatial policy. Not only the known urban networks, such as

the ‘Central Belgian Network’ or the Dutch ‘Randstad’ (actually called the Delta

metropolis) but also the cross border networks such as MHAL and the French Belgian

metropolis (encompassing amongst others Lille, Tournai Kortrijk) are recognised. The

role of open areas in the surroundings of the urban areas on the macro level as well as

on the micro level is recognised and the interrelation between regions dealing with the

common water issues also demonstrated. Especially the concept of a ‘Network of

open areas’ in the central and strongly urbanised Benelux Delta is very relevant in this

context (see Figure 4). This network of open areas is supposed to play a role as a

buffer in relationship to the development of the urban areas.

Figure 4. Main principles of the Second Structural Outline of the Benelux.

41

The second structural outline is the common basis of the Benelux partners in common

positioning of the points of view towards European spatial planning, for the

development of their proper spatial policy and for the cross border co-operation. The

outline has also proved to be a common building block in the development of the

European Spatial Development perspective and several Interreg1 development projects.

The European Spatial Development Perspective

Another important fact in this context is the acceptance (in Potsdam 1999) of the

European ‘Spatial Development perspective (ESDP)’. In this document, the result of a

long term intergovernmental process (1993-1999) and basically the product of the

member states together with the European Commission, the issues identified in the

CCC study are more or less confirmed as important.

The ESDP also stresses the need for a well-considered and balanced development of

the urban fringes and the negative effects of an unstructured and chaotic urbanisation

1 A programme to strengthen collaboration between the regions of the European Union.

Figure 5. Cross-border urban networks

Grens overschrijdende Réseaux(Stedelijke) (Urbains)Netwerken Transfrontaliers

Toplocaties in Localisationsstedelijke préférentielles dans

knooppunten en les noeuds etnetwerken réseaux urbains

Pilcotproject Projet pilotelandschapspark parc paysagerKempen-Zeelan Kempen-Zeeland

Stedelijke Noeuds urbainsKnooppunten

Stedelijk gebied Zone urbaine

Internationaal Réseau urbain stedelijk netwerk International

Grensoverschrijdend Réseau urbainstedelijke netwerken transfrontalier

Rijn Scheide Delta Zone de contact du contactzone Delta Rhin-Escaul

Bestuurlijke Capitale administrative hoofdstad

Belangrijke relatie Relation Importante

1 Randstad Holland

2 Reseau urbain central belge/centraal Belgisch stedelijk netwerk

3 Rhein-Ruhr4 Ile de France - Bassin Porssien5 Greater London

GPCICOPIT Lille-Kortrijk Mouscron-leper RoeselareSarlorlux Scarland-Lorraine-Luxembourg

MHAL Maastricht-HeerlenHassellt/Genk-Aachen-Liege

ANKE Arnhem/Nijmegen-Kleve-Emmerich

HEG Hengelo/Enschede-Gronau

42

process. Moreover, it recommends the development of partnerships and intense

interrelations between urban and rural areas in order to safeguard their specific spatial

development and manage the interdependencies. Also the role of woodlands in the

general policy of the transnational water management is (again) underlined.

Interreg IIC and IIIB

A third important aspect of the Transnational Policy evolution is the development of

the Interreg Program. The Interreg IIc program (1999-2001) and the Interreg IIIb

program (2002-2006) are supporting several transnational projects aimed at developing

several aspects of the transnational spatial policy. Regional and/or local partners

elaborate these projects and some of them deal specifically with the issues of open

areas in relationship to the urbanised context, as described above.

One relevant project, called ‘Sustainable Open Space’ (S.O.S.), dealt with open spaces in

the urbanised context. The outcome of it can be basically described as the exchange of

points of view and experiences, but also a platform for strengthening the importance

and the political awareness for open areas. Forestry is recognised as an important

building stone in this context.

Another project, called ‘Network of Cross Border Urban Networks’, was also a

platform of commonly developed new research, exchange of experience and a political

platform for cross-border urban networks. Amongst others, the importance of open

areas policy in the development of the ‘new’ cross border networks in the European

spatial, domain is demonstrated (Figure 5).

The Interreg IIIb program has not yet been fully developed in order to point the

relevant issues and projects in relation to the issue of this paper, but it can be expected

that some projects will also deal with the issues of open areas.

Also others projects in the Interreg IIc program, such as ‘Eurbanet’ dealing with the

development of the international Urban Networks, have partly paid attention to spatial

quality and the role of nearby open areas.

National and regional spatial planning

Beside the development of common transnational policy documents and projects, it is

remarkable that the internal spatial policy within nations and regions and the awareness

of the alignment of the urban developments become very important but sensitive

elements. In the Flemish region for example the ‘alignment processes’ of urban areas

are an important priority. Also in the Netherlands, with the recently developed Fifth

National Policy Document on Spatial Planning, the alignment process (called

43

‘Contourenbeleid’) has become very important. In the spatial policy of other Benelux

partners, such as the Walloon and the Brussels region, and Luxembourg, the urban

fringes and specifically the woodlands become very important issues as well.

Interesting is the case of the so called ‘Zoniënwoud’, a large woodland in the south-

east of the Brussels region. This forest fully plays the role of urban forest for the

Brussels urban area, but also crossing the borders with the Flemish and the Walloon

region. The so-called Walloon axe, the urban network connecting the main urban areas

in Wallonia from the west to the east, is in the south bordered by a string of urban

forests, playing their role as a counterpart. The urban fringe of Luxembourg as well is

characterised by the presence of urban forests. It can be assumed that these issues are

now commonly accepted as very relevant issues in national and regional spatial policies.

General conclusion

In none of the issues described above, urban forests are considered as the only

relevant issue in the spatial policy of these urban areas and urban fringes. But on the

other hand, urban forests are commonly considered as very important building stones

for the development of an active open space policy, as counterbalance for the urban

areas.

More specifically it is assumed that urban forestry has an important role to play in an

integrated spatial policy and therefore spatial planners expect urban forestry to provide

a real contribution to the general aim at the improvement of the spatial quality. The

decreasing role of the agricultural sector creates a challenge to create new and active

functions in order to exploit the specific spatial potentials of these open spaces in the

urban context and to maintain and improve the general spatial qualities. It is within this

context that spatial planning and urban forestry become objective partners in creating

spatial quality.

The specific spatial condition of Northwest Europe can in this context be considered a

very interesting challenge. This observation also implies an invitation towards the

urban forestry sector to take up this challenge, in order to demonstrate the specific role

of urban forestry in the general aim for a better spatial quality and thereby the

sustainable spatial development in general and in West Europe more specifically.

Literature used

De Boe Ph, Vanhecke E & Janssens P(2000).

Spatial Integration. Study Report on European Spatial Planning. Final Report.

Nordregio.

44

D’Hondt F & De Boe Ph (2002).

Benelux & Interreg: van visie naar inter-actie. Adviesnota voor de Bijzondere

Commissie voor de Ruimtelijke Ordening van de Benelux Economische Unie.

Europe 2000+ (1994).

Coopération pour l’aménagement du territoire européen. Commission Européenne

DG16, Brussels.

European Commission (1999).

European Spatial Development Perspective, Op weg naar een evenwichtige en

duurzame ontwikkeling van het grondgebied van de EU. Brussels.

Ipenburg D & Lambregts B (2001).

Polynuclear urban regions in North West Europa. A survey of key actor views.

Report of the Eurbanet project. Housing and Urban policy studies. OTB Research

Institute for housing, urban and moblity studies. Delft Univerity of Technology,

Delft.

Janssens P (1994).

Regio’s in Noord-West Europa: ontwikkelingen en beleid. Presentatie voor de

Planologische Discusssiedagen te Eindhoven op 30 mei 1994. Published in

Stedebouw en Volkshuisvesting.

Janssens P (1998).

Over het bos en de bomen. De relatie tussen het EROP, Europa 2000+, Interreg

IIC en de Tweede Structuurschets voor de Benelux. Janssens, P. In: EROP Katern:

’Er op of Er onder’. Planologisch Nieuws 18(3).

Janssens P & D’hondt F (1999).

Europese en transnationale ruimtelijke planning. Een discussie waard! TROS

(Tijdschrift voor Ruimtelijke ordening en Stedenbouw.), Die Keure.

Janssens P (2001).

De actuele en potentiële betekenis van geïntegreerd transnationaal en Europees

ruimtelijk beleid in (open) ruimten onder verstedelijkingsdruk, Symposium Open

Ruimtefuncties onder Verstedelijkingsdruk. Proceedings. Flemish Ministry of

Environment and Agriculture, Brussels.

Joint Operational Programme for the North-Western Metropolitan(XXXX).

Area. Interreg IIC Community Initiative Programme 1997-1999.

Prospects for the development of het central and capital cities and regions (1996).

European Commission Directorate General 16, Brussels.

45

Réseau de réseaux (Urbains) Transfrontaliers (2001).

Laboratoire de cooperation Transfrontalière. Rapport final du projet Interreg IIc

“Reseau de réseaux (urbains) transfrontaliers”. Secretariat Général de Benelux et

Ministère de la Région Wallonne.

Tweede Benelux Structuurschets. Concept . Ruimte voor Samenwerking. (1996).

Secretariaat-Generaal voor de Benelux, Brussels.

Tweede Benelux Structuurschets. Beslisnota. Ruimte voor Samenwerking. (1996).

Secretariaat-Generaal voor de Benelux, Brussels.

Sustainable Open Spaces. Report of the Workshops (2001).

(co-financed by Interreg IIc).

47

Realising Urban Forests in Flanders: A PolicyPerspective

Jeroen Nachtergaele1, Rik De Vreese2, Raoul Vanhaeren1 and Jos Van Slycken3

1 Ministry of the Flemish Community, Forest and Green Areas Division, Brussels, Belgium2 Flemish Forest Organisation, Gontrode, Belgium3 The Institute of Forestry and Game Management, Geraardsbergen, Belgium

Abstract

Flanders (Belgium) has a low and spatially unequally distributed forest cover with

extremely fragmented forests both in terms of space and property. To cope with this a

forest expansion programme has been set up in order to reinforce the Flemish forest

structure and to establish large-scale urban forests near cities and in low-forested areas.

Within a highly urbanised region such as Flanders, land pressure and spatial claims in

the vicinity of cities are very high. Therefore the realisation of urban forests in

Flanders is a complex issue, requiring a well-thought-out scenario. Thus the Forest and

Green Areas Division of Flanders has developed a three-step process in cooperation

with the Spatial Planning Division, each step answering an elementary question:

1) Localisation phase ⇒ Where should urban forest be localised?

2) Concept phase ⇒ What should urban forest look like?

3) Implementation phase ⇒ How can the desired urban forest be realised on the

selected location?

The strength and importance of this three-step approach has two elements. First, it

guarantees an equal distribution of money and means over the respective aspects of

the realisation process and allows for specific partnerships and participation schemes

to be made for each of the steps. Furthermore, the decision making process is spread

out over three steps. Given the often-controversial nature of the idea of realising an

urban forest, it is more likely for politicians to accept such an idea gradually.

Key words: urban forests, realisation scheme, localisation, design, implementation.

Introduction

The latest forest inventory reveals that Flanders has a forest cover of 10.8%, which is

amongst the lowest in Europe. Within Flanders, the forest index varies from 2.3 % in

the most westerly province, to 20.6 % in the most easterly province (Figure 1).

48

Besides the problem of a low and spatially unequally distributed forest cover, forests in

Flanders are also extremely fragmented both in terms of space and property. With

respect to the spatial fragmentation Embo (2001) stated that more than half of the

Flemish forests are smaller than 100 ha and circa 25% are even smaller than 40 ha.

Fragmentation of property in Flemish forests was illustrated by the latest forest

inventory that revealed that circa 70% of the Flemish forests are private property,

while 13% is owned by the Flemish government and 17% by other public owners.

Evidently, the relatively small area of public forests in Flanders has been experiencing

substantial (recreational) pressure. Therefore scientists emphasised the need to

reinforce the existing Flemish forest structure, and to establish large-scale urban forests

in the vicinity of densely populated areas and areas short of forest (Embo 2001).

Forest expansion programme in Flanders

The forest expansion programme in Flanders is embedded in the Spatial Structure Plan

for Flanders (SSPF). In order to face the spatial challenges within Flanders the Flemish

government has (since 1992) been working on a spatial policy based on a new planning

methodology called structure planning. Structure planning is characterised by a

coherent approach of the spatial claims by various economic and social activities. The

law on spatial planning of July 24th of 1996 has provided the legal basis for structure

planning. Since this law the Flemish region, provinces and municipalities have the

authority to develop their own spatial policy, with the principle of subsidiarity as an

essential framework for task separation between the three administrative levels.

The SSPF contains essential options for the spatial development of Flanders and

hence provides a frame for the preparation, assessment and execution of all decisions

with spatial impact for the next ten years.

Figure 1. Forest indices in Flanders per province. The average forest index for Flanders is 10.8%.

2.3% 5.6%

16.2%

12.0%

20.6%

49

With respect to forest expansion, the SSPF states that by the year 2007, 10,000 ha of

new forest will be needed to meet social demand in Flanders. The Flemish forest

expansion programme comprises the creation of 10,000 ha of forest (expansion) areas

in zoning plans (plan expansion, PE) and the creation of 10,000 ha of new forest

(effective expansion; EE). Evidently, the PE and the EE will overlap to a large extent.

Yet, it is important to distinguish between PE and EE as to prevent the Flemish forest

expansion programme from remaining a simple desktop exercise. In other words, the

Flemish forest expansion programme requires the actual implementation of the spatial

options taken in zoning plans. The Forest and Green Area Division of the Ministry of

the Flemish Community has subdivided the 10,000 ha of PE for Flanders over its five

provinces, hereby aiming at compensating the actual inequality of forest distribution in

Flanders (Figure 2). Figures for the EE (Figure 2) show that 13,665 ha, rather than

10,000 ha have to be realised. The difference between both figures is explained by a net

deforestation between 1994, the SSPF reference year, and 2000, the start of the

Flemish forest expansion programme. This observation emphasises the importance of

the Flemish forest expansion programme, since the programme not only aim to create

new forests, but it first has to reverse the existing trend of deforestation. With respect

to the latter, the Flemish government has installed a moratorium on any form of

Figure 2. Planned and effective forest expansion in Flanders figures given per province.

2500 3000

1500

1500

1500

total=

10 000 ha

Planned Expansion

2441(+59)

3416(-416)

3184(-1684)

1885(-385)

2739(-1239)

total=

13 665 ha

Effective expansion (situation 2000, reference 1994)

50

deforestation, while for forest expansion the Flemish government has installed a

special forest expansion unit (consisting of 8 persons in total) within its Forest and the

Green Areas Division. The Flemish government aims to acquire 1000 ha of new forest

per year. Moreover, partnerships with local authorities and private individuals should

lead to the realisation of the required 13,665 ha of new forest.

Priorities within the Flemish forest expansion programme have been defined as:

- De-fragmentation of existing (public) forests;

- creation of large multifunctional forests; and

- creation of recreational forest complexes nearby urbanised areas (urban forests).

Within this priority list, one of the major challenges is the realisation of urban forests

within the direct neighbourhood of Flanders’ major cities. Within a highly urbanised

region such as Flanders, land pressure and spatial claims in the vicinity of cities are

very high. Therefore the realisation of urban forests in Flanders is a complex issue,

requiring a well-thought-out scenario. The Forest and Green Areas Division has, in

cooperation with the Spatial Planning Division, developed a three-step process.

From idea to realization of an urban forest, three phases are considered, each of them

answering an elementary question:

Localisation phase ⇒ Where should urban forest be localised?

Concept phase ⇒ What should urban forest look like?

Implementation phase ⇒ How can the desired urban forest be realised in the selected

location?

Localisation phase

A first step in the creation of an urban forest consists of finding a location that is both

suitable and feasible. Van Elegem et al. (2002) have developed a multicriteria analysis to

select such locations. Essentially, the methodology of Van Elegem et al. (2002)

considers three phases (Figure 3):

(1) The excluding phase, where exclusive criteria are used to select a number of locations

potentially suitable for the creation of an urban forest.

(2) The ordering (or ranking) phase, when the potential locations from the excluding phase

are tested for their suitability. This leads to the selection and ranking of a limited

number of ‘most suitable locations’. Criteria used for this selection can be

subdivided into three groups: (a) criteria related to functional elements, (b) criteria

related to structural strengthening of the landscape, and (c) criteria related to

ecological quality.

(3) Phase 2 is followed by feasibility phase, when the most suitable locations are tested for

their feasibility. This last phase should guarantee the realisation of an urban forest

within a relatively short term.

51

A more elaborate overview of the methodology to select the best locations for new

urban forests using multicriteria analysis can be found in Van Elegem et al. (2002).

The concept phase

After having selected a suitable and feasible location for the creation of an urban

woodland (localisation phase), the next question to be addressed is What should the forest

look like? The second phase, which is called the concept phase, concentrates on the

optimal lay out of the urban forest to be created. In order to reach this optimal lay out,

a two-step approach is followed.

Step 1: inventory

An inventory of the area selected for the future urban forest should reveal (a) the

historic and current land use, (b) the current biotic and a-biotic characteristics, (c) the

judicial context (zoning, property, protected areas, etc.) and (d) the actual functional

and spatial organisation of the area (internal as well as external). Through such an

inventory both the pull and push factors of the area can be mapped out, which, in

turn, serves as a basis for step 2: the development of the urban forest’s future design.

Step 2: conceptual framework

The development of a conceptual framework for the future urban forest is the result

of a continuous exchange of information between the meso- and micro-scale. While in

a first stage the most ideal design for the urban forest is developed at the meso-scale, a

Figure 3. Scheme for the localisation phase of the Flemish forest expansion programme (after VanElegem et al. 2002).

1 Excluding phase excluding criteria

Search Area

Parts of the

search area

Most suitable locations

Most suitable and

feasible locations

filter Examine against the desired

profile of the urban forest– Functional elements

– Structural elements

– Ecological elements

3 Feasibility phase

2 Ordering phase

Potential

locations

52

second stage with a feedback between this ideal design and the actual situation (step 1:

inventory) is required at the micro-scale. Eventually, the confrontation between meso-

and micro-scale should lead to the optimal design.

The final output of the concept phase is a plan showing the desired layout of the

urban forest at the meso-scale (Figure 4). This plan contains all the elements, with their

relative position and dimension, forming part of the future urban forest. Yet, this plan

requires no decisions at parcel level.

Figure 4. Example of the output of the concept phase for the planned urban forest in Ghent(Studiegroep Omgeving et al. 2001).

53

The implementation phase

Once the design for the urban forest to be developed is available, a scenario to

transform the actual situation into the designed situation has to be worked out. This

transformation process is subject of the third phase, called the implementation phase.

This implementation phase should guarantee that plans made in phase 2 would actually

be executed in the field.

Conclusions

In conclusion of this paper dealing with the policy perspective on realising urban

forests in Flanders: the Forest and Green Areas Division wants to stress both the

strength and the importance of their three-step approach.

First, splitting up the process ‘from idea to realisation of an urban forest’ in three

separate, well-defined steps guarantees that the input of money and means is equally

distributed over the respective aspects of the realisation process, with no chance of

owner zone landuse maintenance owner zone landuse maintenance

sustainble

recreation

actual situation

private agriculture forest economic

parcel ID desired situation

forest forestpublic

owner zone land use maintenance

change transfor-

zone mation

actions to be taken

buy forest

Figure 5. Output of the implementation phase, consisting of a table listing the actions to be takento go from the actual to the desired (designed) situation for each parcel of the selected area.

54

neglecting or omitting any of the process steps. Furthermore, the three-step process

enables specific partnerships and participation schemes to be made for each of the steps.

Moreover, not only the realisation process but also the decision making process is

spread out over three steps. It is much more likely for politicians to gradually accept a

controversial idea such as an urban forest. When using the three-step process,

politicians first deal with general interests: do the inhabitants of my city or community

want to have an urban forest? If yes, where should it be located and what should it

look like (step 1&2)? Only after having reached a consensus amongst decision makers

on the first two steps, the implementation phase, where personal interests are involved,

is started. During this implementation phase (step 3) decisions such as what to do with

this single farmer, or that local amateur football club within the perimeter of the urban

forest have to be made. Through lobbying personal interests may have a strong impact

on decision making, and by splitting up the decision making process, one can avoid

that personal interests clash/interfere with general interests, which, and this is the most

important, increases the realisation chances of the urban forest project.

References

Embo T (2001).

Finding public and political support for (new) urban forests. In: Konijnendijk, C.C.

and Flemish Forest Organisation (Eds.) Communicating and financing urban

woodlands in Europe. Proceedings of the 2nd and 3rd IUFRO European Forum

on Urban Forestry. Aarhus, Denmark, 4-6 May, 1999 & Gyarmatpuszta, Budapest,

Hungary, 9-12 May, 2000: 18-21.

Elegem B Van, Embo T, Muys B & Lust N (2002).

A methodology to select the best locations for new urban forests using multicriteria

analysis. Forestry 75 (1): 13-23.

Studiegroep Omgeving, Econnection and Bulck Consultants International (2001).

Gewestelijk RUP voor bosontwikkeling en bedrijvigheid – ontwerp eindrapport

(Regional Spatial Executive Plan for forest development and economic activity –

draft final report.) Under the authority of Ministry of the Flemish Community,

AROHM – Planning Department (ARP).

55

Planning New Forests in the Netherlands

Rien van den BergDepartment of Innovation and Knowledge Management,Government Service for Land and Water Use.P.O. Box 20021, NL-3502 LA Utrecht, The Netherlands.

Abstract

The forest area in the Netherlands is rather limited: forests cover about 8% of the total

land area. Most of the cities are situated in areas with little forest and people must

drive 50 kilometres or more to reach a landscape rich of forests. The lack of forests is

felt the most near the big cities and especially in the Randstad, the metropolitan area in

the western part of the Netherlands. Since the 1960s a national policy to plan and real-

ise new forests has been developed. In the Randstad the ‘Randstad Green Structure’

became an important planning objective in national and regional planning schemes.

The policy for new forests has been rather successful. Although the planned hectares

will not be fully realised, the location of new forests greatly attracted the attention of

professionals in spatial-planning and land-use-planning. New forests emerged like

mushrooms on the planners’ maps and the size of the largest forests grew from a few

hundred hectares (Bieslandse Bos) to a few thousand hectares (Horsterwold and

Bentwoud).

With the growing size of new forests the problems of planning and realisation also

increased. These include booming land prices, opposing farmers, traversing roads and

railways and local politics. Especially the Bentwoud in the province of Zuid-Holland

(South-Holland) illustrates the actual threats and challenges. The land in the new

polders, where the Horsterwold lays, has from the early beginning been owned by the

state. This has made it easier to develop a forest of this size.

Key words: afforestation, urban areas, planning.

Introduction

The topic of this paper are the landscape planning aspects of new forests. In the Net-

herlands a long tradition exists of using forests as a tool for improving and enhancing

landscape qualities. The flat country makes trees and forests strong instruments in

shaping the landscape. Planting forests is not always seen as an improvement. It can

disturb the open scenery and wide views typical for the landscape of the polders. But a

56

forest has an inner side, creates its own environment that offers people natural values,

forest landscapes, fresh air and all kind of other experiences. A forest is a mystery that

people need in our technical era. Research shows that 60% of the Dutch people think

they do not have enough forest in their neighbourhood.

Most of the forests in the Netherlands, like in many other countries, belonged to the

‘poor side’ of the landscape and not to the rich front. Only the very poor soils,

unsuitable for agriculture were used for forests. The forest-rich areas lay remote from

the cities in the western, most urbanised part of our country. “People in the cities need

more than grass between the paving stones” one of the great advocates for nature con-

servation and landscape planning (Cleyndert) said to politicians about sixty years ago.

One of the first examples of new forests near the cities was the forest near

Amsterdam, established in the 1930s. The 900 ha ‘Bosplan’ was in fact based on a park

concept with one-third grass, one-third water and one-third forest. The dominant

influence of trees and forest in its appearance gives it the character of a forest. The

Amsterdamse Bos was an initiative of the city. At that time no national policy existed.

Following the Second World War landscape planners experimented with new forests in

land consolidation plans. Examples are the rehabilitation of beautiful landscapes

(Walcheren) in the province of Zeeland which were destroyed by floods after the

Second World War and in 1953. Another example is the creation of complete new

landscapes in the IJsselmeer polders, land established at the site of a former sea in the

middle of the country. In these experimental phase timber production and recreation

were important functions but structuring the landscape was the leading principle in the

design. Land development plans often provided the legal framework for the mentioned

forests. These plans facilitate the availability of land on the right place, budgets, an

integrated planning approach and the organisation of the implementation. This ap-

proach covers about one third of the total land area of the Netherlands.

Need for policy development

In the 1960s ideas came up for a systematic approach for new forests near the cities.

People from the State Forest Service took the initiative to plan new forests and give

them a place on spatial planning maps. A specific policy was needed because of the

spatial dynamic environments around the cities, with intensive land use and constant

urban pressure. Forests need time to develop their values and need to be protected

against sudden land use changes. Investments in new forests are worthless if after

thirty years the whole forest is cut in order to establish an airport or a settlement. Little

changes at the edges of a forest, new spatial relations with other natural or even urban

areas are another story. They often enhance the diversity of the landscape. Since the

1960s many planning studies for new forests were executed and pilot projects and de-

sign competitions undertaken. But without a coherent policy, a strong set of instru-

57

ments and budgets, the purposes will not be achieved. It started with the objective of

30,000 ha of new forests mentioned in the long-term forestry plan of 1975. Then the

target was raised to 75,000 ha of new forests in the forestry policy report of 1992.

This paper will focus on the urban forestry part of this policy.

A green structure for the Randstad

In the 1970s a structural foundation was laid for the realisation of 30,000 ha of new

forests in the governmental Report for the rural areas. The establishment of a green

Figure 1. Search-area for new strategic Green Projects in the Randstad.

58

structure for the Randstad, the most urbanised part of the country, with 10,000 ha of

new forest became one of the main objectives of this policy report. The creation of

new state forests was an important instrument. The main functions in the beginning

were recreation, structuring the urban landscape and timber production. Later on, na-

ture functions became more important. People need real forests, not just trees and

forests as green curtains for recreation areas. The difference with green projects

especially for recreation was clearly expressed by the percentage of forest and the costs

per ha. One third of the area in recreation projects and 90% of the area in State forests

should be forested. The costs for the State forests were about one third of the costs

for recreation projects. That was an important argument for politicians: ‘natural’ forests

were much cheaper.

Ideas and plans for new forests emerged. Provincial governments and municipalities

took initiatives for location studies for new forests. State forest projects and land

development projects offered the main planning and organisational framework and

created the confidence for professional realisation and sustainable management. In

1992, six Strategic Green Projects for forests and nature were added to the Randstad

Green Structure (see Figure 1).

Bieslandse Bos and Balij

One of the most profound projects from that first period is the Bieslandse Bos and

the Balij, a new forest east of the government town of The Hague. This project

involves a forest area with a total area of 1000 ha, including 100 ha of water and

agricultural land. The need to create a strong landscape structure for the expected

development of urban settlements and greenhouses was the main motive. In this

project experience was gained with how to use unexpected developments like the

Floriade exposition, were 25 ha of new state forest was one of the exposition objects.

These 25 ha were used as ‘bridgehead’ for the Balij, which connected the Bieslandse

Bos with Zoetermeer, the main New Town in this part of Holland. The two forest

plans together made a really interesting forest area in the middle of existing and plan-

ned urban settlements (see Figure 2).

59

Figure 2. Location of new forest areas north of Rotterdam.

Horsterwold

The IJsselmeer Polders show a developing land use concept from traditional

agricultural polders in the early beginning to the modern Southern Flevoland with its

four functional zones. In this last reclaimed polder - the planned fifth polder

Markerwaard was cancelled - extensive areas are allocated for nature (the famous new

nature reserve Oostvaardersplassen), agriculture, a new city (Almere) for more than

300,000 inhabitants and a new forest (Horsterwold). During the early 1970s, when the

first drafts for this polder were prepared, landscape planners from the State Forest Ser

60

Bentwoud

In 1984, when the Randstad green structure plan was in full implementation, the

question arose how the new forest plans could contribute to ecological values. The idea

of ecological core forests and optimal connections with other ecological hot spots

came up. East of Zoetermeer and north of Rotterdam there remains an agricultural

area with very good soils and a large-scale landscape, i.e. an area with a great potential

for a new forest of a few thousand hectares. On the basis of ecological research the

Province of Zuid-Holland initiated a planning study. The province chose a compact

model for the new forest, with connections to other recreational and natural areas in

the region, like a spider in a web. A bold and fascinating plan was born. Provincial

politicians became enthusiastic and adopted it.

In the first plan the core forest was about 2,000 ha. But the farmers resisted strongly

against the forest plan. Over a few hundred years generations of farmers had had a

good living in this area. They feared the end of agriculture in the whole region because

of the forest. At the end of the regional planning procedure, the core forest will

consist of 1,000 ha with another 1,000 ha of connection zones. There is an option for

another 300 ha in a second phase. Farmers objected to the plan up to the highest

court, the Council of State, but lost because the plan had followed a democratic proce-

dure. Also the importance of a forest to society was a strong argument. This is a signal

for the diminishing role of agriculture in urban areas in the Netherlands.

Figure 3. Zoning in the Hosterwold, withthe silent core in the middle left.

vice introduced the idea of a large

broadleaf forest of 4,000 ha, i.e. a lands-

cape type not existing in the Netherlands

and which is rare even in Western Europe.

The forest was to be established near the

new expanding city and not far from

Amsterdam, Utrecht and the urbanised

Gooi area. A visionary idea and although

the land was owned by the state it took

persuasion and endurance to keep the full

forest plan on the map. The whole forest

plan is executed now, the last stage being a

silent ‘nature core’ in the middle of the

forest. A zoning plan was made with

multifunctional forest, mixed with

recreation and agriculture at the edges, and

a silent core of natural forest in the middle

(see Figure 3 and 4).

61

The Bentwoud project with its connection zones is now part of a larger integrated land

development project. The future forestland must be acquired on a voluntary base. And

that is a weak point in the plan. Farmers do not want to sell their land. They try to

prevent colleagues from selling. Land prices are raised because of urbanisation, inten-

sive land use and speculation. Only one hundred ha has been acquired to date. People

from the Government Service for Land and Water Use, who are assigned to the

project, think that without expropriation there will be no possibility to realise the

whole forest. To keep faith in the forest plan the planting of the first acquired hectares

has started. There is a clear zoning plan with a natural core of grazed forest in the

middle (see Figure 5).

Main questions for forest realisation

A number of questions remain for forest realisation:

- How to execute parts of the plan separately and still contribute to the planned larger

forest as a whole in the future?

- How to hold the interest of politicians and the public when only small fragments are

realised and the qualities of the whole forest are not yet visible?

Figure 4. Recreation mixed with forests in the Hosterwold.

62

- How to keep the area free of all kinds of local land use and urban initiatives which

are detrimental to the new forest?

- How to create an exciting forest were nature values and recreation go together?

- How to take advantage of the large scale of the open area while transforming it in a

forest landscape?

Co-operation with artists

One of the new aspects in working on this forest project is the co-operation with ar-

tists. From the ideas of ten artists, four were chosen to contribute to the forest plan.

The artists were selected because of their ideas about the contribution of the design

process to the concept of the whole forest. Isolated ideas with a land-art character

were not desirable in this stage of development of the forest. In design workshops the

forest planners and landscape architects worked together with the artists to elaborate

their ideas. This also provided answers to some of the questions mentioned above.

One artist concentrated on communication and acted as the forester of the still not

Figure 5. Layout of first part of the Bentwound.

63

existing forest. He stimulated children of schools in the surrounding area to draw their

perfect trees and forest. People started to think about the forest and it already

represents a value. Another artist challenged the planners to create a really exciting

forest and to find innovative tools for the development of natural values, for example

by using the earth-shaping function of streaming water, and to create a certain danger

so that people can loose their way during long walks. Yet another artist concentrated

on the function of the whole forest as a clean cell in an urban and technical

environment. He stressed enhancing the clean qualities. The fourth artist is a

Frenchman. He brought in the idea to see the forest as a supermarket, a place where all

kind of recreational functions have their logical place and offer a complete manmade

natural park north of Rotterdam.

The Bentwoud plan is still in a developing stage. The first 50 ha was planted one year

ago (in 2000). We try to put facts for the people in this area. Models are made for the

greater land development project. One model pays more attention to blue-green

elements for the inhabitants of the cities, while another model focuses on the rural

functions. The water aspect raises troubling questions because the designed creeks will

cause upward streaming brackish water from the underground. The future size of the

forest is still subject to discussion and at the edges land use conflicts often arise.

Evaluation

The implementation of the objectives of forest policy are monitored yearly and

evaluated every fourth year. The results are not bad, although the pace is decreasing the

last years. The average result is 73% realisation. In the Randstad, the realisation

remains behind target.

Final comment

For new forests in urbanised areas appealing plans are needed. People have to adopt

these plans and must protect them against all kind of interfering activities to be

expected in crowded areas. The forest must first be born in the fantasy of the planners

and then in the fantasy of politicians and of the people who will use it in the future. In

the beginning there is often resistance because loss of existing values. As soon as the

forest has its own identity it can protect itself. The growing internal values can embrace

people and convince them to protect and strengthen them.

65

The Design of Urban Woodlands in theNetherlands: Development of a ‘Polder Forest’

Dominique BlomTechnical University Delft, Faculty of Architecture,Berlageweg 1, 2628 CR Delft

Abstract

The paper provides insight into some main findings of a Ph.D.-study carried out at the

Technical University of Delft from 1996-2001. The study’s objective was to give an

overview and analysis of 20th century urban woodland plans in the western part of the

Netherlands. It shows the influence of modernism on urban woodland design and the

adaptation of these designs to the Dutch polder landscape. In this way a unique style

developed in Dutch urban woodland design in the 20th century.

In the urbanised western part of the Netherlands, the ‘Randstad’, a considerable

number of new woodlands was planned and designed during the 20th century. As most

woodlands in this area had disappeared during the Middle Ages this meant a substantial

transformation of the open polder landscape. In addition, it led to a new development

in urban green planning. Developing new urban woodlands was unique in Europe at

that time. In most countries remains of ancient forests near cities, like the Bois de

Boulogne in Paris, gradually evolved into urban woodlands.

In the early 20th century the first urban woodlands were projected on the cities’

outskirts, anticipating expansion of the urban area. These woodland designs were

mainly based on the English landscape style. Later that century larger woodlands, even

as large as thousands of hectares, were planned further away from the city. All of these

new urban woodlands were situated in the lowlands, and were meant for recreation and

nature development, this in contrast to most historical woodlands that were planted on

sand soil, and intended for wood production and hunting.

The study presented here study showed that during the 20th century a new kind of

landscape feature was established in the western part of the Netherlands: an urban

woodland closely linked to the Dutch polder landscape.

Key words: urban woodland design, landscape architecture, modernism, polder lands-

cape.

66

Introduction

In the 20th century several urban woodlands were laidout in the Randstad, the

urbanised western part of the Netherlands. This was a new and unique phenomenon,

as most urban woodlands in Europe developed from existing, historical woodlands that

were adapted to an urban setting and use. In the western part of the Netherlands

however, there were hardly any woodlands left around 1900. Even those few left were

all planted by man at some time in history. It was also unique that the new woodlands

were planned in polder landscape, an open and flat landscape, while most Dutch

forests are located on sandy soils with more relief. These forests also determine the

traditional image most people have of forests: a closed, irregular, mysterious landscape.

The designers and planners of the new urban woodlands in the Randstad had to meet

the challenge to create attractive urban woodlands for recreation in this polder lands-

cape, but also for nature and timber production.

Key aspects of urban woodlands in the Netherlands

In the study three key aspects were used to study the urban woodlands planned and

laid-out in the Randstad during the 20th century: planning, design and forest image.

During the 20th century these issues changed significantly.

Planning

Before World War II (WWII), urban woodlands were more like large city parks with a

local function, planned by local governments. After WWII the layout of urban

woodlands became part of the national policy on physical planning. These woodlands

were larger and had a more regional function, e.g. functioning as physical barrier to

keep two cities separated, or as woodland for the whole region.

Design

The first urban woodlands were designed in a romantic style, inspired by the English

landscape style, although they were laid-out in a polder landscape. The design of the

latest ones has evolved into a kind of ‘polder-style’.

Visual appearance of the forest

Urban woodland is built-up with open space and forested areas; these forested areas

have their own spatial characteristics, depending on the planted species, pattern, age

structure, and so forth. The use of a standard mixture of tree species has developed

into more creative use of tree species and mixtures.

These issues will be dealt with in this paper, using examples of urban forest plans from

three periods in the 20h century: before WWII, between WWII and 1975 and from

1975 until today.

67

Background

In the early Middle Ages there was a lot of woodland in the Netherlands. Even a large

part of Holland, the Western part of the Netherlands, was covered in forest. The po-

pulation increased considerably however, and more and more forests disappeared to

make room for agricultural land. The forested area decreased rapidly until at the end of

the Middle Ages very little woodland was left in Holland. This remained the same until

the 19th century; in 1900 there remained only about 35,000 ha of forest in the Nether-

lands (Al & Kuiper 2000), of which most was located outside Holland.

In the 19th century new forests were planted again to meet the demands of increasing

industrialisation, but of course these were mainly used for timber production.

Meanwhile industrialisation led to urbanisation and to bad living standards in the cities.

Cities turned into unhealthy and unpleasant places due to pollution and crowding;

there was hardly any green space left. To improve this situation parks were laid out in

the cities in the 19th century. Still there was a lack of green space outside the cities.

As reaction against the bad health and environmental situation in the cities an anti-ur-

ban feeling developed in these cities at the start of the 20th century. People wanted to

Figure 1. New urban woodlands as a national policy (Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting en RuimtelijkeOrdening 1960).

68

get back to nature. A cutback in working hours, due to an economical crisis, allowed

people to spend leisure time outside the cities in the fresh air. Possibilities were very

limited, however, as uncultivated land disappeared in the rural area due to cultivation.

To protect the few remaining uncultivated areas the first nature protection organisati-

ons were founded.

But protecting existing green was not enough, as there also was a need for green areas

close to or in the cities. Local governments took the first initiatives to lay out large

green areas or forests near cities at the start of the 20th century. The city of Rotterdam

was the first to develop a plan for a large green area, the Kralingse Bos1, soon after

followed by the well-known Amsterdamse Bos.

After WWII national planning developed and as part of the First National Policy

Document on Spatial Planning in 1960, a plan was presented for 11 new green areas

near large cities, for day recreation and nature (see Figure 1). Most of these were plan-

ned in the urbanised part of Holland, the Randstad. Later National Policy Documents

on this subject continued this policy of planning new large green areas near cities.

Even the last note, the Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning

acknowledges a need for more green, especially in the Randstad (Ministerie van

Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieu 2001). Unfortunately only a few of

the planned urban woodlands were planted so far; a few more are being realised right

now.

Before WWII: the first urban woodlands in the Randstad

Planning for the future

As mentioned before, the first urban woodlands were laid-out near Amsterdam and

Rotterdam. As urbanisation continued to grow, local governments became aware that it

was necessary to make a plan for the future in order to control unrestricted growth.

The two urban woodlands, Amsterdamse Bos and Kralingse Bos, were planned at the

cities’ outskirts anticipating further growth of the city but also - especially in the case

of the Kralingse Bos - to function as a future outer boundary for the city (see Figures 2

and 3).

The cities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam did not just want to make a park, but rather a

green area that would be “large enough to be a pleasure resort for our entire, numerous

population” as the city of Rotterdam described it in 1909. This was completely

different from the urban parks that were laid out in the cities in the 19th century. These

1 The Dutch word ‘bos’ means forest or woodland.

69

parks were just for walking and were supposed to be ‘uplifting’ for the ordinary urban

dweller who could look at ‘nature’ there. It was more about what people were

supposed to want than what they really wanted. But influenced by the Volkspark2

movement in Germany and by developments in architecture and art that led to

modernism3, planners started thinking about the real needs of people.

Strangely enough, a stimulating factor in planning these new green areas was the

economical crisis. There was a lot of unemployment, and planting forest was seen as a

good way to give these people an opportunity to work.

2 In Germany a need was felt to go beyond the 19th century concept of the urban park as a place

for the self-representation of the metropolitan bourgeoisie, just for walking. The Volkspark was

to be a place for activities and feelings that would lead man back to his/her natural roots and to

improve the self-esteem of the German people. On the one hand collective activity, on the other

hand contact with nature.3 Architects wanted to improve the living conditions for the not so wealthy. Their ideal was a

healthy environment for everyone, hygienic, with lots of light and fresh air. Living needs and

demands should be central, buildings should be functional.

Figure 2. General Development Plan Amsterdam (AUP), 1932 (Rossem 1993).

70

Designing the first urban woodlands

In the design of the new green areas the influence of modernism and the Volkspark

movement was visible as well. Especially the ideas behind these movements were

important: functionality and meeting the needs of the people, e.g. providing facilities

for active recreation.

In the Kralingse Bos, the ongoing design discussion is visible by studying the planning

process. The first plan was designed in the romantic landscape style, still used by

traditional park architects at that time. A group of city planners however, did not agree

with this plan and came up with an alternative, more rational plan. This plan was

strongly influenced by modernistic ideas that had already found foothold in city

planning and architecture. After a long planning process with many designs and many

designers involved the final plan ended up being a kind of compromise with both ra-

tional and romantic elements (see Figure 4).

In the Amsterdamse Bos the influence of modernism led to the conviction that the

social character related to use should determine the plan. Planners wanted to achieve ‘a

good balance between open and wooded parts in the area (Figures 6 and 7), leading to

a natural and harmonic landscape’ (Graaf 1937). In the end a rather rational planning

principal was used to reach this goal: 1/3rd of the total area of 900 ha was water, 1/3rd

open space and 1/3rd forested.

Figure 3. Location of the Kralingse Bos near Rotterdam (Palmboom 1995).

71

Figure 4. Plans for the Kralingse Bos (1911, 1920, 1951) (Oldenburger-Ebbers 1998).

72

In spite of modernistic influences the Amsterdamse Bos (see Figure 5, 6 & 7) was laid

out in a romantic style. This might be due to a lack of more rational or modern

examples of landscape design that could be used as reference. Furthermore, the

planners of the Amsterdamse Bos visited several more traditional woodlands in Eng-

land, Belgium and Germany to serve as examples for the new green area. In the end

the woodland was designed in a way that was most familiar for park designers at that

time: a romantic style referring to English landscape parks, including elevations. This

design had no relation whatsoever with the polder landscape. Rolling meadows, clumps

of trees, winding paths and water ponds referred to the English cultural landscape

instead of the Dutch polder landscape. The curved lines were not as elegant as in the

English landscape style; they were more rational, with even some straight lines. Some

areas were left unchanged however. At the edges of the former polder there were some

remnants of old peat left the way they were, namely the areas bordering the two lakes

De Nieuwe Meer and De Poel (see Figure 8). They were considered to have natural

values, as they showed ‘the rich flora and fauna of the original Dutch bog-peat’ (Graaf

1937). These areas with their wetlands and some fields are still very different from the

rest of the Amsterdamse Bos.

From the start of its construction the Amsterdamse Bos was a popular area with the

inhabitants of the city, and it is still intensively used. Even on a rainy Sunday many

people spend time there with activities such as horseback riding, walking, running,

having children’s birthday parties, and so forth.


Although the designers did have different forest types in mind when they made the

plan for the Amsterdamse Bos, most of the forest was planted with a standard mixture

of trees and shrubs that was used wherever shrubbery or forest patches were planted

in public areas. Most of the trees are even-aged now, and although there are differences

in tree species in some areas, the visual appearance of the forest in the Amsterdamse

Bos could be more interesting. Besides that there is little variety in undergrowth, and

most tree species do not regenerate spontaneously. Fortunately there is some attention

for this problem now, and in some of the forested areas trees are cut to create open

spaces where new trees can regenerate.

73

Figure 5. Amsterdamse Bos (Daalder 1999).

74

5 WWII-1975: the first polder forest

Planning regional woodlands

After WWII a national policy on spatial planning was developed. This was partly due

to the influences of modernism, since the wellbeing of the public became more

important. The national government started to realise that green areas were needed in

the urbanised west of the Netherlands. For this purpose, several large green areas were

planned in the Randstad, but further away from the city than the earlier Amsterdamse

and Kralingse Bos. The planned urban woodlands were meant to serve more than one

city and thus have a more regional function. One of these woodlands was

Spaarnwoude, an urban woodland situated between Amsterdam and Haarlem. This

area was supposed to act as a buffer between these two cities, in order to keep them

separated.

Like the first urban woodlands these new ones were also planned for recreation.

Besides that, natural values were seen as important and the forest had to contribute to

the national timber production, which meant that about 70% of the planted trees had

to be poplar. So although these green areas were planned near cities and for the people,

as multifunctional forests they had to serve multiple purposes.

Quite a large forest was planned in the early 1970s in the new Flevopolder: the

Horsterwold with a size of 4,000 ha. This woodland was situated next to the town of

Zeewolde and part of the general plan for the new Flevopolder (see Figure 9). This

plan envisaged a robust green structure as a base for future developments in the pol-

der. Within the region, the Horsterwold could be used as a recreation area by people

from Amsterdam, Almere and Utrecht.

Figures 6 and 7. Open spaces in the Amsterdamse Bos.

75

The first polder elements in urban woodland design

The Horsterwold is the first urban woodland that shows a strong influence of the pol-

der landscape in its design. The earlier Spaarnwoude started this development with

occasionally adopting some polder features in the design. In the Horsterwold this was

done more thoroughly. In the first place the allotment pattern of the polder, separation

of areas by drainage ditches (see Figure 12), was used in the forest. The ditches serve

as the drainage system, so this approach embodies not just being more aware of the

qualities of the polder landscape but also a pragmatic choice as it is the cheapest and

simplest solution. The ditches create a basic, rational pattern. Paths, open spaces and

forest patches were designed on top of this basic pattern. Walking through the forest

the drainage ditches are a constant, regular element that provide views into the forest.

The long straight lines make it possible to preserve a characteristic feature of the pol-

der landscape: that of vista.

The second element that shows the relation with the polder landscape consists of the

open spaces in the south-western corner of the area. Agricultural areas are

incorporated into the forest creating large open spaces that relate to the large-scale

landscape of the polder. A kind of transition area was created between the open

agricultural area and the closed forest.

Figure 8. The peat area in the Amsterdamse bos.

76

While the plan for the Horsterwold (see Figure 10) was developed, modernism was on

its return and designers started to appreciate historical styles again. This has become

known as post-modernism. In the Horsterwold this is visible as well. There are several

classical elements, e.g. an axis from the town of Zeewolde into the forest, geometrical

elements, and long avenues that remind of Baroque estates. All have been used without

their original symbolic meaning but translated or transformed to the current situation.

History became a source of inspiration for designers again, while in modernism

historical styles were denied or at least not used.

Figure 9. The location of the Horsterwold in the southern Flevopolder (Arnoldussen 1996).Figure 10.The plan of the Horsterwold (Arnoldussen 1996).

77

Figure 10. The plan of the Horsterwold (Arnoldussen 1996).

78

To provide possibilities for multiple use of the forest, the area was divided into zones.

At the eastern, northern and southern edges more facilities for active recreation were

situated, close to respectively Zeewolde, the canal and the so-called edge lakes4. At the

western side, next to open agricultural land, a core with higher nature values was plan-

ned to create a more quiet area. The area in between made a transition possible from

peaceful nature in the west to increasing human activity, especially near Zeewolde in

the east, but also to the northern and southern sides. This zoning concept was

incorporated into the spatial structure of the forest, with a closed and quiet core, and

an outer zone with more open spaces and a park-like character. Especially near

Zeewolde the landscape is diverse, small-scaled and transparent (see Figures 11, 12, 13,

14 and 15).

The design of the nature core was a long process, involving different designers. During

this period ideas about nature changed from leaving nature develop itself to

‘constructing nature’. In the end the nature core of the Horsterwold was constructed

using earthworks, which resulted in small-scale relief and some ponds with irregular

shapes giving way to a more ‘romantic’ nature idea. This design breaks with the basic

polder pattern in the rest of the forest, breaking the unity of the forest as well.


Instead of planting the Horsterwold with mixed forest, the forest was divided into

small stands with different tree species in every stand. Among these species a large pro-

portion consists of poplar, since the forest had to meet the productivity, demand using

70% poplar. In general mainly deciduous broadleaf trees were planted in the forest,

also because there is too much chalk in most of the soil to plant coniferous trees. The

rich clay soil makes the development of vital high productive deciduous broadleaf

woodland possible. The structure of small forest patches with different tree types is

isually attractive. Although the trees are quite young it already provides variation.

4 These lakes, in Dutch ‘randmeren’, separate the Flevopolder from the mainland.

79

Figure 11. The nature core of the Horsterwold (Arnoldussen 1996).

80

Figure 12. Draining ditch in the Horsterwold.

Figure 13. Open agricultural space.

81

Figure 14. Axis from Zeewolde into the Horsterwolde forest.

Figure 15. Forest stands with poplar and beech.

82

End of the 20th century: increasing influence of history

Multifunctional planning

After about 1975 attention for the environment started to increase. Environmental

problems, nature conservation and recreation were seen as important issues in the rural

area, while agriculture lost its self-evident priority; people became aware that

agriculture could sometimes harm the environment. Especially in the Randstad with its

high urban pressure it became easier to discuss other uses. People became more aware

of the different interests in the rural area. In this atmosphere more urban woodlands

were planned, although these were still based on the ideas of the first two National

Policy Documents on Spatial Planning. During the last 25 years of the 20th century

only one urban woodland was realised, the Balij/Bieslandse Bos, and another one is

currently being realised. Both these woodlands are situated in the so-called south-wing

of the Randstad. In this area, the cities of Rotterdam, Den Haag, Delft and

Zoetermeer and several small towns are rapidly growing together. The urbanised lands-

cape becomes very complex, as landscapes get increasingly fragmented and borders

between urban and rural areas fade. There are fast changes and many different

interests.

In the Balij/Bieslandse Bos at first only the Bieslandse Bos was planned as a rather

small urban woodland near Delft. However, due to the fast growth of towns in the

area and the planning of the Floriade5 near Zoetermeer, the planners decided to extend

it all the way to Zoetermeer with the Balij, to prevent the towns from growing together

(see Figures 16 and 17).

The Bentwoud was planned as woodland between Zoetermeer and Boskoop but as

farmers are not obliged to sell their land to the government, most land still has to be

acquired and only a few lots were planted with trees. This urban woodland is situated at

the edge of the South-wing of the Randstad (see Figure 18).

5 A garden show held on different locations every 10 years.

83

Figure 16. Plan of the Balij / Bieslandse Bos (Dienst Landelijk Gebied, 1997).

Figure 17. Landscape pattern around 1900; area of the Balij/Bielandse Bos.

84

Design with historic perspective

The development, visible in the Horsterwold, to use elements of the original landscape

in woodland design was incorporated in the new plans. Planners and designers

distinguish different landscape types and acknowledge the specific characteristics of

these landscapes. There is a growing awareness of the fact that the landscape reflects

the natural genesis, the use of the landscape by man and the occupation history.

Identity of the landscape, often derived from its history, becomes a central issue and

gives foothold to designers in a fast changing society. Pressure and demands on the

landscape grow, as well as the many individual needs of people that need to be met.

While in modernism the design rules were clear, this is a time everything is possible but

nothing is clear.

In both woodlands, like in the Horsterwold, most of the ditch pattern has been

preserved as a basic allotment pattern that takes care of the drainage. The woodlands

were designed more or less independently of this ditch pattern.

However, other elements of the existing landscape were used as well. In the Bentwoud

an old creek system was used as a main design feature. This creek system was found in

the soil but is not visible in the landscape.

Figure 18. Plan of the Bentwoud (Stuurgroep Bentwoud 1996).

85

In the Bieslandse Bos the existing landscape was used in yet another way. The plan for

this forest was conceived over a long design period in which many different designers

were involved. It was based on the landscape with its many different small polders. The

dike system of these polders forms the main structure of this woodland. The areas

between the dikes, the old polders, all have a different design, some have more and

some have little to do with the polder landscape. In this way a varied woodland was

created with a clear main structure that reflects the character of the polder landscape.

Classical influences can also be recognised in these woodland designs. In the Bentwoud

the western area close to Zoetermeer resembles an estate forest, with its long straight

avenues. In the Balij a monumental axis was laid out at the Zoetermeer side leading

into the forest. This was clearly based on French baroque gardens. So again in these

forest plans historical design styles were used and adapted to a new situation.


As the Balij/Bieslandse Bos was the only one of the two woodlands that is almost

planted now this issue will be discussed only for that forest. In the Balij/Bieslandse

Bos, again like in the Horsterwold, most of the forested area was planted with one spe-

cies per forest stand. Some areas were planted with mixed forest. When planning this

forest the production target of 70% poplar had to be met. This aim was abandoned in

the 1990s since it was no longer cost-effective due to the decreasing timber prices.

Figure 19. The axis at the Balij.

86

Figure 20. Open space in the Bieslandse Bos.

Figure 21. An old dike.

87

However, a creative solution was found in the area near Zoetermeer. Here the 30%

non-poplar part was concentrated in a triangular shaped beech stand. Surrounded by

the fast growing poplar this would in the beginning be an open space in the forest.

After 20 to 25 years when the poplar would be cut the effect would be reversed; the

beech stand would be seen as closed forest in an open space (see Figures 19, 20 and

21).

Three issues for the future

To conclude, some remarks are made on the three issues of planning, design and visual

appearance of the forest.

Planning

After seeing the growing scale of woodland planning one might wonder what will be

the future role of the urban woodland in the urban landscape. Generally it is expected

that the urban area will expand. Furthermore the border between urban and rural area

is continuously becoming less clear, and the landscape of the Randstad becomes more

and more a mixture of urban and rural. If this development continues the existing ur-

ban woodlands will become surrounded by urban sprawl. It is important, however, that

these green areas do not lie isolated in a large urban area. A coherent green structure

should be developed in the Randstad that can form a strong base for future urbanisat-

ion. To quote the emeritus professor in landscape architecture Em. Prof. Vroom: “It’s

time for the Olmsted of the Randstad”.

Design

It seems that landscape architects look more and more to the past for inspiration for

their landscape plans. They look at the historical design styles but also the history of

the landscape. Although it is important to take care of the values of a landscape this

should not evolve into an easy adoption of landscape features or other historical

elements in a plan. With the growing complexity of society it seems that designers

sometimes feel a lack of foothold. In that case it is easy to base a plan on what is

already there. However, designers should not copy these landscape features, but use

them in a creative way, adding new qualities to the landscape. It is important to find the

right balance between conservation and creation.


Although most areas shown as examples in this paper are not mature enough yet to see

the spatial characteristics of the forest patches, the older cases do show how important

forest management is. In the Amsterdamse Bos not much was done in the forest, apart

from some thinning, and no major changes were achieved. To develop an interesting

88

visual appearance it is important that future management is aware of spatial

consequences of their interventions. But also designers should be more aware of the

development in time of a forest. The designer should not just make a plan and leave it

at that, being involved only at the starting point. Possibly more contact between desig-

ners and managers could be helpful, at the start of a project but also during the

following years.

References

Al E & Kuiper L (Eds) (2000).

Dutch woodlands. Stichting ProBos, Zeist.

Arnoldussen AH & Nip JA (1996).

Ontwikkelingsplan Horsterwold, Rijkswaterstaat Directie IJsselmeergebied,

Lelystad.

Daalder R (1999).

Het Amsterdamse Bos. Stad en Groen 2(1). Dienst Ruimtelijke Ordening,

Amsterdam.

Dienst Landelijk Gebied (1997).

Boswachterijen De Balij en Bieslandse Bos. DLG, Voorburg.

Graaf WA de (1937).

Toelichting Boschplan Amsterdam. Publieke Werken, Amsterdam.

Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting en Ruimtelijke Ordening (1960).

Eerste Nota over de Ruimtelijke Ordening. Staatsuitgeverij, Den Haag.

Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieu (2001).

Vijfde Nota over de Ruimtelijke Ordening. Staatsuitgeverij, Den Haag.

Oldenburger-Ebbers CS, Backer AM & Blok E (1998).

Gids voor de Nederlandse tuin- en landschapsarchitectuur, deel West. De Hef,

Rotterdam.

Palmboom F (1995).

Rotterdam verstedelijkt landschap. Uitgeverij 010, Rotterdam.

Rossum V van (1993).

Het Algemeen Uitbreidingsplan van Amsterdam: geschiedenis en ontwerp. Nai

Uitgevers, Rotterdam.

Stuurgroep Bentwoud (1996).

Bentwoud: Kleurbehoud voor het Groene Hart. Provincie Zuid-Holland, Den

Haag.

89

A historical case of periurban forestry: the ‘SotosHistóricos’ of Aranjuez, Spain

José Luis García-ValdecantosInstituto Tecnológico de Desarrollo Agrario.Ronda de Atocha 17, 28012 Madrid, Spain

María Luisa Tello MariscalInstituto Madrileño de Investigación Agraria y AlimentariaCarretera N-II, Km. 38.200, 28800 Madrid, Spain

Abstract

The ‘Sotos Históricos de Aranjuez’ were established under King Philip II during the

16th century. Afterwards, the kings of the house of Bourbon developed his idea with

new plantations and buildings. At present these cover an area of 425 ha and extend

over 45 km of avenues planted with trees of different species (planes, oaks, limes,

poplars, and so forth). Some of these trees are older than 200 years and up to 40 me-

ters high. This ‘network’ of vegetation, close to the city of Aranjuez is a link between

the town, the agricultural properties and the historical buildings.

This paper presents various aspects of the green network, including its origin,

development, and present situation. Insight into the latter will be provided by means

of a general map, inventory of species, sanitary status, pattern of works undertaken in

recent years, plan of recovery of lost plantations and infrastructures, and

characteristics of the use of these avenues by the inhabitants of Aranjuez and visitors.

Also discussed will be problems originating from the agricultural exploitation and the

different institutions concerned. Institutions involved include city council, National

Heritage, Regional Government of Madrid, European Union, and other.

Key words: urban forestry, peri-urban parks, Aranjuez.

Basic data

Aranjuez is situated in the Madrid region, in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. The

zone studied has a latitude between 40O 01’ and 40O 04’N, and a longitude between 3O

33’ and 3O 38’ W. Its altitude is 490 metres, and the area is almost completely flat.

According to Thornthwaite’s classification its climate is Mediterranean mesothermical

semiarid. Geologically it is an ensemble of fluvial limestone alluviums. Under an upper

layer of sandy brown limos lays a second layer of calcareous gravel. The resulting soil

is the typical calcareous xerofluvent. The whole area is under the influence of the

rivers Tajo and Jarama. Aranjuez is 50 km from the city of Madrid.

90

Origin

When Charles Vs son, the future Philip II, was heir to the throne of Spain, his father

ordered him to take charge of the Royal Sites, given that he wanted to enjoy places as

pleasant as the other European princes at that time did. The most important Spanish

architects, such as Juan de Herrera and Juan Bautista de Toledo, designed the first

buildings and gardens (Rivera 1984, Wilkinson Zerner 1996). In 1561 a large number

of trees began to be brought to Aranjuez. 5000 came from Flanders and other

quantities from France, Andalusia and Valencia. At the same time, Flemish and French

farmers started to cultivate the fields and gardens of Aranjuez according to their natio-

nal customs (Atienza & Félix unpubl.). It seems that the first structure adopted was a

network of parks, gardens and tree-lined avenues; the farms came afterwards (Figure

1). This explains (Terán 1949) why such a large amount of very rich agricultural soil

was devoted to landscape improvement: the main reason was the King’s personal will.

The idea, common to the European kings of that time, was to show their power and

wealth, as well as to enjoy beautiful places for hunting and resting. But, from the

beginning, there was a big difference among the ‘Sotos Históricos’ and the other gar-

dens, the latter being reserved for members of the royal Court, whereas the Sotos were

the way to get to the farms, as well as walking promenades.

Figure 1. Map of the “Sotos” of Aranjuez in the XVI century.

91

Development and evolution

The following kings of Spain kept this original network without significant changes.

Ferdinand VI had new streets established and put great emphasis on the economical

profit of the whole area, ordering the cultivation of more farms. By this time the trees

growing in the Sotos showed a twofold interest: their aesthetic value and also an

industrial exploitation. So, poplars were planted for timber production, mulberries for

feeding the silkworms ‘working’ at the local silk factory, and so forth. Charles III,

remembered as one of the best kings of Spain for having been a strong sponsor of

arts, sciences and industry, developed, completed and integrated the original idea of

Philip II into an ‘illustrated’ concept of a royal land. This combined the exhibition of

the latest agricultural features and trends in landscape management. So, farmers and

architects from various parts of Spain, France, Belgium, Italy, The Netherlands and

Germany worked in Aranjuez. By this time there was a strong relationship between

farms and avenue trees: farmers were in charge of the maintenance of the trees, mainly

by watering them when necessary (Figure 2). The development of infrastructures

during the 19th century negatively affected the ‘Sotos’. In 1851 the railway Madrid-

Aranjuez crossed over it, dividing five avenues. But, on the other hand, since 1869

many trains have allowed people from Madrid to visit Aranjuez at reasonable prices.

Figure 2. Traditional irrigation system in the “Sotos”.

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The 20th century

In Spain as well as in the rest of Europe, the last century introduced sharp changes in

sociological and economical circumstances. First of all, the spread of new technologies

induced the rise of new agriculture, characterised by mechanisation and reduced

manpower. This resulted in an increased emigration from the countryside to the big

cities: fewer people were available to take care of non-intensive agricultural tasks. In

the last quarter of the century two main events affected the evolution of the Sotos.

First of all, Spain joined the European Union in 1986, enabling the farmers to obtain

European funds. Since these funds are selective, some traditional not funded crops (e.g.

horticultural crops) were neglected. Consequently, some estates adjacent to the avenues

which were usually well watered, changed to dry farming, thus shortening the water

supply to the trees. At the same time, the ownership of the Sotos was transferred from

the National Heritage to the Regional Government of Madrid. Unfortunately, the

result was the negligence of the maintenance of the trees for more than ten years.

Therefore, some species (mainly poplars and limes) suffered a lot of decay: dead

branches, dead trees, attacks by pests and diseases, etc. In 1997 the Technological

Institute for Rural Development (Regional Government of Madrid) took charge of

this network of avenues, trying to recover and improve them.

Present situation

The Sotos Históricos cover an area of 425 ha, with a total length of 35 km. The width

of the avenues ranges from 13 to 34 m. In 9 of the crossings there are roundabouts

that sometimes preserve architectural elements of great importance. The ‘Glorieta de

las Doce Calles’, for example, was built in 1613 and still shows a large part of its

former shape, though seriously damaged. The species represented are (in order of

importance): Platanus hispanica, Populus alba var. pyramidalis, Populus x canadensis, Populus

nigra, Ulmus pumila, Ulmus minor, Quercus robur, Tilia platyphyllos, Morus alba, Morus nigra,

Juglans regia, Photinia serrulata, Robinia pseudoacacia, Sophora japónica, Fraxinus angustifolia,

Melia azederach, Celtis australis and, to a lesser extent, Aesculus hippocastanum, Paulownia

tomentosa and Acer negundo. Each avenue, depending on its width, holds two, four, or six

rows of trees at different spacing, leaving a central pathway of 3 to 13 m (Figure 3).

The surface of the streets consists of compacted earth, paving, or asphalt, bearing

traffic of pedestrians and bicycles, agricultural vehicles, and, in some cases, all kinds of

vehicles. Irrigation is by means of ditches dug directly into the surface of the soil. It is

the traditional way (López 1988) and fulfils an aesthetical task: in dry countries the look

and sound of water is much more appreciated than in those that do not lack rainfall.

Some popular bars are scattered in the Sotos. They constitute interesting meeting

points, and could add a recreational value, but, as we will see later, they are also the

origin of important problems.(López y Malta 1988).

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Man and trees in the ‘Sotos’: interaction

Coming back to the origin and first development

It was said before that the personal will of one man, Emperor Charles V, led to the

birth of this network of alleys and buildings. As his heirs were aware of the

importance of their heritage, they kept it in a fairly good state, and, as happened with

Fernando VI and Carlos III, improved and enlarged it. Philip II, in spite of being

concerned with the government of the largest empire ever known, made such precise

recommendations as “some poplars must be replaced in Aranjuez, as tall as possible, not to be

unworthy with the others still living” (Winthuysen 1990). People were allowed to enjoy these

royal properties, and farmers were in charge of them more or less consciously.

Moreover, the economical interest of part of the trees contributed to their

conservation. Thus there was a positive interaction among men and trees, which has

allowed us to see them today.

The Sotos today

The Sotos act as a link between the city, the farms, the historical buildings and the

industrial zone of Aranjuez. They provide a large open space for tourism, recreation

and environmental activities. However, the traffic of trucks, buses and private cars

constitutes a serious constraint for these uses in some streets. There is a positive

Figure 3. An avenue in the “Sotos”.

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interaction between agricultural cultivation and trees: the avenues close to well-watered

farms keep their trees in a very good condition. Additional benefits of trees are to

allow activities such as walking, cycling, horseback riding, recreation, and so forth.

Man-induced damages

The bars and restaurants existing in the Sotos have sometimes invaded the space of the

trees. It is evident that public properties must be protected as carefully as private ones

are (Figure 4). Public infrastructure has affected important parts like the ‘Glorieta de

las Doce Calles’, with partial destruction of its original design due to the construction

of a busy road. Occurrence of vandalism is not very important, with the exception of

repeated fires that constitute a serious problem. Pruning by vandals for firewood

collection has also destroyed many trees, affecting very valuable species such as Quercus

robur, considered an excellent stock of fuel (Figure 5). This type of pruning causes a

strong physiological decay, killing the trees sooner or later. The appearance of different

fungi is not the cause, but the effect of such decay.

Abiotic damages

As is the case of many other urban and periurban areas in the world, there exists a

great number of factors of abiotic origin that cause severe damage to the Sotos of

Aranjuez. Apart from direct damage, these factors can affect the vitality of the tree and

Figure 4. A restaurant “invading” the space of the trees.

95

make it more susceptible to other pathogens. Throughout their long history, these trees

have been subjected to very different management techniques, which have obviously

affected their health. Soil pollution, for example, damaged the plantations in very

particular cases due to former chemical waste dumping from small factories. Drought

has seriously damaged the more sensitive species such as poplars and limes, in those

locations close to dry lands. The only solution has been, of course, felling dead or

heavily damaged trees and replanting afterwards with more tolerant genera: Celtis,

Morus, Sophora, and so forth. But, in every case, the ornamental function of this kind of

plantations, has been kept in mind, which means an especially careful maintenance.

Biotic damages

The plane trees are highly affected by the disease called ‘anthracnose’, which is caused

by the fungus Apiognomonia veneta, and provokes decay and/or death in the majority of

the planes living in Aranjuez (Tello et al. 2000). It is the most important disease

affecting the trees of the ‘Sotos Historicos’, considering both its incidence and its

intensity. One of the possible treatments is sanitary pruning, which is quite expensive

(some trees are 30 or 40 meters high), but possibly effective in slowing the progress of

the disease. Trunk injection with fungicides has been another control method tried, but

Figure 5. Oak trees severely damaged by firewood collection.

96

although much cheaper, at the moment it seems to have little effect. Nevertheless and

luckily, no signs of Ceratocystis fimbriata (cancer stain) in these trees have been found.

Attacks by insects such as Corythuca ciliata, known as Sycamore lace bug, are less

worrying and there is no need to control them. It is also worth mentioning Dutch elm

disease that severely affects most of the elms in the Sotos. Finally, several species of

wood decay fungi affect many different tree species. The most common in the ‘Sotos’

are Fomes fomentarius, Pleurotus ostreatus, Inonotus hispidus, Coriolopsis gallica, Schizophyllum

commune and Ganoderma spp. mainly on Platanus, Populus, Quercus and Tilia. Their

incidence is low, however, and restricted to individual decaying trees, previously

damaged by other factors, mainly anthropogenic.

Future development

The first activities developed since 1998 have been the restoration of heavily damaged

plantations, which were a real danger to people. Drs. Mateo-Sagasta and Tello carried

out a comprehensive study of the health status of the trees. A general inventory and

mapping by means of a GIS has shown to be an outstanding tool to manage the whole

and to store information on a daily basis. A previous assessment of the total cost of

the integral restoration of the Sotos (trees, pavements, architectural elements, etc.) is

about 2.5 million Euros. After a careful study of the uses of the different streets it has

been decided to cut down the traffic in most of them, only allowing the passage of

agricultural and specially authorised vehicles. On the contrary, facilities for pedestrians,

cyclists and horse-riders will be provided as much as possible (Figure 6).

Conclusions

In the last four centuries in Spain (and in Europe) the political frame has evolved from

God’s right monarchy to more or less democratic monarchies, to republics, and, in the

Spanish case, to a democratic monarchy. Many wars (civil, international and worldwide)

have passed. Great social and economical changes have occurred, greatly disturbing the

social scenario. But, year after year, century after century, the trees have remained.

Obviously, man needs trees. One should not forget that, not too many millenniums

ago we lived in the tops of them. The interaction man-tree has had some different

expressions in Aranjuez during the last four hundred years. A very first conception

phase: the heir to the throne’s idea. Secondly, the development of this idea with the

contribution of farmers, gardeners and architects from many European countries. In a

later stage, succeeding Spanish kings carried out the maintenance and improvement. In

the 20th century, dramatic changes in the social and political situation affected the Sotos

negatively, showing that technicians, scientists and designers must be continuously in

line with social evolution, anticipating the effects of the harsh evolution we have to live

with. This is the only way to achieve our goal: that trees, and designs made by us, will

remain much after we disappear.

97

References

López A (1988).

Antiguos riegos marginales de Aranjuez. Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid.

López y Malta C (1988.)

Historia descriptiva del Real Sitio de Aranjuez. Doce Calles, Aranjuez.

Rivera J (1984).

Juan Bautista de Toledo y Felipe II. Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid.

Tello ML, Redondo C & Mateo-Sagasta E (2000).

Health status of plane trees (Platanus spp.) in Spain. Journal of Arboriculture 26(5):

246-254.

Terán M de (1949).

Huertas y jardines de Aranjuez. Universidad Complutense, Madrid.

Wilkinson Zerner C (1996).

Juan de Herrera, arquitecto de Felipe II. Akal, Madrid.

Winthuysen X de (1990).

Jardines clásicos de España. Doce Calles/Real Jardín Botánico. CSIC, Aranjuez.

Figure 6. Avenue with access restricted to non motorised traffic.

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Chapter 3

Functions and benefits of urban forests and trees

101

Multi-functionality in Urban Forestry – A Dream ora Task?

Janez PinatBiotechnical Faculty, Dept. of Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources, University of LjubljanaVecna pot 83, SLO-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

Abstract

Ljubljana is the largest city (340,000) and capital of Slovenia. The most importantcategories of open green space are agricultural land, forests, gardens, parks and other.Forests are divided into forest patches of different size and for applied research in thefield of urban forestry, the largest forest patch on Golovec hill was chosen. For studypurposes the evaluation of generally beneficial urban forests functions and roles wascarried out, as well as the analysis of temporal changes in land use. The results showthat the forests on Golovec hill are the most stable land use category. However theirtimber production role is decreasing and their non-timber producing functions arebecoming more and more important. One of the drawbacks is the private ownershipof most forests and the fact that settlements are located in all suitable areas in thefoothills an valleys, which together with sometimes steep slopes seriously compromisesvisitor access to Golovec urban forest.

Future work in the field of urban forestry should concentrate on the development ofknowledge, legislation, protection, inventories, detailed silvicultural planning,operational strategy of management and development of co-operation between stateforestry service and local municipality regarding urban forest management.

In the future urban forestry will have to deal with a very wide range of humanactivities, from knowledge of the living and non-living environment to technologicaland sociological knowledge

Key words: multi-functionality, urban forestry, non-timber forest functions, Ljubljana,nature understanding

Introduction

Due to economic growth and development the image of Slovenia has rapidly changedduring recent years. Together with economic development the awareness of theimportance of urban forests is also growing (Golob 1993, Kova & Golob 1993). Oneof the most significant recent landscape changes is the construction of highway

102

corridors through Slovenia. It is likely that this change will emerge especially in theSlovenian capital Ljubljana, as with the construction of the system of bypass highwaysaround Ljubljana the borders of this space have been greatly changed. In spite ofcrossings (underpasses, crossovers) the highway creates a sharp boundary for the city,resulting in a defined townscape. The matter of concern is in general the role offorests and trees in the urban area since the forest represents an existential quality inthe life of people and animals in the urban environment. Therefore the aim of thepresented research was to provide an outlook of the forest patches in the townscapeof Ljubljana, with special focus on the Golovec hill, the biggest urban forest ofLjubljana.

The municipality of Ljubljana is responsible for maintenance of public green spaceand public trees, while the Slovenian Forests Service is responsible for the maintenanceof urban forests. The recently completed management plan for the Urban ForestManagement Unit ‘Rast’, elaborated by The Slovenian Forests Service, defines long-term and operational management planning in urban forests and operationalmanagement supervision in urban forests. At the moment between 2/3 to 3/4 of theurban forests are privately owned; after the ‘denationalisation’ this figure is expected tohave increased by an additional 5 -10% (Pirnat 2001).

The urban forests of Ljubljana are regulated according to the following laws and plans:

- The Slovenian Forest Act (1993)- The Proclamation Act on Forests with Special Purpose in the city of Ljubljana

(recently completed and to be adopted in this year)- The Forest Management Plan for the Forest Management Unit ‘Rast’ (1997-2006)

These three documents have led to much better public participation, since thedocuments are publicly available, and obligatory public presentations of differentprojects always enable various public interest groups to participate - either as urbanforest owners or citizens.

All mentioned documents regulate management in the urban forests of Ljubljana.Some interesting and important issues related to these documents are (Pirnat 2001):

- Close-to-nature and multi-purpose management in accordance with the principles ofprotection of the environment and natural values of urban (and all other) forestsregardless of ownership;

- free access to and movement in all forests regardless of ownership;- allocation of a category of forests with special purpose, being forests with significant

ecological or social functions provides the Forests Service and municipality with a

103

legal base for protection and specially adapted management in these forests.- an area of 1,503 ha around the city of Ljubljana should be proclaimed as urban

forest;- deforestation in protected areas is not allowed and clear cutting as a way of normal

forest management is prohibited; special forest management directives for adaptedmanagement are defined together with some limitations;

- the municipality has accepted the decision and financial frame for systematicredemption of urban forests based on the offers of private owners. Also a financialcompensation by the municipality to private owners due to limitations inmanagement in urban forests is being prepared;

- extension regarding urban forests and education on urban forest functions for forestowners is a task of The Slovenian Forests Service.

- on the basis of past development, the present state of the forests and their actualrole and significance, the main constraints, restrictions, general objectives and astrategy plan for adapted forest management were defined.

Study area

Ljubljana, the largest city and capital of Slovenia, is situated in a basin along the riverLjubljanica, surrounded by hills in western, northern and eastern direction and by amoor in southern direction. Its elevation is 310 m above sea level. The total residentialpopulation is about 340,000. The municipality area border (MAB) includes an area of27,491ha. This border, however, is stretching far into the rural surroundings especiallyin south-eastern direction. Since the MAB is not suitable for delineating urban forests,the border of Forest Management Unit ‘Rast’ slightly changed in the southern part dueto the newly constructed highway, and is accepted as the most suitable area for urbanforests in Ljubljana (Pirnat 2001). The management plan for the Forest ManagementUnit ‘Rast’ will guide management of the urban forests of Ljubljana. In this way theborder of real urban area is encircled much more logically. The study area dealt with inthis paper is therefore 8,716 ha. A detailed survey was carried out on the 895 haGolovec hill.

Methods

Data on current land use were obtained from Ljubljana municipality sources and partlycorrected by using aerial-photos. By means of two Geographical Information Systemsoftware packages, ArcView (ESRI 1996) and Idrisi (Eastman 1997), the forest patcheswithin the stated circle were selected and analysed by area and spatial distribution.

Since focus was especially on the forests of Golovec hill, the temporal analysis of landuse change has been carried out for the this area only. By means of GIS (Corson 1992,

104

Eastman 1997) the different historic (Franciscean cadastre from 1825) land uses weredigitised, transferred into Idrisi GIS raster images and evaluated (determination ofareas and spatial distribution of different land use categories). The data of recent(1997) land uses were also transferred into the Idrisi GIS environment which enabledcomparison with historic data.

Results

Forests within study area

Within the study area, 67% of the total area is green space. The most importantcategories of green space are agricultural and forested land use, followed by gardens,water, parks and other (see Table 1).

Table 1. The areas of different land use categories (ha).

All in all there are 62 forest patches larger than 1 ha. in study area (see Tables 2 and 3).The areas of Golovec hill and Rοznik hill together account for 70% of the total(Golovec itself almost 47%) and the patches in other areas only make up 30%. Thedistribution of forest patches means additional trouble. Larger patches, like Golovec,Grad, Roznik and the forests between the Roznik and the highway indicate certain‘green corridor’ possibilities in NW-SE direction, thus representing a link between twoneighbouring landscape sub-units, i.e. the Polhov Gradec Mountains and themountains between Ljubljana and the Litija basin. Regretfully enough, a suitablelinkage in south-western direction and especially towards the north-east cannot befound (Pirnat 1997).

Non-open space Category and area of green spaceBuildings, yards, paved areas Agricultura

lForests * Gardens Water Playground Cemetery Parks

4070 ha 1420 ha 117 ha 117 ha 81 ha 21 ha 17 ha70 % 24 % 2 % 2 % 1 % < 1 % < 1 %

2873 ha (33 %) 5843 ha (67 %)8716 ha

* Including scattered areas with forest trees and tree corridors

No. of patches Area class (ha) Total area (ha) Average area (ha) %

1 400 – 1000 655.91 655.911 200 – 400 329.49 329.49 77 %1 100 – 200 110.41 110.413 20 – 29.99 67.38 22.463 10 – 19.99 38.33 12.784 5 – 9.99 29.69 7.42 23 %11 3 – 4.99 46.14 4.1938 1 – 2.99 69.41 1.83

553 * 0.005 – 0.99 73.03 0.11

* Including scattered areas with forest trees and tree corridors.

Table 2. The number and area of individual forest patches*.

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Case study Golovec hill

This applied research focused: on the development of guidelines for designating urbanforests; evaluation of generally beneficial urban forest functions and roles; onevaluation of needs and wishes of urban forest visitors; and on spatial forest divisionaccording to the differentiated forest uses by various target groups (owners, visitors,etc.) who in one way or another express their need for urban forests.

Golovec hill forms the largest urban forest patch in Ljubljana. Encircled by motorwaysand a railway on southern, western and northern side and by a highway on eastern sideit can be well distinguished from the rest of Ljubljana’s urban and agriculturallandscape. Current land uses are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Present main land uses in the Golovec hill area in ha (Pirnat in press)

Golovec hill is not very high, situated between 286 and 450 m above sea level.Generally it is not very steep: nearly 2/3 of the hill has slopes with less than 35%inclination (see Table 5 for details) and long ridge on the top. Sometimes, however,steep parts appear already in the foothill, what can be regarded as a serious drawbackfor recreational use. Another drawback for recreation is the presence of settlements allaround the foothill and in the valleys, which beside the slopes, seriously limits accessinto the forest.

Forests andshrubs

Meadows Settlements,roads

Orchards Fields Other Total

662.13 121.39 74.31 21.04 13.43 2.08 894.3874% 14% 8% 2% 1% < 1% 100%

Table 3. Spatial distribution of urban forest patches and areas with tree vegetation* in Ljubljanatowncape.

* Including scattered areas with forest trees and tree corridors

Golovec Rožnik Grad Sava Podutik Zaj jadobrava

Scatteredin city

Total

Total area 662.13 334.65 10.10 154.02 52.64 32.44 173.81 1419.79No. of patches 22 15 11 14 10 20 523 * 615400 – 1000.00 1 1

C 200 – 400.00 1 1L 100 – 200.00 1 1A 20 – 29.99 2 1 3S 10 – 19.99 1 2 3S 5 – 9.99 1 1 2 4E 3 – 4.99 1 2 8 11S 1 – 2.99 1 3 5 2 5 22 38

0.005 – 0.99 20 11 9 4 6 14 489 * 553

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Table 5. Data on altitude, slope inclination and slope aspect classes (Pirnat in press).

The comparison of historic land uses (Franciscean cadastre 1825) with current landuses (1997 land use survey) makes it possible to investigate the quantitative andqualitative changes in different types of land uses. In the following cross-tabulation-matrix (Table 6) the comparison of transition of land use changes for Golovec hill isgiven. Data for land use in year 1825 are given in columns and data for presentsituation (1997) are in rows.

Table 6. The comparison of transition between land uses in 1825 (columns) and 1997 (rows) in thearea of Golovec hill in ha (Pirnat in press).

The total area of forests is nearly the same as it was in the beginning of the 19thcentury. The spatial distribution, however, has changed. Beside stable forest areas mostother forest developed from former pastures, fields and meadows. On the other handsome former forest also changed into other land uses, mostly into meadows,settlements, roads, paths and even an orchard.

The area of fields is generally decreasing. They mostly were turned into meadows,some forest and also settlements. The pastures have disappeared completely, as mostof them were turned into forest and some meadows and settlements.

Altitudeclass

Relativefrequency

(%)

Cumulativerelative

frequency(%)

Slopeinclination

(%)

Relativefrequency

(%)

Cumulativerelative

frequency(%)

Slopeaspect

Relativefrequency

(%)

Cumulativerelative

frequency(%)

286-300 15 15 0-5 11 11 flat 11 11300-325 23 38 5-15 17 28 N 11 22325-350 21 59 15-25 12 40 NE 11 33350-375 18 77 25-35 24 64 E 10 43375-400 14 91 35-45 13 77 SE 13 56400-425 7 98 45-55 8 85 S 12 68425-450 2 100 55-65 5 90 SW 10 78

65-75 7 97 W 10 88over 75 3 100 NW 12 100

year 1825land use Forest Field Meadow Pasture Garden Orchard Settlement Path Total

forest 600.48 7.29 6.74 42.23 0.03 0.15 0.11 5.01 662.04field 2.99 5.51 3.92 0.67 0.12 0.10 0.05 0.08 13.43meadow 29.79 18.03 52.69 16.51 0.21 1.24 0.62 2.31 121.39garden 0.07 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.24

1 orchard 7.18 2.92 7.01 2.09 0.18 0.92 0.19 0.55 21.049 settlements 12.60 4.94 23.08 5.32 0.56 3.41 2.73 1.22 53.869 roads 5.13 1.19 4.01 1.41 0.07 0.16 0.27 1.39 13.637 paths 4.96 0.26 0.63 0.31 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.55 6.82

water 0.14 0.01 1.10 0.18 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 1.45barren 0.22 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25park 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14bush 0.06 0.00 1.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.28

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Of all land uses the settlement area increased with nearly 50 ha, mostly from formermeadows, forests, pastures and fields. The area of meadows also increased, mostlyfrom former forests, fields and pastures. The area of orchards, roads and pathsincreased, primarily from forests and meadows. Other land use categories are small andtheir changes are relatively insignificant.

Multiple-purpose planning for urban forests

The vegetation on Golovec hill is fairly uniform. On brown soils, which rest oncarbonate slates and sandstone, the Blechno-Fagetum typicum and Blechno-Fagetum

luzuletosum (75%) dominate. Due to long-lasting human impact (gathering litter), thecommunities Vaccinio-Pinetum (20%), and occasionally Alnetum glutinosae (3%) andQuerco-Carpinetum (2%) also occur. The most widespread tree species is Europeanbeech. The Sessile oak is also common, and the Scotch pine and the Norway spruceare indicative for human impact. These forests are mainly privately owned, but the levelof economic utilisation is low for different reasons. Therefore the anticipated annualcut is, on average, merely 1m3/ha (Tavcar et al. 1997). Planned silvicultural measuresare adjusted to the timber production function and to other forest functions.

The most important cultivation measures are:- Thinning in the young pole stage;- selective cutting in the pole stage;- removing of dead and dying trees;- site preparation; and- young growth tending and planting.

Forest management section M2, a cadastral district of the Karlovško predmestje withan area of 38.95 hectares was selected as an example of what detailed silviculturalplanning could be like. The section M2 was divided into three management units. Thefirst unit consists of sub-sections in which the recreational function is of importance(in the vicinity of paths and roads - light grey colour in Figure 1). The second unit ismade up of areas which are not so interesting for recreation purposes either due tosteep slopes or lack of maintained paths (middle grey colour in Figure 1). The thirdunit is the zone above the rifle range in Rudnik, which is closed to the general public(dark grey colour in Figure 1).

Each management unit was divided into the silvicultural units provided in Table 7.

^

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Table 7. Division into silvicultural units of selected forest management unit M2.

Managementunit

SilviculturalSub-units

Description Area(ha)

I 1 Spruce and beech pole stand with large beech trees 1.022 Older beech and oak stand with a mixture of spruce 4.833 Younger pole stage of oak with a mixture of beech 0.524 False acacia, hornbeam and chestnut stands 1.085 Scots pine stand in a younger pole stage 2.226 Older beech stand 1.407 Trees around cultural heritage monument – a chapel 0.44

II 8 Mixed old beech, oak, and spruce stand 9.089 Older pole stand of Scotch pine, beech and chestnut 9.92

10 Older oak and beech stand with a mixture of spruce 3.4011 Black alder stand with a mixture of oak and hornbeam 1.25

III 12 Closed area 3.7913 Non-forest

Total forest area38.95

Figure 1. Sample forest section M2 with management and silvicultural units.

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Beside timber production the following non-timber functions of the urban forestGolovec are recognised by above mentioned documents (Pirnat 2001a):

Ecological forest functions:- Protection of soils on steep and highly erodibile sites;- hydrological function;- biodiversity function; and- climatic function.

Social forest functions:- Natural and cultural heritage protection function;- recreation function;- aesthetic function;- educational function; andhealth function.

Some of these functions can be defined as static, since they are linked to certain areaconditions. The protective function, for example, is linked with inclination and bedrockand the hydrological function with the vicinity of water sources. The climatic andhealth function, moreover, is connected with the vicinity of towns (which is truepractically of the whole area of Golovec), and the natural and cultural heritageprotection function are characteristics of forests located in the direct vicinity of theseobjects.

Other forest functions can be regarded as more dynamic since our knowledge of themrapidly changes and so do our needs. Examples are the biodiversity, recreation,aesthetic and educational functions which will be dealt with in detail.

The biodiversity functionDue to the construction of a motorway around Ljubljana, a 450-meter long greenbeltabove the tunnel through the hill Golovec is the sole natural connection making itpossible for wild animals - with the exception of birds - to migrate from the suburbanlandscape to the city and back. An analysis of the recreational use of this part of thecity shows that this element of Golovec, except for the road leading to Orle, is lessimportant for most Ljubljana residents. Therefore the eastern and south-eastern partof Golovec can be regarded a significant area for ensuring biodiversity in the urbanforests of Ljubljana.

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Measures to ensure sustainability of the biodiversity function include:- Conservation of so-called minority ecosystems or biotopes;- conservation of all sites and habitats of plants and wild animals included in the Red

List of endangered species;- preparation of recreation plans so that the above-mentioned areas are not included;

and- execution of silvicultural measures performed in the vicinity of habitats of rare and

endangered species of wild animals should be carried out in strict adherence to theappropriate time of year.

The recreation, aesthetic and educational functionsAlthough these functions are dealt with separately under the 1993 Forest act, they aredealt with together here for practical reasons and because of the similarity of measuresinvolved.

The recreation function of the Golovec forests was evaluated by counting visitors on a(sunny) Sunday (7 May 2000, from 8.00 a.m. to 19.00 p.m.). Visitors were counted byforestry undergraduates at 24 possible entry points where paths or roads lead into the

13

293

1424

1

22

1

45

62

110

290

16 14

33 33

95

50

386

0 0 18

196

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Entry point

Nu

mb

er

of

vis

ito

rs

Figure 2. The number of visitors at individual entry points per day (Osani 2001).

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forest. On that day a total of 1,608 hikers were counted. The majority was recorded atfour entry points (see Figure 2). The entry points were located along three mostimportant roads or pathways linking the hill Golovec with Ljubljana: the road leadingto Orle, the road which links the suburb of Rudnik with the suburb of Štepanjskonaselje via Golovec, and the pathway to the observatory on Golovec. At all other entrypoints considerably fewer hikers were observed, because these are, as a rule, less wellknown, hidden and narrow, and lead up the hill past backyards and individual houses.

The findings indicate that maintenance and accessibility of pathways are consideredimportant by most visitors. This is particularly true of the hill Golovec, which isregarded as rather steep for recreational use outside pathways. In addition to motorists,the most frequent visitors are hikers and cyclists followed by couples and families(Osani 2001). The main group activity is cycling.

Thus we can conclude the following:- The recreation forest function is linked with maintenance and accessibility of

pathways;- it is important that it is clear which part of the road is to be used by motorists and

cyclists, and which is intended for hikers;- signs and benches should be provided;- the forest should have a high maintenance intensity and should be well managed, so

that all development stages are represented, including natural regeneration, youngforest, mature forest, and an adequate number of trees of exceptional dimensions;and

- it is of importance that an alternative pathway is available when major forestmeasures (e.g. felling and regeneration) take place.

Difficulties and restrictions include:- Rather difficult and neglected access;- steep slope;- private ownership (formally, this is not necessarily a problem); and- excessive stress ( e.g. damage to trunks, compacted soil, erosion, and lack of natural

regeneration).

Thus it can be concluded that western parts of the hill Golovec are the mostappropriate for recreation purposes as this area has adequate pathways leading rightinto the heart of Ljubljana. This is, however, also an area where most conflicts arise.

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Discussion

Small areas of urban forest, especially forest remnants in an urban landscape are understrong development pressure all the time. If there is a wish for more attractiveresidential areas, all existing forest patches ought to be preserved. The linkage betweentree corridors along the Ljubljanica River and along streets and parks will thus remainan important link in the green chain (Ahern 1995) of the Ljubljana townscape.

The natural tree structure should be conserved in all forest areas. In larger forestpatches the application of appropriate tools will have to enable the implementation ofa more emphasised recreational and aesthetic role of the forest and to stress theirsignificance for local habitats. Silvicultural measures - from stand tending toarboricultural measures - will have to be emphasised. This becomes/remains the taskof urban forestry.

An urban forest must preserve features of natural ecosystems in terms of structureand functioning on account of its sustainability and stability, and because a connectionwith a natural ecosystem is of vital importance for the physical, psychological andspiritual stability of visitors. It is essential that relationships between developmentphases are balanced as much as possible and interlinked within the whole area. In thisway these make it possible for the citizens of Ljubljana to have one of those rare linkswith a life cycle which they can observe from birth to death.

In the field of management of urban forests future work should concentrate on thefollowing topics:- Development of co-operation between state forestry service and local municipality

regarding urban forest management (from long-term strategic plans to detailedoperational plans and supervising operational management on different levels).

- Development of adapted management in urban and suburban forests on operationallevel with an emphasis on small forest remnant patches and rare and importantbiotopes (maintenance of biodiversity) in urban and suburban landscapes.

- Detailed silvicultural planning should focus on tending objectives that will enableurban forests to fulfil the expressed need for social and ecological functions of urbanforests (small scale measures carried out in winter time, selection cutting, chosentrees with special habitats). The structure and functioning of urban forests should bemaintained, howeer, in a close-to-nature way (site conditions with appropriate treespecies should never be neglected in planning), as an ecosystem rather that artificialpark. This can be achieved with the development of remote sensing based inventoryand management methods in urban forestry.

- Since the unsuitable ownership structure in urban forests (high number of privateowners with a small forest ownership) represents a serious obstacle to long-term

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oriented forest management it is very important that the municipality supports thedecision for systematic redemption of privately-owned urban forests. Moreover itshould provide long-term financing for pre-emption of urban forests and foradapted forest management. Private ownership of urban forests is a potential sourceof conflicts between private and public interests.

- One of the future tasks of urban foresters also is the development of unusedpotential of forests for recreation and education, which is important since publicinterest in participation in management of urban forests is increasing. In this wayurban forestry will help to establish society sharing an interest in urban forestry(Pirnat in press).

In today’s urban society, a different level of awareness and of relationships has beendeveloped from that of the rural society of the recent past. A cult of youth, power,beauty and success has been created, and any departure from this ideal means, in fact, afailure.

Society, which is mainly aiming at a higher production level, has lost a great deal ofhumanity and also a link with nature. Similarly, this is happening to the basic humanexistential cell - the family. Today, birth, a great part of education and work, and, at theend, death take place quite often outside the family. Therefore, it is becomingincreasingly difficult for us to understand and accept a number of principles governingman’s physical, psychological and spiritual development. The same is also true for theknowledge and understanding of natural phenomena and principles which the post-industrial society tends to neglect and forget. So a question justly arises as to what(urban) forests can offer to (urban) inhabitants of the planet Earth. The questioncannot be answered unequivocally once and for all. Instead, a few points are presentedhere which will hopefully make each of us consider the issue and search for an answer.These points are, in fact, a survey of the man’s development as a whole and of hiseveryday decisions and doubts. An attempt is made to establish a link with individualdevelopmental stages of man’s attitude to the (urban) forest and the development ofurban forestry.

Human development versus (urban) forest development

Developmental stages of the forest

Young Thicket Thin pole Younger Older Old stand Forestgrowth pole stage pole stage regeneration

Stages in a person’s life

New-born Child Early Late Adulthood Early old age Late old ageadolescence adolescence

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New-born baby:The environment ( ) exerts an influence

on a baby (→ ) who cannot react as yet.

Child:The environment experts an influence on a child, who react in acertain way but this response has no effect on the environment.

Early adolescence:The environment influences a teenagerwho reacts strongly in return

Late adolescence:The teenager has no interest at all in the environment,he is interested only in himself.

Adulthood:The time of life when a balance is established between theinfluence of the environment and an adult’s reaction to it.

Early old age:The environment exerts an influence on an old person, who reactsto it but this is of no consequence.

Late old age:he environment is of no importance any more. Instead, all whatmatters is internal wealth and the internal harvest.One can clearly compare certain stages of man’s physical development withdevelopmental stages of the forest:

.... ?

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- Young growth: new-born baby.- Thicket: child.- Thin pole: early adolescence.- Younger pole stage: late adolescence.- Older pole stage: adulthood.- Old stand: early old age.- Forest in regeneration: late old age.

Man’s psychological development

Instinct Impulse Passion Motive Wish Intention Decision

- A person’s instinct is a basic and ubiquitous feeling, which influences the way he orshe acts, although it is not physically experienced.

- A person’s impulse affects the way he or she acts and it is physically experienced (e.g.food, sleep).

- Passion is a person’s instinct at a psychological level, which makes ideas orimpressions possible, but which is not yet present at the level of impulse.

- A person’s motive (idea) is his or her response to the environment, which is feltwithin.

- A person’s wish expresses the presence of his or her will for a certain action.- A person’s intention shows the development of his or her will, from a wish to a

decision.- A person’s decision is the final act which governs actions.

Man’s spiritual (in)balance

Trust Modesty Courage Enthusiasm Love Gratitude FaithGreed Arrogance Anger Laziness Lust Envy Greediness

Man’s rise and fall can be best illustrated with a symbolic representation of sevenvirtues and seven vices in terms of the polarities of good and evil.

The development of man’s attitude to the forest

Fear Survival Hunting Timber Other Multiple- Sustaina-production functions purpose use bility

- Fear: The forest is a dangerous place.- Survival: Despite man’s fear of the forest, it provides shelter in case of great danger.- Hunting: The forest is a source of food and it also provides an opportunity for

asserting oneself.

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- Timber production function: The forest provides wood, which is a source ofcomfort and safety (house, tools, firewood).

- Other functions: The public is becoming aware that the forest is much more than asource of wood.

- Multiple-purpose use: This is a concept of how to ensure as many functions of thesame forest at the same time.

- Sustainability: This is a method for ensuring all of the above mentioned functionsover a longer period of time.

The reader may determine from her or his own experience what the main temptationsare to which man’s attitude to the forest is subjected.

Benefits of (urban) forests

Wood Other goods Water, air Diversity Recreation Amenity Meditation,prayer

At different stages in a person’s life, different benefits of an urban forest are ofinterest.

Fields of work of urban forestry

Non-living Flora Fauna Forestry Forest owners Politicians Generalnature profession public

Urban forestry deals with a very wide sphere of human activity, which can be summedup by the following categories:

Knowledge of living and non-living nature:- Knowledge of fundamental natural givens of space (geology, soil, site and plant

communities) and- knowledge of special features of planning and management required for urban

forests with all their functions and roles.

Technological knowledge:- Knowledge of remote sensing techniques and- knowledge of geographic information systems (GIS).Sociological knowledge:

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- Solid knowledge of man’s development and of his physical, psychological and spiritualneeds - and of a link between these needs and nature or different needs at differentstages in a person’s life and

- solid knowledge of basic principles of psychology, pedagogy and communications(public relations, owners, general public, politicians, schoolchildren etc.).

Urban forestry is probably beyond the creative capacity of an individual. Hence itrequires co-operation of a team of professionals. Nevertheless, or for this very reason,demands of this job should pose a challenge rather than an unattainable goal.

References

Ahern J (1995).

Greenways as a planning strategy. V: Landscape and Urban Planning 33(1-3): 131-153.

Corson R J (1992).

ROOTS Digitizing System - User Manual. Skillman, Decision Images, Inc.

Eastman J R (1997).

IDRISI for Windows. User’s Guide, Version 2.0. IDRISI Production, ClarkUniversity, Worcester.

ESRI (1996).

ArcView GIS Understanding GIS. Redlands, California.

Franciscean cadastre (1825).

Cadastre for the cadastral communities in the study area.

Golob S (eds) (1993).

Nartovanje v gozdovih zelenega pasu Ljubljane. In: Mestni in primestni gozd-našaskupna dobrina.- Zbornik republiškega posvetovanja v okviru tedna gozdov, ZDITin IGLG, Ljubljana: 106 - 125.

Kova M & Golob S (1993).

Gozd in drevje v mestni krajini Ljubljane. -V: Mestni in primestni gozd - našaskupna dobrina. Ljubljana, Zbornik republiškega posvetovanja v okviru tednagozdov: 66-79.

Osani A (2001.)

Mnogonamensko gospodarjenje na primeru Golovca.- Diplomska naloga, BF,Oddelek za gozdarstvo.

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Oven P, Brus R & Pirnat J (1999).

Slovenia State-of-the-art-report. In: Forrest M, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB(Eds) COST Action E12 - Research and development in urban forestry in Europe:254-266. Printing Office of the European Communities, Luxembourg.

Pirnat J (1997).

Razpored gozdov v ljubljanski urbani krajini.- Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva 53:159-182.

Pirnat J (2001).

Slovenian input to the questionnaire on city profiles, developed within theframework COST E12 Action (unpublished).

Pirnat J (in press).

The development of urban forestry in Slovenia – a key study of Ljubljana.Urbanistica.

Tavar M, Vidmar A & Vidmar J (1997).

Ljubljanski mestni gozd. Pobuda za razglasitev ljubljanskih mestnih gozdov za gozds posebnim namenom.

The Forest Management Plan for the Forest Management Unit ‘Rast’.

Unpublished manuscript.

The Slovenian Forest Act (1993).

Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, Ljubljana.

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Results of Changing Social Demands in IstanbulBahçeköy Forest Enterprise: a case study*

Ömer Eker & Kenan Ok

University of Istanbul, Faculty of Forest, Department of Forestry Economics80895 Bahçeköy, Istanbul, Turkey

Abstract

Istanbul is one of the heavily populated major cities in Turkey. In this study, theBahçeköy Forest Enterprise (BFE) - which is located nearby the Faculty of Forest,University of Istanbul and within the boundary of Belgrad Forest - was chosen as casestudy. It is one of the rare enterprises where the effects of rapid urbanisation andpopulation increase can be noticed in terms of varying demands of society.

During the early establishment period of the enterprise, timber production was theprimary objective. Recreation management was also carried out at a small-scale levelduring this period. In the forest, water production also takes place, using the reservoirsand aqueducts that were constructed during the Ottoman Empire Era. Distributionand sale of water, however, has moved out of the BFE. In the early establishmentyears of the enterprise, the water production objective was not primarily included inthe forest management plans.

With an increasing population, people’s demands from forests in Istanbul alsochanged. Considering the importance of non-timber values, the BFE is currentlyfocused on producing recreation and water collection services while considering timberproduction as a secondary use in its management plan.

In the research presented here, the balance sheet of the BFE and the demand changeindicators in the management plans were analysed.

Key words: changing social demand, forest functions, finance of forest enterprises

* This research was supported by the Research Fund of the University of Istanbul. ProjectNumber: B-1220/02082001.

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Reasons for the choice of Bahçeköy Forest Enterprise as study subject

The Ministry of Forestry is responsible for forestry activities in Turkey. Forestryactivities have been carried out under the General Directorate of Forest (OGM), theGeneral Directorate of Afforestation and Erosion Control (AGM), the GeneralDirectorate of Forest and Rural Relations (ORKÖY) and the General Directorate ofNational Parks, Hunting and Wildlife (MP) of Turkey.

These general directorates also have sub-organisations at the local level calledenterprises in OGM and agencies called ‘Head-Engineerings’ in AGM, ORKÖY andMP. OGM has 241 forest enterprises. These enterprises are owned by the state andcarry out their activities under market rules and related legislation.

The reasons for the choice of the Bahçehöy Forest Enterprice as study subject can beexplained as follows:

- The BFE is the oldest enterprise among the 241 forest enterprises in Turkey. For themanagement of the forests within the boundaries of the BFE, five differentmanagement plans were drawn up beginning from 1937. In addition, a modelcoppice forest management plan and plans for the management of recreation siteswere made.

- The BFE is simultaneously responsible for the management of the forest functions:water, timber raw material, recreation, scientific research, and wildlife. The BFE israre among forest enterprises in Turkey for having a history of responding to avariety of demands.

- The BFE is located within the boundary of the biggest city in Turkey, Istanbul.Istanbul has been the capital of both the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires during itshistory. Although it lost capital-city status at the beginning of the Turkish Republic, itcontinues to be the centre of economic, social, and cultural activity. As seen in Table1, the population of Istanbul has increased faster than the population of Turkey.According to the results of the 1927 census, the population of Istanbul accountedfor 5.82 percent of Turkey’s total population. This proportion increased to 13.46percent in the 1995 census. Except for 1927-1950, Istanbul’s population growth ratehas been higher than that for Turkey as a whole. This growth in population is closelyrelated to rapid industrialisation and urbanisation in the Istanbul Region. Manyreforms have been observed firstly in Istanbul, including new social demands on theforest. The forest enterprises in Istanbul, therefore, have drawn attention forpioneering responses to the new social demands in comparison to enterprises inAnatolia.

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Table 1. Population and population growth rates in Istanbul and Turkey.

Methodology

Unfortunately, comprehensive demand analyses have not been carried out for theforest enterprises in Turkey. The forests are managed, however, in compliance withmanagement plans. The decisions on targets and assumptions of planners andmanagers are substituted for actual demand analyses. Therefore, these decisions aboutland allocation and resource management can be accepted as indicators of socialdemand that are targeted to be satisfied in the planning process. In this study, anattempt has been made to introduce changes in social demand in light of forestmanagement plans prepared for the Belgrad Forest.

Management Plans include the fundamental decisions that affect the financial structureof an enterprise. Due to the decisions, which are taken according to these plans, theincome of the enterprise may increase or decrease. Income-cost combinations of theenterprise are affected by the management plans. Therefore, management plans haveeffects on profit or loss in the balance sheet of the enterprise. In order to see theactual financial structure of the BFE, analysis of balance sheets are also included inthis study.

A brief history of the Belgrad Forest and the BFE

During the Byzantine Era the Belgrad Forest was used for both timber and watersources. It was during the Ottoman Era, however, that the forest was utilised in anintensive way.

After the conquest of Istanbul by the Turks in 1453, the city’s population grew rapidlydue to migration. Large-scale construction projects were undertaken during this period,creating a large demand for forest products based on timber raw material. This caused

CensusYears

Populationof Turkey

Populationof stanbul

PopulationGrowth Rate

BetweenCensuses inTurkey (%)

PopulationGrowth Rate

BetweenCensuses instanbul (%)

Proportion ofstanbul inTurkey's

Population(%)

1927 13 648 000 794 444 5.821950 20 947 183 1 166 477 53.5 46.8 5.561960 27 754 820 1 882 092 32.5 61.3 6.781970 35 605 176 3 019 032 28.3 60.4 8.481980 44 736 957 4 741 890 25.6 57.1 10.591985 50 664 458 5 842 985 13.2 23.2 11.531990 56 473 035 7 309 190 12.0 25.1 12.941995 62 526 000 8 417 000 10.7 15.2 13.46

I

I

I

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degradation of the forest. After the military expedition of Suleyman the Magnificent toBelgrade in 1521, immigrants from that region settled in the forest. The villagefounded by these immigrants got the name ‘Belgrad Village’. The forest, therefore,became known as ‘Belgrad Forest’. Between 1554 and 1564 existing waterways wereextensively repaired and new aqueducts were established in order to provide water forthe increasing needs of Istanbul city. In 1575, responsibility for protecting existingwaterways, aqueducts, and pools and partial responsibility for the forest was given to awater organisation called Sular Idaresi (Water Administration), which had beenestablished that same year. The Sular Idaresi was the first organisation responsible forprotecting the Belgrad Forest. In order to respond to the requirements of the city forwater, Kömürcü Bent (1620), Büyük Bent (1724), Topuz Bendi (1750), Ayvat Bendi(1765), Valide Sultan Bendi (1796), Kirazl1 Bent (1818), and Yeni Bent (1839)reservoirs were chronologically constructed in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. Duringthe construction of Yeni Bent in 1839, other reservoirs and aqueducts were alsorepaired.

The 19th century is the period when efforts to establish a forest organisation by theOttomans began. In 1839 the General Directorate of Forestry was established, in 1857the first Forest School, in 1858 Land Act, and in 1870 Forest Regulations. During thisdevelopment process, the protection of the forest was taken from Sular Idaresi andgiven to a team consisting of a forest engineer and some supporting work forces. Thisteam carried on working under the umbrella of Istanbul Forest Head-Engineering,which is attached to OGM.

In 1894 an act was passed to remove the inhabitants of Belgrad Village to an areaoutside the forest because of the damage they were causing to the hydrologic functionof the forest. Strict protection measures within the boundaries of Belgrad Forestfollowed this action.

In 1914, however, with the beginning of World War I heavy tree cutting occurred inorder to provide railway-ties, fuel wood and other timber material for the army and city.The level of tree cutting continued to increase during the sovereignty period of theoccupying powers between 1918 and 1923. After the withdrawal of the occupyingpowers, the Belgrad Forest was put under protection again, but it was not possible torepair the damage done in the forest. By an act passed on November 12th, 1924 forestprotection organisations were strengthened and the forest care operation for BelgradForest was given to the existing Forest High School nearby. With a law passed on May26th, 1926, Belgrad Forest was given ‘State Forest Enterprise’ status for the first time,but a year later this enterprise was closed. In 1949, the BFE, which is responsible forthe management of the Belgrad Forest at present, was established as a ModelEnterprise (Eker 1997).

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Utilisation of the Belgrad Forest according to management plans

Until now, five management plans for different periods have been drawn up to adjustutilisation from the Belgrad Forest. Apart from these plans a model coppice forestmanagement plan was also prepared.

1937 Management Plan

Efforts to clean up the heavy damage done both at the beginning of the 20th centuryand before and for improving the forest can be seen in the 1937 Management Plan.Strict measures were taken to protect the forest. In addition, some silviculturalinterventions to repair the forest were stressed in the plan.

During the preparation of the 1937 Plan, it was stated that special care must be givennot to cause negative effects on the reservoirs and aqueducts supplying water to thecity, and the rivers that joined in the Ka1thane watershed. Besides, while responding tothe education and research needs of the Faculty of Forest, University of Istanbul,which was formerly known as Forest High School, production of timber raw materialwhich would provide economic benefit was also targeted in this management plan.

According to records of the 1937 Plan, allocations for the aimed purposes in Table 2were made. Approximately, 56 % of forest area was allocated for timber production.The total area was 4 919,5 hectares in the 1937 Plan. 28,9 % of the area was allocatedfor water collection purposes. 11,5 % of the forest area was allocated as „protectedforest“ status due to heavy tree cuts made in recent years and this area was taken outof timber raw material production.

Table 2. Amount and Shares of the Areas Concerning Non-Timber Use in the 1937 Plan (OGM1937).

According to the forest inventory which was made for the preparation of 1937 Plan,the total growing stock was calculated to be 220,317 m³ and the growing stock perhectare was found to be 44.78 m³. In this plan, out of 2,200.4 m³/year annualincrement, 1003 m³/year (45,58 %) was decided as allowable cut.

Forest Land Use Type Area (ha) Percentage in Total Area (%)

Water Collection 1 424.05 28.9Protected Forest 568.15 11.5Scientific 92.20 1.8Recreational 80.95 1.6Wildlife Protection 14.00 0.3

Total 2 179.35 44.1

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1949 Management Plan

The second management plan for the Belgrad Forest was prepared in 1949. When thisis examined, it can derived that some areas nearby the forest were added to theboundaries of the Belgrad Forest. Therefore, the total area increased from 4,919.5hectares to 5,294.1 hectares. It was decided that the protection measures takenaccording to the 1937 Plan would also continue in the second management plan.

Table 3. Amount and Shares of the Areas Concerning Non-Timber Use, in the 1949 Plan (OGM1949).

While no new decision was made about scientific and wildlife functions of the forest inthe 1949 Management Plan, thoughts of allocating some protected forest areas to thewater production area and narrowing the boundaries of areas for recreational purposesdid draw the attention. As seen by the comparison of Table 2 and Table 3 the amountof protected areas for water production increased in the 1949 Plan. The area allocatedfor functions other than timber production is approximately 37,5 % of the wholeforest.

During the preparation of the 1949 Plan, it was estimated that total growing stock wasapproximately 256,884 m³ according to inventory data. Although the total growingstock increased during this management period, no decision to yield timber as timberraw material was made. However, some silvicultural interventions requiring removal ofweak, diseased trees to improve the quality of the forest were carried out in the area.

During the application of the 1949 Management Plan, an area of 38 hectares wasallocated for construction of the Atatürk Arboretum. In 1954, an area of 70 hectareswas allocated for the establishment of ‘Wildlife Production Area’. In addition, areasnearby Valide Sultan Bendi, Yeni Bent and Neet Suyu were designated for picnicking inthe Belgrad Forest. These allocations were realised outside the decisions of the 1949Management Plan.

Forest Land Use Type Area(ha) Percentage in Total Area (%)

Water Collection 1 779.35 33.61Protected Forest 166.00 3.10Recreational 40.30 0.76

Total 1 985.65 37.47

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1955 Model Coppice Forest Management Plan

In the 1937 Management Plan the compartments which were numbered as 82, 83, and84 were re-planned for the purpose of special coppice forest management. Theobjectives of allocating an area of 205.3 hectares for coppice forest management canbe explained as follows:- To provide fuel wood and raw material for the production of charcoal for local

villagers;- to supply wooden stakes to the villagers for supporting agricultural crops such as

tomatoes, beans, etc.; and- to establish an experimental model coppice forest for the students of the Faculty of

Forest (OGM 1955).

1965-1984 and 1971-1990 Management Plans

The first management plan following the 1939 and 1949 Plans was prepared for the1965-1984 time period. Before this period ended, a new management plan includingthe 1971-1990 period was also implemented. When these two plans are compared withthe former plans, it is observed that compartments in the area distribution table werenot recorded in detail. In the 1965-1984 Plan, it was decided that 49.43 ha, 103.64 haand 56.21 ha areas would be allocated for recreation, wildlife production, and theAtatürk Arboretum (OGM 1964a and 1964b). The 1971-1990 Plan included a recordallocated 36.73 hectares for recreation and 56.21 hectares for the Atatürk Arboretum.Information related to wildlife production areas was not part of the 1971-1990 Plan(OGM 1971).

According to data which was taken from the 1965-1984 Plan, the total growing stockwas 604 343 m³. In the 1971-1990 Plan, this increased to 714 558 m³. Optimalallowable cut in the 1965-1984 and 1971-1990 Management Plans were calculated as14,247 m³ and 18,094 m³. In the 1965-1984 Plan, allowable cut in the forest increasedto 1,47 % of the total growing stock.

1990-1999 Management Plan

The last forest management plan, which is called the ‘functional management plan’,was drawn up for the period of 1990-1999. In this plan, the entire forestland isallocated to different forest functions. The functions and the amount of areas devotedto each are given in Table 4.

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Table 4. Amount and Shares of the Forest Functions, in the 1990-1999 Plan (OGM, 1990).

The sum of functional use areas is equal to the total area of the Belgrad Forest, whichwas not the case with the former plans. Only cutting to maintain the health of theforest is allowed in the forest area and timber production for timber raw material is notaccepted as a primary objective. Therefore, 100% of the forest area is allocated fornon-timber production objectives.

According to data of the forest inventory for the preparation of the 1990-1999 Plan,the level of growing stock increased to 1,083,781 m³. Annual increment is 18,182 m³.It was decided that the allowable cut would be 6,189.1 m³ which is equal to 34 % ofthe total annual increment in the forest.

Balance sheet data of the BFE (1990-2000)

As mentioned in the Methodology section, balance sheets of forest enterprises reflectthe financial results of their activities. Unfortunately, the balance sheets of the BFEdating back to its establishment in 1949 could not all be found. Some results ofcollected balance sheet data covering 1990-2000 are given in Table 5.

In column 2 and 4 of Table 5 nominal values of general administration costs andprofit/loss data including 1990-2000 period are shown. Because of the existing highinflation rate in Turkey, these values in column 2 and 4 were adjusted to real valueswith help of Price Indices from the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, base 1963=100.Adjusted real values are shown in column 3 and 5, in Table 5.

In the past ten years while the average general administration cost was 11,193 TL(Turkish Liras), the BFE only had profit in the last two years. Between 1990-1998 theenterprise always incurred losses. In 1999 the Sariyer Forest Districts which formerlywas attached to the Directorate of Istanbul Forest Enterprise became part of the BFE.Therefore, the BFE artificially started to have profits after the addition the SariyerForest District.

Forest Land Use Type Area(ha) Percentage in Total Area (%)

Water Collection 1 406.16 26.44Erosion Control 2 248.17 42.26Scientific 651.66 12.25Recreational 910.06 17.10Wildlife Protection 103.64 1.95

Total 5 319.69 100

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In the accounting system of forest enterprises in Turkey values such as timber,recreation, and water which can be measured in monetary terms are not recordedseparately. The main revenues of enterprises are based on timber sales. Revenueswhich are gained from uses other than timber sales are put together under the title‘other revenues’. Therefore, trends in these numbers can not be followed. Non-monetary benefits such as scientific research and erosion control, can not be reflectedin the balance sheets.

General Trends of Forest Functions for the BFE

When the management decisions in the records from the Belgrad Forest are examinedit is understood that the forest has been managed with the possibilities of supplyingproduction of timber raw material, water, recreation, scientific research and wildlife.However, historically, it is observed that the development of each use has been realisedas follows:

- Levels of total and unit area growing stocks which are the indicator of productionability of the forest from the view point of timber raw material have five timesincreased (from 220,317 m³ and 44.78 m³/ha to the level of 1,083,781 m³ and204.64 m³/ha) since 1937. However, the production level of timber did not increasecompared with the growing stock. Trends of growing stock and allowable cuts canbe seen in Figure 1. In fact, it is understood that the 205.3 ha area which wasallocated as coppice forest for the production of fuel wood and wooden stakes wasentirely converted to ‘high forest’. The need of villagers for fuel wood decreased asthey found alternative fuel sources and the demand for wooden stakes totallydisappeared. This is caused by the industrialisation and urbanisation which occurred

Table 5. Balance Sheet Data of the BFE (1990-2000). 10,000 Turkish Liras (TL) equalled 0.0185 eurosin 2000.

YearsGeneral

Administration Costs(TL)

Adjusted GeneralAdministration

Costs (TL)

Profit or/Loss(TL)

Adjusted Profitor Loss

(TL)

2000 174 429 640 000 11 269 1 072 856 250 691999 140 268 302 250 13 929 102 361 208 250 10 1651998 75 056 398 000 10 709 -53 318 103 259 -7 6081997 54 192 184 057 13 051 -44 130 320 100 -10 6281996 21 499 505 000 9 238 -5 255 752 000 -2 2581995 11 338 638 725 8 360 -8 352 941 790 -6 1591994 7 808 626 000 10 823 -2 113 054 500 -2 9291993 3 963 079 645 12 111 -4 808 701 945 -14 6951992 2 309 775 700 10 958 -11 071 972 -531991 1 382 782 694 10 965 -353 810 134 -2 8051990 1 022 378 422 12 368 -800 014 776 -9 678

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in Istanbul and its surroundings. However, it is not possible to say that socialdemand for fuel wood produced by the BFE has entirely disappeared. Bread has agreat importance in Turkish dietary custom. Consumer demand has increased forbread baked in ‘wood heat’, especially in recent years. Therefore, it is understoodthat a limited demand for fuel wood continues.

- The importance of water resources in the Belgrad Forest for Istanbul has beenincreasing for five hundred years. Currently, the Belgrad Forest supplies 2.6 million/m³ of water to Istanbul (Destan 2000). To ensure the water supply forests nearbythe reservoirs and aqueducts were managed according to the water productionfunction by the BFE. However, water produced by the Belgrad Forest is distributedby ISKI, an organisation attached to the Municipality of Metropolitan Istanbul.ISKI is only in charge of the distribution of water, but it sells the water and collectsthe revenues of it. Therefore, no share of the income is added to the balance sheetof the BFE.

- The amount of land for recreational purposes within the Belgrad Forest hascontinuously been increased. At present, 322.5 hectares of the forest is used forrecreation. While the number of visitors per year for recreational purposes was630,128 in 1990, it increased 63% and reached 1,004,107 persons in the year 2000.The Belgrad Forest was visited by an average of 890,591 persons per year between1990-2000. As also seen from the studies (Pehlivanolu (1986), Çalayan (1999) andDestan (2000)) which were prepared for the Belgrad Forest, the demand forrecreation has continuously increased. Management of recreational areas, however,was taken from the BFE and has been given to the Head-Engineering of GeneralDirectorate of National Parks, Hunting and Wildlife. Thus, revenues gained fromrecreation are not reflected on the balance sheets of the BFE.

Growing Stock per

hectare m 3/ha

0

50

100

150

200

250

1937 1949 1965 1971 1990

Growing Stock m3

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1937 1949 1965 1971 1990

Allowable cut m3

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

1937 1949 1965 1971 1990

Figure 1. Trends of growing stocks and allowable cut.

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- Within the boundaries of the Belgrad Forest, deer have been bred in the wildlifeproduction area. A rapidly decreasing wildlife population has increased theimportance of this service. Demand for wildlife areas is rising. However,management of this area was given to MP as well.

- The Atatürk Arboretum supplies both scientific and cultural services for both theFaculty of Forest and people living in Istanbul. Concern for the Atatürk Arboretumis rising. According to data for the year 2001, there are 4,370 members of thearboretum who pay 200 million TL per year as a membership fee. By a regulationwhich was recently passed, the management of the Atatürk Arboretum was given tothe Directorate of the Forest Research Institute of 0stanbul. In the other sectionsof the Belgrad Forest scientific and educational activities of the Faculty of Forestare continuing.

Results and discussion

The demands of society related to the BFE moved from timber raw material to non-timber functions of the forest. Of these functions, water and recreation serve otherorganisations. Increasing recreational demand for the Belgrad Forest generatesrevenues in the form of entry fees for MP. Recreation also supports commercialactivities adjacent to the forest. New commercial activities, such as selling food, sportsequipment, and picnic materials appeared as recreational use of the forest increased.

In order to protect water quality and quantity, the BFE sacrifices some of its revenuesfrom timber production. Although there is not a formal agreement between ISKI andBFE on the distribution and sale of water collected in the Belgrad Forest, theseactivities are carried out by ISKI. The BFE can not obtain any revenue from waterproduction activities. Therefore, the BFE has lost an important source of revenue. Inaddition, general administration costs of the BFE have not decreased and BFE hasexperienced continuing budget deficits. The transfer of Atatürk Arboretum has causedthe enterprise to lose of an important source of prestige.

The collection of recreation revenues by MP may not cause any problem when theorganisation’s responsibilities for management and protection of the forest areconsidered. However, transfer of recreational areas to MP caused a decrease in BFE’srevenues, but it did not decrease the enterprise’s administration costs. This shows thateither the transfer of works related to recreational sites were improperly conceived orthe BFE has found new activities which would cause an increase in its generaladministration costs. However, there is no indication of these new activities. Therefore,it might be said that there is a problem in terms of arranging the transfer of therecreational areas.

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Increasing demand for forest functions such as erosion control and, scientific andeducational research are not reflected in the balance sheet of the enterprise. As a result,the enterprise, which is facing a worsening financial situation, will struggle to managethe increasingly important forest.

Within the boundaries of the area the BFE is not responsible for revenues that couldbe gained from water collection, but instead an organisation which makes nocontribution in terms of the management and protection of the forest is responsible.Unfortunately, institutional regulations to improve this situation have not been realisedyet. The BFE must, at least, get the opportunity costs of timber production, which isforgone in order to increase the quality and quantity of water production. Otherwise,the enterprise would face financial problems due to its decreasing revenues. Therefore,the financial sources of the enterprises in Turkey should be revised to adaptthemselves to the developing new situations. The ways of reflecting non-monetaryforest functions in the balance sheets of enterprises should be investigated.

As seen in the BFE case study, population increase, urbanisation and industrialisationmay cause different problems for each of the other 240 forest enterprises in Turkey inthe future. For this reason, the definition of production, benefit, organisation andresponsibility of forest enterprises must be redefined in compliance with changingsocial demands.

References

Çalayan AY (1999).

Determining the features of recreational demand in the Belgrad Forest (In Turkish).MSc-thesis. University Of Istanbul, Istanbul.

Destan S (2000).

Management and functional characteristics and assessment of forest ecosystem inforest management activities. PhD-thesis. Sofia, Bulgaria. (In Bulgarian)

Eker Ö (1997).

The economics of multiple use of forest with special reference to Turkey. MSc-thesis. School of Agriculture and Forest Sciences University of Wales, Bangor.

OGM (1937).

Management Plan of Istanbul Belgrad State Forest. (In Turkish)

OGM (1949).

Revision Plan of Istanbul Belgrad State Forest. (In Turkish)

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OGM (1955).

Model Coppice Forest Management Plan of Istanbul Belgrad State Forest. (InTurkish)

OGM (1964a).

Detailed Management Plan of Bahçeköy Model State Forest Enterprise for BentlerSeries. Istanbul Forest Head-Engineering. (In Turkish)

OGM (1964b).

Detailed Management Plan of Bahçeköy Model State Forest Enterprise forKurtkemeri Series. Istanbul Forest Head-Engineering. (In Turkish)

OGM (1971).

The First Detailed Revision Plan of the Head-Directorate of Bahçeköy ModelForest Enterprise for Bentler Series. (In Turkish)

OGM (1990).

Management Plan of Directorate of Bahçeköy Forest Enterprise, Directorate ofIstanbul District. (In Turkish)

Pehlivanolu T (1986).

Recreational potential of the Belgrad Forest and planning principles. PhD-thesis.University of Istanbul, Istanbul. (In Turkish)

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Cost-benefit analysis of urban forests from aresearch point of view

Ellen Moons

Centre for Economic Studies, Faculty of Economics and Applied Economics, Catholic UniversityLeuven, Naamsestraat 69, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium

Abstract

In this paper we show how cost-benefit analysis can be used as a decision supportmechanism for the location of new (urban) forest land, starting from themultifunctional role of these new forests. We start with a simple presentation of thecost-benefit analysis (CBA) technique. Key features of this evaluation technique arethat (i) all - both positive and negative - impacts for all relevant parties (i.e. not only theproject promoter) are taken into account and (ii) evaluation occurs on the basis ofmonetary values. Next, we give an overview of all relevant costs and benefits ofafforestation projects for the society as a whole. On the cost side, we distinguish costsdirectly related to the afforestation project itself, such as tree planting and forestmanagement on the one hand, and opportunity costs on the other hand. On thebenefit side we make a distinction between use and non-use values. Use values includetimber production, hunting, recreation and ecosystem values. Non-use and optionvalues capture forest benefits that are independent from the actual use of the forestarea. As valuation of recreation and non-use/option values is not straightforward, wediscuss their valuation methods in more detail. For valuing recreation the travel costmethod (TCM) is the most widely used technique. TCM shows how the visit frequencyresponds to changes in the price of a visit. Non-use values can only be valued usingthe contingent valuation method (CVM). CVM uses survey questions to elicit people’spreferences for public goods by finding out what they would be willing to pay forspecified changes in them. Finally, we apply the CBA to a real life policy problem. TheFlemish government has agreed on a 10,000 ha forest expansion in Flanders, focusingon the multifunction role of forests. In our case study we give an example for theGhent region (East Flanders). We investigate the net benefits per hectare ofcombinations of potential forests that meet the surface restriction of 540 ha. Theimportance is shown of including recreation benefits in the evaluation of afforestationprojects and more specifically the role of alternative forests (substitutes) in thevaluation of one specific forest. It is concluded that this substitution effect issignificant in the decision on the location of new forests and leads to a wide variationin the net benefits per hectare of different combinations.

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Key words: environmental economics, cost-benefit analysis, valuation, land usechange, forestry.

Introduction

The Flemish government has set aside a budget for the expansion of existing forestsand the creation of new forests. The Land-use Structure Plan of Flanders (RuimtelijkStructuurplan Vlaanderen) allocates 10,000 hectares for ecological forest expansion.According to the Long Term Regional Forest Plan (1993), multi-functionality offorestry is the most important criterion for forest expansion. The latter has to beaimed for in areas where five functions - the economic, educational, shelter, ecologicaland social functions - can be fulfilled within one forest. The decision on the locationof these 10,000 hectares should therefore take into account all functions of theseforests. How this can be done is not straightforward. Cost-benefit analysis is atechnique that was developed to evaluate investments taking into account all positiveand negative impacts of the investment on all parties involved. In this paper we firstdiscuss the basic idea of cost-benefit analysis. Next, we explain how this technique canbe used to evaluate land use changes such as afforestation on former agricultural land.We give an overview of the different costs and benefits of afforestation projects anddiscuss their measurement and valuation. To conclude an example is given of the useof cost-benefit analysis in deciding on the location of multiple new urban forests.

Cost-benefit analysis: an introduction

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a technique developed to evaluate investments from asocial-economic point of view. It helps decision-makers:

1. To decide on the optimal level of the investment (e.g. the optimal forest expansionarea);

2. to find the optimal mix of investments maximising efficiency (e.g. the optimal mixof urban and regional forests); and

3. to choose among several alternative investments (e.g. the optimal location of newforests) (Loomis & Walsh 1997).

A key factor of CBA is that the evaluation is made on the basis of monetary values.

The basic idea is very simple. If we have to decide whether to make investment A ornot, the rule is: do A only if the benefits exceed those of the next best alternative. The‘benefits of the next best alternative’ are referred to as the ‘costs’ of A. The basic rulecan now be formulated as follows: do A if the benefits exceed the costs, and nototherwise (Layard & Glaister 1994).

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The first questions that come to mind are how to measure and value these costs andbenefits and which costs and benefits should be taken into account. Assuming thatonly people matter, two (more theoretical) steps can be distinguished: first, find outhow the investment affects the individual’s welfare. This impact is measured by theindividual’s own valuation. Next, deduce the change in social welfare from thesechanges in individual welfare. All positive and negative impacts in each year of theproject should be taken into account. We will discuss this in more detail in section 3.

Secondly, what is the relevant society for which the change in welfare should beanalysed? Either one takes on an international point of view or one limits the analysisto the population of the country undertaking the investment. In either case, costs andbenefits to all members of society are included and not only the monetaryexpenditures and receipts of the project promoter.

A third question concerns distribution effects. The underlying assumption in mostCBA studies is that income is optimally distributed or that – in case of non-optimaldistribution – there is some form of redistribution. Consequently, each person’s 1 eurohas the same weight. However, in real situations this might not always be true. Thisimplies that one needs to value a poor person’s 1 euro higher than that of a rich person(Layard & Glaister 1994).

A final issue is the choice of the discount rate. An aggregate present value of theproject is obtained by discounting costs and benefits in future years to make themcommensurate with present costs and benefits. A high or low discount rate has a largeimpact on the final result (the net present value) when costs and benefits occur atdifferent points in time.

The advantage of CBA compared to other evaluation techniques is the transparent andobjective comparison between projects, since all impacts are expressed in monetaryvalues that can be added up/distracted.

Costs and benefits of afforestation projects

The most obvious benefits of a forest relate to timber production. In some forests,hunting permits are issued. On the cost side, plantation and management are the firstcosts that come to mind. All these costs and benefits are financial expenditures orrevenues for the forest owners.

A social CBA however takes into account costs and benefits for the whole society. Thisimplies that impacts related to the afforestation project that do not directly accrue to

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the project promoters should be taken into account. A full overview of all costs andbenefits related to afforestation projects on agricultural land is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Costs and benefits of afforestation projects on agricultural land.

Costs

Two main categories of costs can be distinguished. On the one hand there are costsdirectly related to the afforestation project itself. These include costs of tree plantingand forest management. The latter includes site preparation, pruning, thinning, felling,etc. On the other hand one should take into account the net benefits of the land thatare lost when the project is executed, i.e. the opportunity cost of the project. In theory,these should be the benefits of the next best alternative land use, in practice, it isobvious one should take the benefits of the current use of the land, i.e. agriculture. Inthe Flemish case, the opportunity cost includes both the agricultural production lostand the manure deposition lost. Calculating the loss of agricultural production is acomplex matter due to the high level of subsidisation of the agricultural sector onboth European and national level. These subsidies are merely transfers betweendifferent groups in society and should therefore be subtracted from the observedmarket prices for agricultural goods. One way of dealing with this problem is to useworld prices to value agricultural production. In the Flemish case, this leads to a netloss instead of profit for most agricultural crops.

During the past decades, norms for using manure have become more and morerestricted in Flanders due to environmental concerns. For each parcel we now have amaximum amount of manure that can be used. As farmers have a choice betweenmanure deposition on agricultural land (which is free but restricted by law) or manureprocessing (which is costly), afforestation of agricultural land implies an increase in thecost of manure processing.

Measuring and valuing the costs of afforestation is rather straightforward. Inputs forafforestation, inputs and outputs of agricultural production and manure processing aretraded on markets. Consequently, market prices for all these goods are available andreflect the willingness of persons to pay for these goods. However, as mentioned

COSTS BENEFITS

Tree planting and forest managementOpportunity cost of afforestation:

Loss of agricultural productionLoss of manure deposition possibilities

Use values:Direct use values: timber, hunting, recreationIndirect use values: ecosystem values (e.g. carbon fixation, biodiversity, …)

Non-use values:Existence valuesBequest values

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before, one needs to pay attention to government interventions such as subsidies andtaxes. In a CBA social values rather than pure market prices matter

Benefits

On the benefit side we make a (theoretical) distinction between use and non-use values.As the name suggests the use benefits are the values arising from the actual use of aforest. The use values are divided into direct use values, such as timber production,hunting or sightseeing, and indirect use values, which refer to the benefits derived fromthe forest’s functional support (shortly named in economics as externalities) to for theexample CO

2 absorption.

On the other hand, there are non-use values that capture the forest benefits that areindependent from the actual use of such forest area. The non-use values are composedof a bequest value, i.e. the benefit accruing to any individual from the knowledge thatothers might benefit from the forest in the future, and an existence value, i.e. thebenefit accruing to any individual from the knowledge of that forest area.

Valuation of the benefits is more difficult. What is the willingness to pay of personsfor these benefits? Only for direct use values such as timber and hunting, markets fortrading these goods exist. All other values, especially non-use benefits, are moreintangible. The value assessment of such functions requires special concepts and tools.Valuation of recreational benefits will be discussed next, followed by valuation ofoption and non-use values.

Valuation of forest recreation: the travel cost methodHotelling first mentioned the travel cost method (TCM) in 1947 but it was formallyfirst used in literature several years later by Wood & Trice (1958) and Clawson &Knetsch (1966). The method is based on observed market behaviour of a cross sectionof users and is therefore the preferred method for outdoor recreation modelling formost economists (Loomis & Walsh 1997). It is considered to be an empiricalapplication of the household production approach pioneered by Becker (1965).

a) The basic method:The TCM shows how the visit frequency of users responds to changes in the price ofa visit. The costs of travelling to the site, both direct monetary and time costs, and on-site costs, such as entry fees, are used as a proxy for price (Hanley & Spash 1993). Thebasic premise of the approach is that the number of visits to the site decreases withincreases in the travel costs, to a major extent determined by distance travelled.We can formally represent travel costs (TC) to a given site ‘j’ as follows:

( ), , 1... ; 1...ij ij ij iTC TC DC TTC F i n j m= = =

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where DC are distance costs for each individual ‘i’, dependent on the distance travelledand the cost per kilometre1. TTC are time costs. These depend on how long it takesindividual ‘i’ to get to the site and on the valuation of that individual’s time. F standsfor on-site costs including an entrance fee that is charged for some sites2. These travelcosts are one of the independent variables that are used to explain the dependentvariable, some form of quantity of recreation. Usually, one takes the number of visitstaken by a person over a year or visits per capita from a specific zone to a recreationsite (Loomis & Walsh 1997)3.

Other variables that influence visit frequency are socio-economic characteristics suchas income, education and age level, family composition, gender, as well as variablesgiving information on the type of trip. The latter include mainly forest characteristicsin the case of forest recreation. The last factor that influences visit frequency is theprice and availability of substitutes. Substitutes are, in the case of forest recreation,other forests an individual could visit. The more substitutes a visitor has, or the morenearby substitutes are, the lower the number of visits to the studied site.

b) Recreation-demand functionWe now have all the ingredients to specify a recreation demand function4 that explainsthe quantity of recreation in terms of the price and other explanatory variables. Thiscan formally be stated as follows:

where V are visits of individual ‘i’ to site ‘j’, TC are travel costs, SC are socio-economiccharacteristics, FC are forest characteristics and S is the price of visiting other sites.This demand function, sometimes also referred to as ‘trip generating function’ (Hanley& Spash, 1993) is estimated using multiple regression techniques. Using the statisticalcoefficients from the regression, a demand curve or willingness to pay curve

( , , , ) 1... , 1...ij ij ij i iV V TC SC FC S i n j m= = =

1 The cost per kilometre consists of variable costs such as fuel costs as well as fixed costs such asinsurance, taxes, acquisition costs etc.

2 Entrance fees are unusual for forests with public access.3 Depending on how the dependent variable is defined, the TCM is described as individual or

zonal TCM.4 From this point forward we will limit the discussion to the individual TCM.

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representing the relationship between the number of visits and the cost (price) of atrip can be traced out with increments in costs starting from the current cost of eachindividual.

The key assumption behind the demand curve is that as travel costs increase thenumber of visits falls. There exists a cost TC* at which no more visits will be made.This is called the ‘choke price’. On the other hand, when costs are zero, the number ofvisits will be highest (V

T). At any price higher than zero, the number of visits will drop,

i.e. at a positive price TC1 visits will drop to V

1.

c) Consumer surplusThe area under the demand curve measures the visitor’s net willingness to pay orconsumer surplus attributed to the site (Loomis & Walsh 1997). It is the surplusbenefit (grey triangle) over and above the cost (dotted rectangle). From Figure 1 weknow that at a cost TC

1 an individual would make V

1 visits. However, the individual is

willing to pay almost TC* for the first visit and any amount between TC* and TC1 for

the following trips (up to V1). From that point onwards, the cost of a visit is higher

than what the individual is willing to pay for the trip.

d) Problems with the travel cost method- Multipurpose trips vs. single destination tripsIf an individual leaves home and drives directly to the recreation site and returns home

V1 VT Visits, V

Costs, TC

TC*

TC1

Figure 1. Demand curve and consumer surplus.

140

directly afterwards, costs of making the trip can be exclusively attributed to the sitevisit. This type of visitors is often referred to as ‘purposeful visitors’ (Hanley & Spash1993). Those visitors for whom a visit to the site is only part of the purpose of theirtrip are called ‘meanderers’. In the latter case, taking into account the full cost of thetrip will lead to an overestimation of benefits attributable to the recreation area(Loomis & Walsh 1997). There is not a theoretically correct way to allocate the tripcosts among multiple destinations. Either these observations are dropped from theanalysis or the visitors are asked to subjectively attribute a proportion of trip costs tovisiting each destination.

- Distance costsIncreases in distance are converted to the monetary amounts visitors would pay if theywere required to travel the additional distance. There are basically two options tocalculate a price per kilometre: (1) use fuel costs only as an estimate of marginal cost or(2) use full costs including an allowance for depreciation, insurance, etc. as an estimateof average cost. Consumer surplus measures will depend on the choice.

- Travel time costsTravel time costs are calculated by multiplying the duration of the trip (depending ondistance and transport mode) by the value of travel time. The value of travel time isthe opportunity cost of that time. The time spent on the trip5, which is assumed tocreate no benefits, cannot be spent in another way like benefit creating activities suchas working or alternative recreational activities. Saving time in travelling to the siteclearly has a positive value, or, time spent travelling in itself has a negative value. If theindividual is giving up working time in order to visit a site, the wage rate is the correctopportunity cost of time travelled. However, most individuals are restricted by fixedworking hours and will therefore make the trip in their leisure time. The travel time toa site would alternatively be spent on other leisure activities. No labour income isforegone and the correct opportunity cost here is the value, at the margin, of the otherrecreation activities foregone.

- Statistical problemsSeveral statistical problems can occur when estimating a (recreation) demand function.First, there are problems related to the independent variables in the regressionequation. All relevant variables affecting visitor behaviour need to be included.Omission of variables will bias the coefficient estimates and therefore bias the

5 Here we assume time spent on site has no value, although we are aware of the debate in the lite-rature regarding this aspect of TCM applications.

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consumer surplus estimates. However, it is not necessary to include variables that donot vary among individuals or according to distance travelled, as these variables willnot change the slope or the area under the demand curve. Second, the dependentvariable is subject to both truncation and endogenous stratification (Hellerstein 1992).Truncation occurs when observations are only available greater than (or less than)some lower (or upper) bound. This is the case for most TCM studies whenobservations originate from on-site surveys and all respondents make at least one visitto the site. The dependent variable (visits) is said to be truncated at one. Endogenousstratification occurs when the probability of being sampled is a function of the valueof the dependent variable. When interviewing visitors at specific checkpoints on site,people with higher visit frequencies have a higher chance of being interviewed.Truncation and endogenous stratification require the functional form of the recreationdemand function to be chosen with care. A good choice seems to be using count datamodels that are based on probability distributions that are defined for nonnegativeintegers only (Hellerstein 1992).

Valuation of non-use values: the contingent valuation methodA procedure to convert changes (qualitative or quantitative) in environmental goodsinto monetary terms (Willingness To Pay or WTP) is the contingent valuation method(CVM). CVM uses survey questions to elicit people’s preferences for public goods byfinding out what they would be willing to pay for specified changes in them (Mitchell &Carson 1989). Constructing a hypothetical yet detailed and realistic market in whichconsumers have the opportunity to buy the good circumvents the problem of missingmarkets for many environmental goods. Because valuation is contingent upon theparticular hypothetical market, this approach is called the contingent valuation method(Brookshire & Eubanks 1978, Brookshire & Randall 1978, Schulze & d’Arge 1978).The first empirical study can be traced back to 1958 and more studies were done sincethe 1970s. However, the method only became widely known and used since the ExxonValdez oil tanker ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska (1989). Two groups ofeminent economists were asked to undertake an extensive and thorough CVassessment of the non-use damages caused by this disaster (Bateman & Willis 1999).One study was commissioned by the State of Alaska6, and the other by the ExxonCompany because the latter questioned the validity of the CV technique (Hausman1993). As a consequence of the disagreement on the validity of the method, theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) commissioned aninvestigation of the CVM. This resulted in a set of explicit guidelines that should befollowed in order to perform a valid CVM study (Arrow et al. 1993).

6 The results of this study can be found in Carson et al. (1992).

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a) Survey structureThe CVM is solely dependent on survey data. The design of the survey is therefore akey element in determining the quality of the study. The survey has to be tested insmall discussion groups and in a small sample of respondents. This helps to determinewhether respondents are likely to correctly interpret the questions, whether responsecategories are unambiguous and whether visual aids are clear and sufficient (Loomis &Walsh 1997). Respondents are best interviewed in person due to the complex nature ofa CVM questionnaire. The survey itself consists of three parts (Mitchell & Carson1989):

- The first part gives a precise description of the good that has to be valued and thehypothetical circumstances under which the public good is made available to therespondent. It also describes the baseline level of provision, the range of availablesubstitutes and the method of payment.

- The second part consists of questions intended to elicit the respondents’ WTP forthe defined change of availability of the environmental good. An alternative wouldbe asking the respondents’ WTP for a qualitative or quantitative change of thegood. It is often desirable to ask respondents to specify the reasons for theirreported choices, especially when respondents report they are not willing to payanything. Adding questions about the reason of their zero answer can identifywhether their true valuation is zero or whether they protest against the hypotheticalmarket or method of payment.

- The third part of the survey asks for the characteristics of the respondents (e.g.income, age), their preferences relevant to the good being valued and their use ofthe good. This information is used to explain the WTP of the respondents and todetermine the validity and reliability of the CVM as a measuring instrument ofWTP for environmental goods.

The answers to the valuation questions provide information on the WTP ofrespondents. These amounts can then be used to develop an estimate of the benefit ofthe good.

b) WTP vs. WTAAsking maximum WTP for an increase in quality of quantity of a good is the preferredapproach for determining economic benefits (Loomis & Walsh 1997). The alternativeis to ask for an individual’s minimum willingness to accept (WTA) compensation for adecrease in the quality or quantity of a resource. Since WTA is not directly constrainedby income, chances are WTA is greater than WTP, which is constrained by income(Loomis & Walsh 1997, Bishop & Heberlein 1979) and therefore leads to anoverestimation of benefits.

143

c) Method of paymentHow people are asked to pay for a change in the provision of a good determines to agreat extent the degree of honesty of their answers. Possibilities include taxes onincome or property, voluntary or compulsory donations or contributions, entrance feesfor visiting a nature area, hunting permits, etc. The NOAA-panel recommends the useof taxes because of their compulsory character.

d) Question formatThere are several possibilities to ask for the WTP of a person. Techniques differ in thedegree of accuracy, degree of non-response or ‘don’t know’ answers, difficulty ofstatistical processing, etc. The most straightforward way of asking is to ask directlywhat amount a person maximally would be willing to pay for the proposed change.This is called the open-ended question format. This is the simplest way to formulate thequestion and answers can be analysed without further data manipulation. The problemis that it is not straightforward for respondents to answer this question. They aresimply not familiar with placing a value on a good that is not traded in a normalmarket. On the one hand, this leads to a high degree of non-response and protestanswers, on the other hand, it creates incentives for strategic behaviour (i.e. stating ahigher or lower WTP than the actual WTP) (Desvousges et al. 1983).

The disadvantages of this elicitation format have lead to the development of newtechniques taking into account the difficulty for respondents to answer and thepossibilities for strategic behaviour without losing valuable information. The bidding

game (Davis 1964) is based on real-life situations in which individuals are asked to statea price for a specific good (cf. auctions). Respondents answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to aniteration of monetary amounts and this process goes on until the respondent changeshis answer. The last (or first) price a respondent accepts is his maximum WTP. Theadvantage is that this elicitation format directly gives the highest WTP (Cummings etal. 1986). Moreover, due to the iterative character of the approach a respondent hasmore time to carefully consider his valuation (Hoehn & Randall 1983). A disadvantageis the possibility of starting point bias implying that the starting bid influences to agreat extent the value for the good (Roberts et al. 1985)

Another question format frequently used is the payment card (Mitchell & Carson 1981,1984). Respondents are shown a card with alternative values and are asked to selecttheir maximum WTP from these values. Sometimes the card provides an indication ofwhat the respondent is already spending on other public goods or services, althoughthe answer can be influenced by these ‘benchmarks’. Advantages are that (1) theanswer does not depend on the starting bid and (2) respondents only have to answerone question.

144

The final important question format is the dichotomous choice question format (Bishop &Heberlein 1979, 1980). There are two versions currently in use. The first is the single

bounded dichotomous choice. The respondent is presented one of a list of previouslydetermined values and is asked whether or not he would be willing to pay this amountfor the proposed change. The major advantage of this approach is its simplicity for therespondent. Moreover, it has been shown (Hoehn & Randall 1987) that this approachminimises strategic behaviour. The primary drawback is inefficiency. A very largeamount of observations is needed for a correct estimate of the WTP. Also, one has tomake assumptions about the parametric specification of the valuation function toobtain mean WTP. Finally, the design of the bid amounts requires the greatest care.A variation of the single bounded is the double bounded dichotomous choice (Carson et al.1986). The respondent is presented with a follow up question with a bid that isdependent on his answer on the first dichotomous choice question. There is a list ofseveral bid values and follow up values. This elicitation method increases the efficiencyof the single bounded dichotomous choice and is the preferred format for the NOAA-panel. Studies have shown that the estimated WTP based on this format is lower thanbased on the single bounded dichotomous choice (Carson et al. 1999).

e) Possible biases of the WTP estimateDue to the hypothetical nature of the CVM, the method of payment used and otherfactors, the estimated WTP can be biased. These biases should and can be avoided asmuch as possible by performing statistical tests during survey design (e.g. after testing).A first possible bias is strategic behaviour of the respondent. This means therespondent ‘lies’ about his true WTP for the public good because he assumes that,although he states a low WTP, others will not answer strategically and the public goodwill be provided anyway. Once a forest is created, it is impossible to exclude thoserespondents that state a lower than their actual WTP. Strategic behaviour can beminimised by stressing the fact that everyone will have to pay, by not givinginformation on other respondents’ WTP and by making the provision of the gooddependent on the WTP of the respondents (Mitchell & Carson 1989). Other problemsare design and information biases. These problems are related to the design of thesurvey, the way information is presented and the amount and the kind of informationthat is given previously to the WTP question. Design bias also includes starting pointbias (Hanley & Spash 1993). Another problem arises from the hypothetical nature ofthe CVM questionnaire. This implies that incorrect WTP assessments by therespondent will not be punished. The respondent will never actually have to pay hisstated WTP.

145

Overview of benefits and their valuation

Table 2 summarises the different use and non-use value categories and their valuationmethods. The travel cost and contingent valuation method were discussed in detail inthis paper, other valuation techniques are not extensively used in this paper and aretherefore only briefly mentioned in the table.

Table 2. Benefits and their valuation.

Case study: location of new (urban) forest

Introduction

A methodology was developed to select a combination of potential forest areas(currently agricultural land) in the Ghent region (province of East Flanders, Belgium)that maximises net social benefits taking into account restrictions on the total surfaceof new forest land. We assumed that all newly created forests consist of oak and ashtrees and the time period is 200 years (one rotation of oak and two rotations of ash).Our main point of attention was the role of substitutes, both existing and other newforests, in determining the recreation value of the potential forest areas. To fulfil thesurface restriction, one potential forest area can be included in several combinations ofpotential forest areas. Therefore, the possible substitutes for its visitors will differdepending on the combination and as a consequence the recreation value of the sameforest in different combinations will be different.

In order to limit the number of potential forest areas, we started from the study“Gewenste Bosstructuur voor Vlaanderen” (desired forest structure for Flanders),executed by bureau ‘Mens en Ruimte’. Next, we excluded zones on the spatial planningmap coloured as valuable ecotopes, legally protected areas (Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC and Birds Directive 79/409/EEC), built-on areas, existing forests, infrastructure,industry and residential areas. Furthermore, ecological arguments like the proximity ofexisting forests and (non-) suitability for agricultural production reduced the totalpotential forest area even more. This lead to 14,565 ha potential forest area in thewhole province of East Flanders which was divided in 113 sites with a minimal surfaceof 20 ha each. The province was further subdivided into four parts, one of which isthe Ghent region in which 32 of the 113 potential forest areas are located (see Figure2). As it is an objective of the Flemish Community to allocate at least 2,500 ha of newforestland in East Flanders, proportionally 540 ha (539 – 541 ha) are to be allocated to

BENEFIT CATEGORIES POSSIBLE VALUATION METHODS

Direct use values: recreation Travel cost method, Contingent valuation methodDirect use values: hunting, timber Market approachIndirect use values: ecosystem Production cost method, Dose-response method; Damage methodNon-use values Contingent valuation method

146

the Ghent region. This gave us more than 51,000 possible combinations of four toeight forest areas out of a total of 32 potential forest areas for which the net socialbenefits per hectare were calculated for both the combination as a whole and for eachforest in the combination.

Costs and benefits of afforestation on agricultural land

All costs and benefits listed in Table 1 were included in the analysis. Most of the costsand benefits are fixed amounts per hectare of forestland and are independent both ofthe location of the potential forest area itself and the location of its substitutes. Thisapplies to planting and management costs, timber, hunting, carbon fixation and non-use values. Opportunity costs on the other hand differ according to the characteristicsof the soil. This applies to the loss of agricultural production as well as the loss ofmanure deposition. Consequently, opportunity costs per hectare can differ betweenforests but are the same regardless of the combination of potential forest areas thatparticular forest belongs to. Recreation is the only benefit category that is assumed tobe both dependent on the location of the forest and the location of its substitutes,which could be either existing or other new forests. The same forest will therefore havea different recreation value depending on the combination that is studied. An overviewof values for the cost and benefit categories is given in Table 3.

Figure 2. Geographical location of forest expansion projects and population density.

N

0 7 Kilometers

Population density (number/ha)0 - 33 - 77 - 1010 - 1515 - 2020 - 2525 - 3535 - 5050 - 60

Forest extensions

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Table 3. Costs and benefits (ha-1year-1) of afforestation.

The figures show that forest planting and management costs are very modestcompared to opportunity costs. On the benefit side we see that non-tangible benefitslike non-use and recreation values are far more important than the benefits that aredirectly perceptible and create direct income for the forest owner (sale of timber andof hunting permits). As was explained before, recreation values per hectare varybetween forests and more importantly they depend on the combination of all potentialforest areas a forest area belongs to. A combination of forests that are geographicallylocated close to the same major population centres will each attract fewer visitors thanthey would when they were located further apart and closer to different populationcentres. This is the so-called substitution effect.


We have analysed the maximisation problem in two different ways. First, we only tookinto account the tangible cost and benefit categories (limited analysis). This implies wedid not take into account carbon fixation, recreation and non-use values. Consequently,for each of the 32 potential forest areas we got one net benefit estimate independentof the combination they belong to. Summing net benefits over the different forestareas in the combination gave the net benefit of the combination or of a fixed surfaceof forest expansion in the Ghent region. The difference in net social benefits betweencombinations could be fully ascribed to differences in opportunity costs of thepotential afforestation areas, as these were the only cost or benefit categories that hadno fixed value per hectare. Opportunity costs per hectare differ between forests, butwere not dependent on the combination the forest areas belong to. Next, we includedcarbon fixation, recreation and non-use values as well (full analysis). The differencebetween the two analyses was that in the latter, combinations do matter. A forest has adifferent recreation value in combination ‘A’ and combination ‘B’. The results arepresented in Table 4 and Figure 3. Table 4 gives the numbers of the forests areas thatwere in the ‘best’ and ‘worst’ combination. Figure 3 shows the geographical location ofall numbered potential forest areas. Looking at the best combination according to thefull analysis showed that the potential forest areas are geographically spread throughoutthe region, but are all located in the Southeast to Southwest of the city of Ghentwhere we find the highest population density, i.e. highest number of potential visitors.Just looking at the map of Figure 3, the forest areas in the best combination of the

COSTS BENEFITS

Planting and management € 38.60 Timber € 28.50Loss of agricultural production € -714 - -362 Hunting € 15

Carbon fixation € 25Non-use € 3680

Loss of manure deposition € 457-590

Recreation Av. €1440

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limited analysis are a bit more concentrated either on the Southwest or Southeast sideof Ghent. The forest areas in the worst combination of the full analysis are clearlylocated close to each other at the Southwest of Ghent. This implies they are closesubstitutes in recreation and therefore have low recreation values each, which explainstheir bad ranking. However, at first sight differences between locations for limited andfull analysis seem to be small.

Although results were not clear at first sight, according to the Wilcoxon Signed Rankstest for differences, adding recreation, non-use and carbon fixation values do make asignificant difference. Net benefits per hectare for both best and worst combinationsare significantly higher for the full analysis. This could also be expected based on thevalues given in Table 3. Ranking all possible combinations from highest to lowest netbenefits (full analysis) shows that the highest net benefit (best combination) is morethan 100 times higher than the lowest net benefit (worst combination) per hectare.This is clearly shown on Figure 4, which shows net social benefits per hectare ranked

25

15

4

1

Region GentForestexpansion proje c ts

0 5 10 Kilometers

N

30

12

14

21

24

1

2

3

56

7

8

9

10

11

13

1617

18

19

20 2223

2627

28

29

31

32

Figure 3. Numbered forest expansion projects in the Ghent region (Source: Moons et al., 2001).

149

from high to low for every tenth combination (out of the 51,000 possiblecombinations).

Concentrating on the results of the full analysis shows the importance of thesubstitution effect in estimating the recreational value of a potential forest area. Inother words, geographical location of a forest in itself and in relation to other forestsmatters. The greater the choice of forests a person can visit, the fewer the number ofvisits to one particular forest, the lower the recreational value of the forest and the

LIMITED ANALYSIS FULL ANALYSISBest combination Worst combination Best combination Worst combination

1 6 1 45 15 6 813 16 14 924 18 16 2926 1827 2430 2532 26

Table 4. Best and worst combinations for the limited and full analysis of the Ghent region.

0

5000000

10000000

15000000

20000000

25000000

30000000

35000000

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Number of combination (best - worst)

Net

so

cia

l b

en

efi

t (€

pe

r h

ec

tare

)

Figure 4. Ranking of highest to lowest net social benefit per hectare for conbinations of forestexpansion proejtcs.

150

lower the net benefit per hectare. This finding is of great importance for theafforestation policy of the Flemish Community. Afforestation of a certain surface ofagricultural land at different locations leads to high variations in the net social benefitsper hectare of afforestation. In other words, the same euro spent on afforestation cancreate different net benefits.

Conclusions

In this paper we have shown how cost-benefit analysis can be used as a decisionsupport mechanism for the location of new (urban) forest land, starting from themultifunctional role of these new forests. Cost-benefit analysis is a techniquedeveloped to evaluate investments from a social-economic point of view. Key factorsof the CBA method are that (i) all impacts for the whole relevant population are takeninto account and that (ii) all evaluation occurs on the basis of monetary values. Wehave given an overview of the costs and benefits of afforestation projects on formeragricultural land. Apart from the straightforward costs of tree planting and forestmanagement and the direct revenues from the sale of timber and hunting permits, wehave shown the importance of recreation, non-use and option values. We havediscussed in detail the most widely used valuation techniques for these non-tangiblebenefits of forests. Recreation is valued using the travel cost method through therelationship between visit frequency and the price of a visit. Non-use benefits arevalued by the contingent valuation method that uses survey questions to elicit people’spreferences and willingness to pay for specific changes in public goods. We havedemonstrated how these methods can be used in land use change decisions in a casestudy for the location of a specific surface of new urban forest land in the Ghentregion in the province of East Flanders, Belgium. As the total surface of 540 hacannot be realised by one forest on one single location, we investigated the net benefitsper hectare of combinations of four to eight forests to meet the surface restriction. Wehave shown the importance of including recreation benefits in the evaluation ofafforestation projects. Within the valuation of recreation benefits, we focused on therole of alternative forests in the (recreational) valuation of one specific forest and wehave found that this substitution effect is significant in the decision on the location ofnew forests. Ranking all possible combinations from highest to lowest net socialbenefit shows that the net benefit of the best combination is more than 100 timeshigher than the net benefit of the worst combination, or, the same euro spent onafforestation combinations on different locations can create a wide variation in netsocial benefits.

151

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Arrow KJ, Solow R, Portney PR, Leamer EE, Radner R & Shuman EH (1993).

Report of the NOAA panel on contingent valuation, Federal Register 58: 4602-4614.

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Valuing environmental preferences. Theory and practice of the contingent valuationmethod in the US, EU and developing countries. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

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Measuring values of extra-market goods: are indirect measure biased? AmericanJournal of Agricultural Economics 61(5): 926-930.

Bishop RC & Heberlein TA (1980).

Simulated markets, hypothetical markets, and travel cost analysis: alternativemethods of estimating outdoor recreation demand. Staff Paper Series no. 187,Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Wisconsin.

Brookshire DS & Eubanks LS (1978).

Contingent valuation and revealing actual demand for public environmentalcommodities. Manuscript. University of Wyoming.

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Public policy alternatives, public goods, and contingent valuation mechanisms.Paper presented at the Western Economic Association Meeting, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Carson RT, Groves T & Machina MJ (1999).

Incentive and informational properties of preference questions. Plenary Address,EAERE Conference, Oslo, Norway.

Carson RT, Hanemann WM & Mitchell RC (1986).

Determining the demand for public goods by simulating referendums at differenttax prices. Manuscript, University of California, San Diego.

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Carson RT, Mitchell RC, Hanemann WM, Kopp RJ, Presser S & Rudd PA (1992).

A contingent valuation study of lost passive use values resulting from the ExxonValdez oil spill. Report to the Attorney General of the State of Alaska, NaturalResource Damage Assessment Inc., San Diego.

Clawson M & Knetsch J (1966).

Economics of outdoor recreation. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Cummings RG, Schulze WD, Gerking SD & Brookshire DS (1986).

Measuring the elasticity of substitution of wages for municipal infrastructure: acomparison of the survey and wage hedonic approaches. Journal of EnvironmentalEconomics and Management 13(3): 269-276.

Davis RK (1964).

The value of big game hunting in a private forest. In: Transactions of the 29th

North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. Wildlife ManagementInstitute, Washington DC.

Desvousges WH, Smith VK & McGivney MP (1983).

A comparison of alternative approaches for estimated recreation and relatedbenefits of water quality improvements. EPA-230-05-83-001. Office of PolicyAnalysis, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.

Hanley N & Spash CL (1993).

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Hausman JA (1993).

Contingent valuation: a critical assessment. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.

Hellerstein D (1992).

The treatment of nonparticipants in travel cost analysis and other demand models.Water Resources Research 28(8): 1999-2004.

Hoehn JP & Randall A (1983).

Incentives and performance in contingent policy valuation. Paper presented at theAmerican Agricultural Economics Association summer meetings, PurdueUniversity.

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Layard R & Glaister S (Eds) (1994).

Cost-benefit analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Loomis JB & Walsh RG (1997).

Recreation economic decisions. Comparing benefits and costs (2nd edition). StateCollege, Venture Publishing.

Mens & Ruimte (1996).

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Chapter 4

Threats to urban forests and trees

157

Analysis of the Wildland–Urban Interface FireProblem of Greece

Alexandros DimitrakopoulosDepartment of Forestry & Natural Environment, Aristotle UniversityP.O. Box 228, Thessaloniki 541 24, Greece

Abstract

During the last 30 years Greece gradually acquired a serious wildland–urban interface

fire problem, mostly intensified around metropolitan areas and tourist locations.

Urbanisation of the population, tourist development and a large need for summer

housing have created increased human pressure for land use change by applying fire

and, subsequent, encroachment on public wildlands. At the same time, human

settlements engulfed by wildlands and forestland fragmentation in a mosaic of

agricultural, forest and rural areas have created increased fire hazard and fire

suppression planning difficulties. The following measures are proposed for alleviating

the problem:

a) Establishment of legislature pertaining to the regional and urban planning of

wildland – urban intermix areas;

b) strict regulations regarding the location of waste disposal sites and other public and

private enterprises of human activities in forestlands;

c) establishment of fire safety regulations for houses and residents in the wildland-

urban interface;

d) assignment of a special category in forest management practices pertaining to ‘peri –

urban forests’ (wildlands that surround urban settlements); all silvicultural and

management practices will set as priority the protection of the urban structures that

they surround; and

e) special fire-safety planning and installations should be designed for cultural

monuments and antiquities that are surrounded by forest vegetation constituting the

natural setting of the monument and part of its scenic beauty.

Key words: peri-urban forest, wildland/urban interface, fire, Mediterranean, Greece.

Introduction

Greece has a severe wildland fire problem, which has significantly augmented during

the last 30 years. Almost 80% of the total number of fires occur in the Mediterranean

zone, which extends from the coastal line to an elevation of approximately 800 metres,

including all the islands. This area combines the typical Mediterranean climate

158

(pronounced hot and dry period during the summer, mild winters with most of the

total rainfall) with flammable vegetation types. The latter are comprised of drought

resistant and fire-adapted evergreen-broadleaved sclerophyllous shrublands (maquis)

and low-elevation coniferous forests of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) on the

mainland and Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) on the islands. Also, due to the fact that

the Mediterranean zone of Greece hosts most of the country’s economic activities

(agriculture, tourism, urban development, industry), over 70% of the total population

is concentrated in these areas. This has resulted in an ever-increasing human pressure

on the natural environment for land use change, which is reflected by the high

frequency of arsons and ‘unknown’-cause fires occurring in the wildlands. The

intermix of human settlements with natural ecosystems created a severe wildland-

urban interface fire problem that has become a major issue of political debate and

confrontation because of public awareness and mass media attention especially during

the summer months, when most fires occur. We will analyse the wildland-urban

interface fire problem of Greece in terms of its current status, causes and possible

mitigation measures.

Causes of the wildland-urban interface fire problem of Greece

Table 1 provides a synopsis of the wildland – urban interface problem of Greece. The

country has undergone significant social changes, since the 1970s. These have created

and aggravated its wildland-urban interface fire problem:

1. Large parts of the population from mountainous areas migrated to the major urban

centres (internal migration). The ‘urbanisation’ of Greece resulted in half its

population now residing in only two cities (Athens and Thessaloniki).

2. There has been a substantial tourist development of Greece and, especially on the

islands, resulting in continuous construction of holiday resorts and hotel

accommodations in the wildlands.

3. There has been a ‘fashion’ in most middle class urban families for building a

country house near the sea for summer vacations.

4. Activities inside the forests have multiplied due to the enhanced accessibility that

resulted from an extended forest road network in combination with the ever-

increasing number of private cars.

5. Numerous municipal waste disposal sites have been arbitrarily established on public

forestlands.

6. There has been extensive intermix of agricultural areas, forestlands and rural

settlements over large areas in the Greek Mediterranean countryside, creating a

‘mosaic’ of different land uses and fire hazards.

All these reasons resulted in tremendous pressure for change of use of the wildlands

for urban, tourist and agricultural development in the Mediterranean areas. Given the

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fact that Greece still lacks a national cadastre (register) and land use classification

mapping, the public forestlands were the first to be attacked by arsonists. These aimed

at the destruction of the natural vegetation through fire and, subsequently, the

encroachment and conversion of the burned areas into urban settlements or

agricultural areas. In most cases, law enforcement procedures for the eviction of

intruders from the burned wildlands have been time-consuming and ineffective. On

the contrary, in many cases a ‘legalisation’ followed of the encroachment on the

burned public wildlands by the Greek government for ‘social reasons’, thus creating an

additional motive for arson. Consequently, in Greece the most densely inhabited or

touristically developed areas are fire-stricken (Attica peninsula with Athens

metropolitan area, Thessaloniki with the Chalkidiki peninsula, Kavala, Aegean and

Ionian islands, Crete, Magnesia and Evia). They face severe fire rural/urban interface

problems which coincide with a high fire frequency and areas burnt, mostly attributed

to arson or unknown causes.

The wildland-urban fire interface problem of Greece first became apparent when a

large, wind-driven fire on August 4 1981 occurred in the northern suburbs of Athens,

and resulted in the destruction of many luxurious residences. In 1985, numerous

arsons destroyed the peri-urban forests that surrounded Kavala, northern Greece. In

1995, a large fire (6,500 ha) on the Penteli mountain at the outskirts of Athens

metropolitan area, burnt approximately 100 structures causing panic to the population.

Another fire at the same mountain in 1998 was equally destructive and received huge

media attention and public awareness, thus creating a severe political issue. Multiple

arsons burnt most of the aesthetic forest that surrounded Thessaloniki in July 1997.

FIRE INTERFACE DESCRIPTION CAUSES

peri – urban

Expanding urbanization results in the construction of anever increasing number of illegal housing settlementsinside wildlands peripheral to metropolitan centers,without previous urban or regional planning andprovisions for fire safety. This created a major fire controlproblem. Also, increased human activities to peri – urbanforests, due to high population density and accessibility,have resulted in many arson and negligence fires.

Urbanization (internal migration) of a large part of the ruralpopulation since the 70’s caused very high demand for peri -urban land to meet the housing needs. Numerous arsons areset to wildlands surrounding urban centers to destroy naturalvegetation and facilitate subsequent encroachment on theburned public wildlands. Mismanaged municipal wastedisposal sites located inside forests also constitute a majorcause of wildlfires.

wildland -urban

The land value near touristically developing areas hasincreased dramatically, creating pressure for land usechange from wildland to urban through fire. Thus, thenumber of arsons has increased. Many summer housesand hotel accommodations have been constructed inremote areas inside forests, creating accessibility, highdispersion and water availability problems to firesuppression forces.

Substantial touristic development of Greece since the 80’s hasled to uncontrolled and illegal construction of hotelaccommodations in remote Mediterranean areas (especially inthe islands) of natural beauty without any fire safetyinfrastructure. Also, there has been a continuous trend sincethe 70’s for urban middle-class families to acquire a summerhouse close to nature for vacations. Increased outdooractivities in the forests have raised the number of fires.

rural – urban

There has been extensive intermix of agricultural areaswith forest lands and rural settlements over large areas inthe Greek mediterranean countryside, creating a mosaic ofdifferent land uses and fire hazards. This resulted in highfire risk (variety of human activities) and severe firebehavior problems (different kind of fuels and fireprotection planning and priorities).

Agriculture has expanded on forest lands causingfragmentation of the natural landscape and increasing thevarious land use activities. The traditional mediterranean modelof small rural villages is changing and farm houses are nowconstructed near agricultural fields, while wildlands becomemore isolated.

Table 1. Analysis of the wildland - urban interface probllem of Greece.

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Numerous fires devastated large areas of public pine forests at the Chalkidiki peninsula

in 1981, 1985 and 1990, resulting in the development of numerous summer cottages

and villas in the burned areas without urban planning. Additionally, significant

economic losses result every year from fires that burn at the rural/urban interface and

expand from forest areas to adjacent agricultural lands (mostly olive groves, grapevines,

and wheat fields).

Finally, in most cases, the natural fire regime has been altered in the wildland /urban

interface due to increased fire frequency, thus adversely affecting biodiversity and

ecosystem processes in these areas. Also, expanding urbanisation has resulted in

wildlife habitat fragmentation.

Particularities of fire suppression in the wildland – urban interface

Fire suppression in the intermix context of urban and wildland is complicated and

particular. In some instances, wildlands constitute enclaves within urban

environments, and suppression proceeds within the general context of urban

firefighting. In other cases, houses form small ‘islands’ within a ‘sea’ of public

wildlands, and wildfires must be controlled as ancillary functions to general wildland

fire control. In other words, the mixture of wild, urban, agricultural, public and private

lands prevents either urban or wildland fire strategies (Pyne et al. 1996).

Perhaps the really unresolved issue is not so much the suppression of an isolated

structural fire but the protection of structures within the context of a true fire

intermix (Weise & Martin 1994). Ethical instincts and legal structures impose the

preferential protection of houses (not to mention their residents) even if this means

that the overall fire continues to propagate freely. Perimeter control is problematic;

counter-firing is almost impossible; prescription control unthinkable. No clearly

articulated strategy exists (NWCG 1989). Instead, fire-fighting resources, especially

engines, are massed and dispatched to protect structures. Control of structural fires

differs from control of wildland fires in several respects (Radke 1983). There is first

the question of people, victims who may need medical attention, residents who need

evacuation, onlookers who may require restraint. There is also a matter of fire

behaviour. Compared to wildland fires, fuel loads in structures are heavier, fuel

moisture lower, residence time longer, and fire build-up more rapid (Fischer & Arno

1988). A review of past wildland-urban interface fires showed that most structures

were lost or damaged when they were not separated from the surrounding flammable

vegetation, built on steep (over 50%) slopes, and the fire-fighting forces had poor

access to the structures, limited water supply, and arrived late (Moore 1981).

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When a fire occurs, it is often unclear to what extent suppression should emphasise the

saving of property or the containment of the spreading fire. It is likely that fire

management will focus on just such issues in the coming decades (Gale & Cortner

1987).

Proposed measures for alleviation of the wildland-urban interfacefire problem

The wildland-urban interface fire problem of Greece can be alleviated with a

combination of institutional and technological measures:

1. Establishment of legislature pertaining to the regional and urban planning of

wildland-urban intermix areas. These regulations should provide for restricted areas

were construction is not allowed due to high fire risk, for maximum housing density

per unit of wildland area, for adequate road network density for easy accessibility of

all structures, for evacuation routes and sites in case of emergency. Also, strict

regulations should apply regarding the location of the waste disposal sites and other

public and private enterprises of human activities (open mines, amusement parks,

pick - nick areas, nature trails, etc).

2. Establishment of fire safety regulations for houses and residents in the wildland-

urban interface. Residents will be obliged to apply all fire safety regulations at their

own expense for their house (clearing vegetation, provide extra sources of water,

use appropriate building materials) with severe penalty for the violators.

3. Jurisdiction by legislature should be granted to the fire-fighting forces regarding the

selection of the appropriate fire strategy for optimal results (i.e., choice of fire

protection priorities, forced evacuation of people from residences, destruction of

fences and gardens, use of private water sources, curfew of vehicle circulation).

4. Assignment of a special category in forest management practices pertaining to

‘forests at the urban interface’. These forests should not be managed on a

traditional ‘sustained yield’ basis or as purely ‘protective forests’, but rather as ‘peri-

urban forests’ (wildlands that surround urban settlements) and, therefore, all

silvicultural and management practices will focus on the protection of the urban

structures that they harbour and border. In other words, the primary management

objective for peri-urban forests is the protection of human lives and structures that

reside in them, and secondary, the aesthetics of the landscape. These objectives

should be clearly described and imposed by specific and regulatory guidelines issued

by the Forest Service.

5. Provisions for extra water supply and intensive urban silviculture practices (pruning,

thinning, fuel removal and isolation, breaking of horizontal continuity, etc) should

be applied to all peri-urban forests. Special underground installations for ample

water supply should be established in the wildland areas prior to urban

development.

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6. Special fire-safety planning and installations should be designed and established for

cultural monuments and antiquities that are surrounded by natural vegetation of

high aesthetic value, constituting the natural setting of the monument and part of

its scenic beauty (Ancient Olympia, Mount Athos, etc). In such cases, all fire

suppression measures should aim at adequately protecting the monument without

disturbing the natural beauty of the site (Dimitrakopoulos 2000).

Conclusions

During the last 30 years Greece acquired a serious fire problem at the wildland-urban

interface, mostly intensified around metropolitan areas and tourist locations. Internal

migration, tourist sector development and need for summer housing have created

increased human pressure for land use change by applying fire and, subsequent,

encroachment on public wildlands. Legislative and regulatory measures regarding the

function and management of ‘peri–urban forests’ need to be imposed by the State and

Municipal authorities for fire hazard reduction and the protection of human

settlements.

References

Dimitrakopoulos AP (2000).

Wildland fire protection of cultural monuments and National Parks of Greece. In:

Proceedings of the International Conference on ‘Fire Protection of Cultural Heri-

tage’, Thessaloniki, 1-2 June 2000: 195-200. Organised by EU, DG XII.

Fischer WC & Arno SF (eds) (1988).

Protecting people and homes from wildfire in the interior West. USDA, Forest Ser-

vice, Intermountain Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT – 251. Ogden, Utah.

Gale RD & Cortner HJ (eds) (1987).

People and fire at the wildland/urban interface: a sourcebook. USDA, Forest Ser-

vice, Washington DC.

Moore HE (1981).

Protecting residences from wildfires: a guide for homeowners, lawmakers, and

planners. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment

Station, General Technical Report PSW-50.

National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) (1989).

Wildland/urban interface reference materials.

Pyne SJ, Andrews PL & Laven RD (1996).

Introduction to wildland fire science. 2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

163

Radke KW (1983).

Living more safely in the chaparral – urban interface. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific

Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report PSW-

67.

Weise DR & Martin RE (eds) (1994).

The Biswell Symposium: Fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland

ecosystems. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, General

Technical Report PSW-GTR-158.

165

Pests and Diseases of Urban Forests in Greece

Helen Michalopoulos-SkarmoutsosForest Research Institute,570 06 Vassilika – Thessaloniki, Greece

Abstract

The rapid and in many cases uncontrolled urbanisation observed during the last fifty

years has created many social and environmental problems. It is believed that nowadays

more than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. This huge shift of

populations all over the world had adversely affected the environment and demand for

land for housing purposes was satisfied to the expense of surrounding forests

(Unasylva 1993). Trees have always played an important role in human settlements

throughout history. In the past, however, urban forestry mainly had an aesthetic role.

Nowadays, with the explosion of the cities’ population, the environmental role of

urban forestry is a main issue both in developed and developing countries

(Kuchelmeister & Braatz 1993).

The value of urban forests to society is well known to everybody and is not going to

be repeated here, as the aim of this paper is a different one.

Urban forestry in Greece has an important role to play from many points of view, such

as aesthetic, environmental, recreational, touristic, wildlife conservation, landscape

design, protection against erosion and so forth.

These urban forests in Greece are mainly found at lower altitudes, where on one the

hand soil and climatic conditions are less favourable for forest development (shallow

and eroded soils, high summer temperatures and low rainfall) while on the other,

pressure for land use change for housing purposes is high. Such a situation poses a

serious threat to these forests from the forest fire point of view, and actually in Greece

most of the fires take place at altitudes from 1 – 700 m (Dimitrakopoulos pers.comm.).

At the same time, these forests are mainly artificial. They resulted from extending

reforestation projects all over the country during the last 50 years. The genus mostly

used for reforestation purposes in Greece is pine, represented by different species,

either indigenous or exotic ones. These include Pinus brutia, P. halepensis, P. nigra, P. pinea,

P. radiata and P. pinaster, while Pseudotsuga menziesii is more rarely used. Consequently

these forests are monocultures and even aged, and thus more prone to damages from

all potential damaging factors, either biotic or abiotic.

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The present paper concentrates on the biotic factors (fungi, insects and nematodes)

affecting urban forests as well as trees in alleys and parks in Greece.

Key words: urban forests, pests, diseases, Greece

Diseases due to fungi

Table 1 shows those fungi that cause diseases and are most commonly found in urban

and sub-urban forests, alleys and parks. This list is not an exhaustive one and many

more fungi have been isolated during the last 30 years. Most of them, however, are of

minor importance. As seen from the Table, most of the fungi have been reported on

pines. The genus Pinus is the most important of conifers especially in the Northern

Hemisphere. Large areas of this part of the world are covered by natural pine forests

that form a variety of ecosystems and play an important role in the carbon cycle

(Hansen & Lewis 1997).

Table 1. The main fungi causing disease in urban and suburban forests and parks in Greece.

Forest species Fungus Kind of attack

Pinus spp. Coleosporium tussilaginis NeedlesPinus spp. Cyclaneusma minus NeedlesPinus spp. Cytospora pinastri NeedlesPinus spp. Dothistroma pini NeedlesPinus spp. Elytroderma sp. NeedlesPinus spp. Lophodermium spp. NeedlesPinus spp. Scirrhia acicola NeedlesPinus spp. Sclerophoma pithyophila NeedlesPinus spp. Brunchorstia pinea Twigs and branchesPinus spp. Cenangium ferruginosum Twigs and branchesPinus spp. Diplodia pinea Twigs and branches

Conifers & Broadleaves Wood decay fungi Wood decayCupressus sempervirens Seiridium cardinale BranchesPseudotsuga menziesii Rhabdocline pseudotsugae Needles

Platanus sp. Gnomonia platani LeavesPlatanus sp. Microsphaera platani Leaves

Robinia pseudoacacia Aglaospora profusa Twigs and branchesRobinia pseudoacacia Cucurbitaria elongata Twigs and branchesRobinia pseudoacacia Phomopsis oncostoma Twigs and branches

Albizzia julibrissin Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.perniciosum

Wilt disease

Ailanthus glandulosa Verticillium dahliae Wilt diseasePopulus clones Dothichiza populea Bark necrosis

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At the same time, at least all over Europe pines have been extensively used in

reforestation projects and it is well known that this practice has attracted serious

criticism. The main reason for this practice in Greece is the suitability of pines for this

purpose, taking into account the poor soil conditions, high temperatures and low

precipitation, almost non-existent during the summer months. Pines are good

candidates for this type of conditions. The introduction of some exotic species has not

proved very successful. Species like P. radiata and P. pinaster were introduced as fast

growing ones. However, P. radiata on one hand succeeded only on better sites, being a

demanding species with regards to soil conditions and air humidity. P. pinaster, on the

other hand is not considered suitable for calcareous soils as is the prevalent case in

Greece. In fact this last species proved problematic in growth capability and at the

same time very susceptible to different damaging biotic factors.

The fungi on pine needles listed in Table 1 are among the most commonly found ones

worldwide (Gibson 1979, Hansen & Lewis 1997). Among them are some well known

pathogens like Cyclaneusma minus, Lophodermium sp., Scirrhia acicola, Elytroderma sp. and

Dothistroma pini, which have been repeatedly reported causing extensive damage in

plantations in other parts of the world. However, serious attacks by these fungi have

not been reported in Greece, except one by Dothistroma pini (Kailidis 1990). From the

literature (Gibson 1979, Hansen & Lewis 1997) it appears that epidemics and serious

damage are related to increased humidity which is not the case in Greece. Nevertheless,

it must be born in mind that repeated attacks by needle fungi and consequent needle

cast negatively influence the trees’ growth by destroying partly, at least, their

assimilating surface.

Pseudotsuga menziesii, an introduced species in Greece, is also used in plantations and for

Christmas tree purposes. It has been repeatedly found to suffer from Rhabdocline

pseudotsugae, a fungus causing premature needle cast (Skarmoutos 1986, Michalopoulos

& Skarmoutsos 1998).

Among the three most important fungi that affect twigs and branches of pines, namely

Diplodia pinea, Brunchorstia pinea and Cenangium ferruginosum, the latter is considered as the

most dangerous one. Although C. ferruginosum is generally seen as a saprophyte that

contributes to the natural pruning procedure of pines, in certain years and for reasons

that have not been fully elucidated it can cause serious disease. This has been the case

in Northern Greece in 1985 and 1986, when thousands of pines died during an

epidemic. Similar epidemics are also known from other European countries (IUFRO

1963, Skarmoutsos 1994). There is already serious suspicion that this year another

epidemic of the fungus is about to break out. A factor that has to be taken into

consideration is that last winter has been a very cold one with exceptionally low

temperatures that lasted over a period of several days.

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Finally Fomes pini is quite well spread on P. halepensis at Chalkidiki, a highly touristic area.

The main reason for this infection is resin tapping. Other wood decay fungi are also

commonly found in parks and alleys. Fungal attack in this case is related to tree

wounds, usually inflicted by man (Skarmoutsos 1994).

Apart from pine, cypress is also a traditional tree species in Greece, as well as in other

Mediterranean countries. The most dangerous of diseases is that caused by the fungus

Seiridium cardinale (Kailidis 1990). The disease already had devastating effects on cypress

in southern Greece, while it is rather sporadically found in the northern part of the

country (Xenopoulos & Diamandis 1985). Control measures involve felling and

burning of affected trees, while fungicides may be used preventively. Efforts have also

been undertaken to produce resistant planting material by breeding (Panconesi et al.

1999).

Platanus sp. is another traditional species, admired for offering shadow during the

summer months. Very old and enormous plane trees can be found in many parts of

the country, quite often at recreational areas, thus having increased aesthetic value. The

most commonly found fungi affecting plane trees’ leaves are Gnomonia platani and

Microsphaera platani. The infections are not serious, apart from an aesthetic point of

view. It is difficult, however, to apply spraying on fungicides at recreational sites as

these are regularly used by people during the summer months (Kailidis 1990).

Robinia pseudoacacia is a multi-purpose species increasingly used during the last years. It

has been found to suffer from fungal pathogens, the most important ones being

Phomopsis oncostoma, Aglaospora profusa and Cucurbitaria elongata. These fungi affect twigs

and branches. Especially P. oncostoma may even cause the death of young trees of

Robinia (Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos & Skarmoutsos 1999).

Different poplar clones have been extensively used in Greece during the last 50 years.

In many cases such clones have been used in alleys, as can easily been seen in

Thessaloniki. Poplars are susceptible to an array of fungi that cause disease. One of

the most important, internationally, is the bark necrosis caused by the fungus Dothichiza

populea. Epidemics by this fungus have been observed in Greece and although it is

generally considered as a disease of young poplars, it can also affect older ages when

trees suffer from other fungal infections and/or adverse environmental conditions.

Ailanthus glandulosa is an exotic species too, introduced in Greece a long time ago. It has

been fully acclimatised, it multiplies naturally and can be found forming hedgerows or

alleys in the outskirts of urban areas. In recent years it was found to suffer from wilt

disease, caused by Verticillium dahliae. As a consequence thousands of A. glandulosa trees

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died in Northern Greece. The pathogenicity of the fungus was checked by inoculations

tests (Skarmoutsos & Skarmoutos 1998).

An appreciated exotic species, widely used in parks and alleys in Greece, is Albizzia

julibrissin. It forms extensive alleys both in Thessaloniki and in satellite municipalities.

In 1992, Mimosa trees at Kalamaria municipality were found to suffer and die.

Laboratory examinations revealed the presence of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum,

known to cause wilt disease in the U.S.A. The finding of this fungus is a first record for

Europe. It is spread through the soil and although preventive measures were

immediately suggested to the local authorities, the disease has already been spotted in

neighbouring Thessaloniki. Only preventive measures can be applied (Michalopoulos

& Skarmoutsos 1992, Skarmoutsou & Skarmoutsos 1999).

Problems due to insects

Table 2 shows the most common insect species causing problems in Greece. It is

assumed that due to the climatic conditions of Greece, insects cause more damage

than fungi. It is also well documented that in exceptionally dry years, insect populations

may explode and cause epidemics (Kailidis 1990).

Table 2. Insects commonly causing damage in urban and suburban forests, alleys and parks inGreece.

Forest species Insect Kind of attack

Pinus spp. Thaumetopoea pityocampa NeedlesPinus spp. Neodiprion sertifer NeedlesPinus spp. Marchalina hellenica Twigs and branchesPinus spp. Pissodes notatus WoodPinus spp. Ips spp. Wood-barkPinus spp. Rhyacionia buoliana Buds-shootsPinus spp. Blastophagus piniperda Shoots-wood

Cupressus sempervirens Buprestis cupressi Bark-woodCupressus sempervirens Phloesinus armatus Bark-wood

Ulmus sp. Galerucella luteola LeavesSalix babylonica Eriophyes triradiatus Leaves (galls)

Populus spp.+ broadleaves Acarea and Aphids LeavesPopulus spp. Melasoma populi LeavesPopulus spp. Byctiscus betulae LeavesPopulus spp. Stilpnotia salicis LeavesPopulus spp. Pemphigus spp. Leaves (galls)Populus spp. Melanophila picta WoodPopulus spp. Sciapteron tabaniformis WoodPlatanus sp. Lithocolletis platani LeavesPlatanus sp. Corythuca ciliata Leaves

Different broadleaves Lymantria dispar LeavesDifferent conifers Aphids, acarea, scale insects Leaves, twigs, buds

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A great number of insect species have been recorded in Greece so far (Kailidis 1991),

however this paper refers to those more often associated with problems in urban

forests.

Pine trees in plantations in suburban areas are in almost all cases attacked by

Thaumetopoea pityocampa. The problem is well known across the Mediterranean area and

heavy even total defoliation may occur on certain years. In suburban areas dedicated to

aesthetic and recreational purposes, aerial control is undertaken with Bacillus thuringiensis

preparations. Neodiprion sertifer may also cause serious defoliation. As a result pines do

not grow well and may have a stunted appearance. Among the wood and bark insects,

Pissodes notatus and different Ips species are the commonest attackers, while buds and

shoots are usually attacked by Rhyacionia buoliana. A dangerous and ubiquitus insect

affecting shoots and wood at different stages of its life-cycle is Blastophagus piniperda.

This insect may also provoke the death of infected trees, while at the same time it has

been found to be the vector of the nematodes Bursaphelenchus sexdentati and B. hellenicus

(Braasch et al. 2000).

The most prevalent insects on cypress are Buprestis cupressi and Phloesinus armatus, both

found in wood. They can cause damage on cypress growing on poor soils, especially

during dry years.

Galerucella luteola has been found to cause serious damage to Elm trees in alleys, during

certain years. Salix babylonica, widely used in parks and gardens, suffers from Eriophyes

triradiatus attacks on its leaves, where it forms galls. The insect affects the trees from an

aesthetic point of view.

Different poplar hybrids and other broadleaved trees are used in alleys and parks. Leaf

eating insects include Acarea and Aphids, scale insects and different Pemphigus species

that form galls on the leaves. Insects of these groups also affect conifers. However,

such attacks are not considered serious. Melasoma populi, Byctiscus betulae and Stilpnotia

salicis are well known representatives of leaf eating insects. Melasoma populi and Stilpnotia

salicis have both been found to cause epidemics on certain years. However, the most

dangerous of the insects attacking poplar wood are Melanophila picta and Sciapteron

tabaniformis. The damage to poplars by the latter make trees susceptible to wind breaks.

Such wind broken trees may cause serious damage to property in urban areas.

The well-known honey dew insect Marchalina hellenica is widely spread in Greece and is

considered beneficial as contributing to the production of honey from conifer forests.

Lithocolletis platani causes serious defoliation of plane trees during years of epidemics.

Corythuca ciliata on the other hand is a relatively newly introduced species in Greece that

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causes serious damage to Platanus leaves, thus affecting the general state of health of

the trees.

Finally Lymantria dispar is able to attack different broadleaved species. Its main hosts are

different Quercus species. Control of this insect is undertaken during certain years when

epidemics appear on plants around residential areas, in order to stop the insect moving

to neighbouring orchards.

Nematodes

Table 3 shows the Bursaphelenchus nematodes isolated so far from pines in Greece.

Table 3. Bursaphelenchus nematodes found on pines in urban and sub-urban forests in Greece.

It is well known that nematodes of the genus Bursaphelenchus are parasitic organisms

that live in the above-ground part of the conifers they attack. The most virulent of

them is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, an indigenous species in North America, initially

transferred to Japan through timber trade and from there to the neighbouring

countries China, Korea and Taiwan. Although a quarantine species for the European

Union, the nematode was reported in 1999 in Portugal (Mota et al. 1999) and this

constitutes a first record in Europe. It has already been established in Portugal where it

causes damage to Pinus pinaster (Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos 2001).

Apart from the reality with regards to the potential of establishment of B. xylophilus in

Europe, another reality has also caused concern in recent years. This is the observation

of pine decline phenomena in many countries and especially in South European ones,

the causes of which have not been fully clarified. In many such cases, different

Bursaphelenchus species have been isolated from dead or dying trees (Braasch et al. 2000,

Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos 2001).

This situation was investigated through a EU-funded research project, namely ‘Pest

Risk Analysis of Pinewood Nematode Related Bursaphelenchus Species in View of South

Forest species Nematode Kind of attack

Pinus spp. B. sexdentati WoodPinus spp. B. leoni WoodPinus spp. B.teratospicularis WoodPinus spp. B. hellenicus WoodPinus spp. B. tusciae WoodPinus spp. B. eggersi WoodPinus spp. B. mucronatus Wood

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European Pine Wilting and Imports from Asia’ (Braasch et al. 2000, Michalopoulos-

Skarmoutsos 2001). Results from Greece revealed the existence of seven species of

Bursaphelenchus, all isolated from different pine species. The nematodes isolated from

different parts of the country, were: B. sexdentati, B. leoni, B. teratospicularis, B. eggersi, B.

hellenicus, B. tusciae and B. mucronatus. They all constitute a first record for Greece, while

B. hellenicus is a species described for the first time in the framework of the above-

mentioned project. B. xylophilus was not isolated (Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos 2001).

As different Bursaphelenchus nematodes are known to be transmitted by insects, relevant

studies during the project revealed that in Greece, B. sexdentati and B. hellenicus are

vectored by Blastophagus piniperda. At the same time, inoculation experiments on 3-year-

old pine seedlings, in order to test the pathogenicity of the isolated Bursaphelenchus

species, showed that B. sexdentati is highly pathogenic to indigenous pine species of this

age group. Of the rest of the nematodes, only B. leoni showed a moderate

pathogenicity on pine seedlings, while the other ones are considered as non-

pathogenic. No data on the pathogenic potential of B. teratospicularis were collected, as

this nematode could not be reared in the laboratory.

Discussion

A review was presented above on the situation of urban and suburban forests in

Greece with regards to their state of health in relation to biotic factors, such as fungal

diseases, insect attacks and pine wilt phenomena in which nematodes of the genus

Bursaphelenchus are involved. The lists of organisms presented are not, of course,

exhaustive, but they include the commonest of such organisms found in Greece.

Urban forestry, at the same time, has an important role to play in Greece and many

efforts are undertaken towards this aim. In a country with a long history of erosion,

urban and suburban forests are of immense importance and they have a multi-purpose

role to play, taking into account the fact that Greece strongly relies on tourism. In

general reforestation projects have taken place in many cases on degraded soils coupled

with difficult climatic conditions with low precipitation being a key issue. In this type

of environment, where water and nutrients are limited, trees have to face tremendous

challenges that affect their growth and survival. At the same time the resulting

plantations are monocultures of even age a fact that predisposes them to an easy build-

up of an epidemic by any pathogenic agent.

As stated previously in this paper, climatic conditions do not favour the creation of

epidemics by fungal pathogens except in years when conditions are favourable. In fact

few epidemics due to diseases have been observed in recent years. On the contrary,

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insect pests are thought to be more dangerous under the climatic conditions of

Greece. Some of the insects referred in the list almost constantly cause major

problems, as is the case with Thaumetopoea pityocampa, Lymantria dispar, Melanophila picta,

Sciapteron tabaniformis, Blastophagus piniperda. Nematodes are also thought to contribute to

the decline phenomena of greek pine forests.

It is assumed that decline urban and sub-urban pine forests in Greece is a complex

phenomenon, which is provoked by adverse environmental conditions on the one

hand and on the other by the simultaneous action of insects, fungi and nematodes in

any combination.

The best control in this case lies more in a preventive rather than intervening

approach. The preventive approach involves the correct selection of species used in

reforestation projects and the correct and timely manipulation of the resulting stands

in their following stages. Mixed stands are more resistant to attacks while at the same

time more desirable from the aesthetic point of view. Health problems that appear on

trees in parks and alleys can be dealt with in a more individualistic approach and

control measures of the chemical type are easier to apply. Here, again, the correct

selection of the species to be planted is of eminent importance for the survival of the

trees and the creation of the desired effect.

References

Braasch H, Caroppo S, Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos H & Tomiczek C (2000).

Final report of the project ‘Pest Risk Analysis of Pinewood Nematode Related

Bursaphelenchus Species in View of South European Pine Wilting and Wood Imports

from Asia’,Chapter 3.

Gibson IAS (1979).

Diseases of forest trees widely planted as exotics in the tropics and Southern

Hemisphere. Part II: The Genus Pinus: 134. Commonwealth Mycol. Inst. and

Commonwealth For. Inst., England.

Hansen EM & Lewis KJ (1997).

Compendium of conifer diseases: 1-101. APS Press.

IUFRO (1963).

Internationally dangerous forest tree diseases. Proceedings of 13th Congress.

Vienna, 1961. USDA Forest Service, Misc. Publ. No. 39.

Kailidis D (1990).

Diseases of trees in forests and parks. Christodoulidis Publ., Thessaloniki. (In

Greek)

174

Kailidis D (1991).

Forest entomology and zoology. 4th Ed. Christodoulidis Publ., Thessaloniki. (In

Greek)

Kuchelmeister G & Braatz S (1993).

Urban Forestry revisited. Unasylva 44(173): 3-12.

Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos H (2001).

European conifer forests in regard to nematodes of the genus Bursaphelenchus.

Invited Paper. International Conference “Forest Research: A Challenge for an Inte-

grated European Approach” Thessaloniki, Greece 27-8 to 1-9-2001: 299-304.

Supported by the Research Directorate General of the European Commission,

Brussels.

Michalopoulou H & Skarmoutsos G (1992).

Necroses of Albizzia julibrissin due to the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum

(Hepting) Toole. A new disese in Greece. Hellenic Forestry Society, 5th Panhellenic

Forestry Conference, Kalamata, Greece. 4 – 6 March 1992: 222 – 229. (In Greek)

Michalopoulou H & Skarmoutsos G (1998).

Infection of a plantation of Pseudotsuga at Pertouli forest by the fungus Rhabdocline

pseudotsugae Syd. Hellenic Forestry Society. 8th Panhellenic Forestry Conference,

Alexandroupolis, Greece, 6 – 8 April 1998: 303 – 387. (In Greek)

Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos H & Skarmoutsos G (1999).

Pathogenicity of fungi affecting Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) in Greece.

Phytoparasitica 27(3): 239 – 240.

Mota M, Braasch H, Bravo MA, Penas AC, Burgermeister W, Metge K & Sousa E (1999).

First report of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in Portugal and Europe. Nematology 1: 727

– 734.

Panconesi A, Raddi P, Andréoli C, Xenopoulos S, Ramos P, Caetano F & Pinto-Ganhao J

(1999).

Chapter 5. In: Cypress: a practical Handbook. Commission of the European

Communities, Brussels.

Skarmoutsos G (1986).

The occurrence of Rhabdocline needle cast on Douglas fir in Greece. Eur. J. For.

Path. 16(4): 254 – 255.

Skarmoutsos G (1994).

The main pathogenic fungi affecting pine plantations in Northern Greece.

Geotechnic Scientific Issue, 5(2): 13 – 19. (In Greek)

175

Skarmoutsos G & Skarmoutsou H (1998).

Occurrence of wilt disease caused by Verticillium dahliae on Ailanthus glandulosa in

Greece. Plant Disease 82(1): 129.

Skarmoutsou H & Skarmoutsos G (1999).

First report of Fusarium wilt disease of Mimosa in Greece. Plant Disease 83(6): 590.

Unasylva (1993).

Editorial. Unasylva 44(173): 1.

Xenopoulos S & Diamandis S (1985).

A distribution map for Seiridium cardinale causing the cypress canker disease in

Greece. Eur. J. For. Path. 15: 223 – 226.

177

Threats to Urban Green Areas - Case study:Mexico City

Alicia Chacalo, Jaime Grabinsky, Hector Javier Vazquez and Alejandro AldamaUniversidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Azcapotzalco, Mexico

Introduction

Mexico City and its challenges

Mexico City is neither the largest nor the most populated city of the world as is

frequently believed to be. But it is a mega-city with 17 million people. Even though this

number includes the whole metropolitan area, it is a fact that there is no defined limit

separating the Federal District from its surroundings (INEGI - SEMARNAP 1998).

Urban conditions are difficult for the trees in any city of the world. In Mexico City,

conditions are worsened through the following factors:

a) Air pollution levels are very high all year round because the city is located 2240 m

above the sea level (masl) in a Valley surrounded by high mountains. Problems that

do not exist in other cities, such as photochemical pollution, or the enormous

Figure 1. Mexico city is densely populated and densely urbanized.

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difficulty of bringing water from sources located very far away from the city - since

the local resource is not enough - are a daily concern. Once in the area, the water

needs to be pumped upwards for several hundred meters (Sedue 1986).

b) The average annual rainfall is between 600 mm in the drier area of the city to 1400

mm in the most humid part (INEGI 1993). Rainfall occurs mainly between May

and October, which means that the trees face a dry season lasting 6 months, most

of the times with no additional irrigation.

c) The city is densely populated (see Figure 1): 17% of the total population of Mexico

lives on 1% of the territory. In addition, the city is densely urbanised. It consisted

of 34,000 blocks in 1980, increasing to 55,000 blocks by 1994: a 62% increase in 14

years (INEGI 1994). During recent years, the city has been growing and invading

the natural areas, green areas and medians (Ezcurra 1990).

Mexico City, just as many other megacities, has the problem of intense and frequent

traffic. Strategies used to improve vehicular traffic have included the widening of

avenues, but at the cost of sacrificing the green areas.

A recent official project for the City has evoked intensive arguments. The project

outlines the construction of a second floor above the two most important high-speed

routes of the city: the Periferico and the Viaducto. Thousands of trees could be

affected by this construction. The contractors indicated that the trees were going to be

transplanted. However, there is no experienced personnel, no equipment, or

knowledge for the transplant of adult trees. We believe that if these transplants are

going to take place within the time limitations established by the government for this

project, the great majority of the trees are condemned to die. If this project is to be

developed someday, tree transplanting as well as the specifications related to adequate

equipment, the future location and care practices of the hundreds or thousands of

transplanted trees, must be planned in advance.

Human and green residents of urban areas

73.5% of the total population of the country inhabits urban zones (INEGI 1998). In

1940, only 35% of the population lived in cities and 66% resided in rural areas (Sedue

1986). It is calculated that in the year 2020, 80% of the population will be living in

cities (WRI 1999). The ratio rural/urban zones is quickly changing without the

planning and funding processes necessary to guarantee basic services to all the new

housing developments such as drinking water, electricity and drainage. Besides the new

housing developments, services and infrastructure that will be needed, the new urban

zones must be endowed with green areas in order to avoid pavement and concrete

islands.

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There is a great disparity between the quantity of green areas at different socio-

economic levels (Chacalo et al. 1998). In the higher income zones infrastructure is

better, the sidewalks are wider and there are more financial resources to hire personnel

(gardeners), and purchasing materials and tools for tree care.

The location of Mexico City in a subtropical region means that climate and soil

conditions favour tree growth all year round (Chacalo et al. 1998) (see Figure 2). The

country and the city (Federal District) are located in a zone of great natural

biodiversity, which is not represented in the cities.

Figure 2. In this city, if a tree seed falls to the ground, it not only germinates but it easily becomesan adult tree.

One of the main environmental effects of the trees in this city - that has sunny days

almost all year round - is the shade. This function is highly appreciated by local

inhabitants. At the same time, the aesthetic and psychological beneficial effects of trees

and green areas in a densely paved city are immense.

Concrete, concrete, concrete. Mexico City is densely built and the local construction

style uses great quantities of concrete. Important amounts of resources are spent every

year for construction, but not even a minimal percentage of these resources is devoted

to develop the infrastructure that permits a friendly place for trees to live in (the

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minimum suggested is 3%) nor to improve the quality of the existing green areas.

Utility lines are mainly external causing a constant struggle between the trees and the

infrastructure.

ThreatsStreet tree inventory

The diagnosis of the tree situation in Mexico City is the result of the development and

application of street tree inventories in local conditions during a period of 10 years.

Four professors of the Metropolitan University, 2 research assistants and 17 students

sampled 1,261 trees. The stratified sample was distributed proportionally by block

between all the boroughs or neighbourhoods of the Federal District, sampling 866

blocks that represented 1.5% of the total number of blocks in Mexico City. The

confidence level was of 95% with a maximum error of 2.25 trees per block. Ten

percent of the blocks were supervised (Chacalo et al. 1996 & 1994).

The tree inventory showed that more than half the trees are in regular or bad health

conditions. For the planting site, the results turned out to be very similar. There exists a

high correlation between these two factors, which means that the attention given to the

site and the appropriate match between trees and planting sites is beneficial for the

Figure 3. Only eight species constitute 72 % of the street trees. A single species, the ash: (Fraxinusuhdei) represents 19 % of the alignment trees.

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trees. The inventory registered 1,827 wounds on 1,261 trees, i.e. more than one wound

per tree. 671 wounds were classified as severe.

Health conditions were not differentiated according to the socio-economic level of the

area. In the high income zones trees are distributed among the same categories as in

the low income zones, which means that the city has no culture for caring for trees

(Chacalo & Fernández 1995, Chacalo et al. 1994, 1996 & 1998).

Tree planting and species selection.

Species. Seventy percent of the trees are introduced and the 30% remaining are

indigenous species. We are aware that the origin of the species is not a decisive factor

for the success of the trees. However, the introduced species are used with great

frequency - although sometimes they have a poor ecological or ornamental quality -

because they are species that grow very fast, are easy to propagate, or simply because

they continue to propagate from seeds from the already existing trees in the streets. It

is important to start testing new potential species in order to diversify the population

of trees, to change the proportion of dominant species and to prevent possible

massive losses of trees due to pests (Figure 3).

Quality of the trees. It is common to see very small, newly planted trees. Some times the

trees are a little larger but still do not have the adequate proportions between trunk

diameter, root ball and height. Very few successful and well-planned tree plantings can

be seen (Figure 4).

The government, which is responsible for most of tree plantings, has undertaken

efforts to ‘re-green’ the streets. This effort, however must be supported by adequate

planning and training of qualified persons. The planting of trees is just one step in a

series of previous and subsequent activities that end in the newly planted trees turned

into adult and healthy trees.

Planting techniques

Distances. Trees are planted very closely together and their height at maturity is not

taken into consideration. In the best plantings, the distance usually maintained is max.

5 meters which in a very short period of time becomes insufficient for a healthy tree

growth.

Size of the sidewalk. The modal interval found during the inventory was 1.6 to 2 metres,

which is a very reduced space for the trees. Even if very small trees are planted, the

sidewalk is small in proportion to the container.

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Literature indicating that planting bellow ground level should be avoided (Watson &

Himelick 1997) is completely ignored in Mexico City.

Figure 4. Quality of the trees planted. A great heterogeneity is seen in the tree population. Trees ofdifferent species, heights, ages and diameter are planted in the same street.

Care of planted trees. Unfortunately, more emphasis is still put on the quantity of the

trees planted than in the quality of the whole process. In Mexico City, trees are

forgotten - even in terms of watering - immediately after they have been planted

(Figure 5). During the rainy season the newly planted trees will grow well. If the trees

are planted close to the dry season, however, they can die due to severe stress.

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Fig. 5. Trees that might have developed well with little care fail due to lack of attention after havingbeen planted.

Maintenance

Pruning. Probably the most serious problem faced by the trees consists of inappropriate

pruning practices. These ‘pruning’ practices are in fact mutilations that leave the trees

in very poor aesthetic and health conditions. Nevertheless, the climatic and edaphic

conditions of the city are so good that also when severely mutilated the trees manage

to survive, even when 100% of the crown has been eliminated.

Inventories. Even though some institutions have been pioneers in the use of tree

inventories, these methods have been primarily used in research projects or for internal

tree management. In the city, tree inventories are not yet used.

Pests. Some pests can cause severe problems. The species of trees affected, such as the

coral tree (Erythrina coralloides) or eucalyptus tree (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) are densely

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planted in the city. In the near future the city will greatly require advisors with expertise

in arboriculture who will be able to substitute and eliminate species, and select and

plant the most adequate ones which are suitable for the local conditions.

Dead trees and hazardous trees. A first step in the management programme for trees in a

specific place is the elimination of dead and hazardous trees. If this is not done this

means there is a lack of priorities for the programme or that the team of persons

taking care of the trees is working just limiting themselves to solving problems as they

happen, with no planning. Two boroughs inventoried presented 21 and 23 %

respectively of dead trees! (Chacalo et al. 1996).

Notable trees. In several neighbourhoods of the city there still are a few trees considered

‘remarkable’ either by their size or because they belong to an interesting species (from

an ornamental, ecological or historical point of view). Regrettably, these trees do not

receive any special attention. Very frequently they end up surrounded by pavement, in

difficult conditions which accelerate the damage and stress. Throughout the years we

have witnessed how one after another of these trees have disappeared.

Cultural activities

Mulch. Although this has been a common practice for 25- 30 years in the United States,

Europe and Canada, mulching is not yet common in Mexico. Chippers are not used or

known in Mexico. Other friendly practices such as composting, which do not require

sophisticated equipment, are not common here either.

Irrigation. Trees recently planted in the city require water to grow well. In Mexico,

watering is not common during the dry season. In spite of the good weather of the

city, trees grow slowly without the appropriate irrigation. When the trees are watered, it

is done with trucks called here water pipes. Their hose has a broad opening and the

water jet is so strong it causes severe soil erosion. Actions such as watering the soil

around the tree instead of the trunk of the tree in order to avoid diseases are not

known or practised here (Lilly 1999). The irrigation pipes move slowly along the street

with a person on (the roof) managing the hose with the strong water jet, watering the

green areas. This way of watering is extremely dangerous. Many accidents have

happened already where the person on the roof has fallen down.

Site around the tree. Trees are surrounded by grass or concrete but there is no open space

around them in order to avoid water and nutrient competition between the roots of

the tree and the grass, other plants or other trees. When the trees are surrounded by

concrete (37 % of the inventoried trees are affected by this problem) rainfall can not

reach the roots inside the soil and root extension is very limited.

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Construction activities. These activities cause more damage to trees than any other

(Figures 6 & 7). Trees that suddenly fall down have lost a good part of their root

system during different excavations. The construction materials and resulting soil from

the excavations is put all over the root system of the tree. When the excavations take

place during the dry season, the roots do not receive enough water to allow them to

regenerate. The simplest technique to protect the main roots is to tunnel below them

instead of trenching; this simple practice is not known or applied in Mexico City

(Watson & Himelick 1997, Lilly 1999).

Figure 6. In construction sites, many trees remain trapped between the walls of the new buildings.Surprisingly, it is often forgotten that trees are alive and need space to allow their growth.

186

Figur 7. Two or more trees sharing the same planting site.

Opportunities

Training program. The certification study guide of the International Society of

Arboriculture (ISA) has been already translated into Spanish and published. We are

hopeful that, once a considerable number of arborists are certified, the situation will

change. Certified arborists will be able to supervise empirical gardeners responsible for

the maintenance and planting activities in parks and gardens. Through the certification

program more people will be trained even if they themselves are not certified.

New species. Being Mexico, a highly diverse country, it would be a privilege to see the

local species of the flora represented in its cities (Chacalo & Fernández 1995).

Therefore, the search for new species can start locally, using the great natural species

palette.

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Nature in the city. When the inhabitants of Mexico City wish to interact with nature, they

must leave the city and hike to the forests. Although this alternative should still be an

option, we think it is important also to bring nature to the city and not to take the people

away from the city and into the natural ecosystems as is currently happening. How is

this to happen? This is a great challenge for urban planners, architects, landscape

architects, arborists, and other professionals.

Legislation. In order to avoid repeating the same mistakes that have been made for 20

years, it is of the utmost importance not only to develop legislation but also to apply it.

Institutional tree care programs. Several institutions have implemented programmes

destined to care for their green areas and their trees. The few certified arborists and

people devoted to arboriculture are trying to put their knowledge to good use within

their own institutions. The quality of the results obtained is an excellent example that

should be used to educate at least some sectors of society. The tree quality at those

institutions will mark the difference between the quality obtained when managing a

green area with traditional empirical knowledge, or with the science and techniques

developed by this discipline in several countries for the past 80 years.

Research projects on local problems. Which species are more appropriate for each site? How

to control and prevent local pest problems? What soil type is appropriate for each

species? These are some of the important topics that could start a local research

program.

Tree culture. The Asociación Mexicana de Arboricultura (Mexican Arboriculture

Association), an association of recent creation, this association is trying to promote the

culture of tree care. Great challenges await us in this 21st century.

References

Chacalo A, Aldama A & Grabinsky J (1994).

Street Tree Inventory in Mexico City. Journal of Arboriculture 20(4): 222-226.

Chacalo A & Fernández R (1995).

Los árboles nativos e introducidos utilizados en la reforestación de la Ciudad de

México. Ciencia Revista de la Academia de la Investigación Científica 46(3): 383-

393.

Chacalo A, Grabinsky J & Aldama A (1996).

Inventario del arbolado de alineación de la ciudad de México. Ciencia Forestal en

México 21(79): 101-120.

188

Chacalo A, Grabinsky J & Aldama A (1998).

Site limitations to tree growth. In: Proceedings of the 9th METRIA Conference

(Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance). Published on the web page of the

University of Ohio State: www.hcs.ohio-state.edu.METRIA/Metria9.html.

Ezcurra E (1990).

De las chinampas a la megalopolis. El medio ambiente de la cuenca de México.

Fondo de Cultura Económica, colección la ciencia desde México no. 91. México.

INEGI (1993).

Anuario Estadístico del Distrito Federal. México.

INEGI (1994).

Governmental Institute for National and local Economic and Geographic Informa-

tion. Manzanas de la Ciudad de México. Comunicación Personal. México.

INEGI - SEMARNAP (1998).

Estadísticas del medio ambiente. Talleres del INEGI. México.

Lilly Sh (1999).

Manual de arboricultura: Guía de estudio para la certificación del arborista. Chacalo

A (ed of Spanish edition). ISA-UAM. Amalgama arte editorial, México.

Sedue (1986).

Informe sobre el estado del medio ambiente en México. Editores e Impresores Foc.,

México.

Watson G. & Himelick E (1997).

Principles and practice of planting trees and shrubs. International Society of

Arboriculture, Champaign IL.

WRI (1998).

World Resources 1998-99. World Resources Institute. Oxford University Press.

189

Management of urban forests and trees

Chapter 5

191

Weed Control in the Urban Environment inDenmark

Palle Kristoffersen & Camilla Blankholm LophavenSkov & Landskab, Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and PlanningHørsholm Kongevej 11, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark

Abstract

In 1998 the Danish Minister of Environment and Energy signed a voluntary

agreement with The National Association of Local Authorities in Denmark, The

Association of County Councils in Denmark and the cities of Copenhagen and

Frederiksberg. The agreement states that all publicly owned areas must be managed

and maintained entirely without the use of pesticides from 1 January 2003. The

agreement is a response to research results concerning the fate of pesticides in the

aquatic environment including our ground water resources upon which the Danish

drinking water supply is dependent.

In Denmark the use of pesticides for weed control on publicly owned non-cropland,

use of alternative methods and the drawing up of action plans according to the

agreement are monitored. In 1999 and 2000 the annual use of pesticides for weed

control on publicly owned non-cropland was estimated to account for 0.3 % of the

total use in Denmark. The use was reduced by 59 % in the period 1995 - 2000, from 29

to 12 tonnes of active substance.

A research project on weed control on non-cropland in Europe was carried out. The

main objectives of the project were to review the present national regulation on use of

pesticides and alternative methods for weed control on non-cropland in Europe and

also to summarise the status of Research & Development on non-chemical weed

control in Europe. Non-cropland is defined here as e.g. roads, squares, pavements,

parks, sports fields, cemeteries and golf courses.

Local authorities and counties in Denmark are currently in a transitional period in

which the methods used for weed control are changing. A number of research projects

on weed control on semi-hard and hard surfaces, mainly focusing on the biological

effect from non-chemical methods such as burning, steaming and brushing, as well as

research projects on sports fields and golf courses have been set up. For sports fields

and the like, the methods in focus are mechanical weed control, natural selection and

competition of turf grass species against weeds.

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From being mostly chemical the methods are changing towards being primarily

thermal and mechanical. To meet the new demands experiments with these methods

on semi-hard and hard surfaces are being done as well as scenario studies describing

construction, economic and botanical consequences of various management and

treatment strategies.

Key words: Weed control, urban area, non-cropland, non-chemical weed control,

regulation.

Introduction

Weed control and the related use of pesticides is a still increasingly important issue in

both administrative and practical management of non-cropland like paved areas, sports

grounds, cemeteries etc. in urban areas. This is due to an emerging threat to the

environment including the ground water and surface water resources upon which our

drinking water supplies are based, and it is the case in Denmark as it is in the rest of

Europe (Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.). The aim of the study presented here was

therefore to enlighten the Danish general opinion regarding weed control on non-

cropland in urban areas, to show whether it could be possible to reduce the use of

pesticides, draw conclusions and offer perspectives for the consequences and needs in

relation to equipment and strategies presently used as well as in future weed control.

Materials and methods

The study has been separated in five parts. These five parts concern

1. The Danish legislation and regulation of use of pesticides for weed control in

urban areas primarily on paved areas;

2. current use of pesticides;

3. non-chemical methods for weed control on publicly owned areas;

4. European regulations and perceptions in weed control on non-cropland areas; and

5. Research and Development (R&D) on non-chemical weed control in Denmark.

The study of European perceptions is described in detail in Lophaven & Kristoffersen

Part Methodology Period

1 Survey 20012 Questionnaire 1995-20003 Questionnaire 1995-20004 Questionnaire 20015 Survey of field studies → 2001

Table 1. Methodology of the 5 parts of this study included their duration period.

193

(in prep.) and will not be presented in detail in this paper. The methodology of the five

parts and their duration is listed in Table 1.

Results & Discussion

The Danish regulation

There is only sparse regulation of weed control on non-cropland and therefore also in

urban areas. The Danish regulation is subordinate to the EU-legislation in force. This

is primarily the plant protection product regulation of which the Danish version is the

departmental order on plant protection products no. 241 of 27/04/1998. This act

regulates the use of chemical pesticides, thus also pesticides used for weed control on

non-cropland areas. Since March 1993 it has been forbidden to use chemical

substances for weed control on cemeteries managed by the Church in Denmark.

According to the Danish regulation and to the most recent re-evaluation of the active

substance Glyphosate, pesticides containing this can no longer be used on paved areas.

This will have enormous consequences for the future treatment of urban areas.

Alternative regulation – a voluntary agreement

In Denmark there also exists a voluntary agreement on ending the use of pesticides for

weed control on publicly owned areas by 1 January 2003. The agreement was signed in

1998 by the Minister of Environment and Energy, Svend Auken, the National

Association of Local Authorities and the Association of County Councils as well as

the cities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg. The agreement covers all publicly owned

areas; both urban areas, cropland and forests. Only issues concerning urban areas are

considered in this paper.

There were two main reasons for deciding to regulate the pesticide use with this

voluntary agreement. The first reason was the finding of pesticides in Danish ground

water aquifers, which are the main source of our drinking water supply. Secondly, a

number of reports, initiatives and political declarations of intent since the mid-1990s

had showed a will and a wish for the public to be proactive in regard to minimising the

use of pesticides.

A third of the European countries had some kind of alternative regulation of the

pesticide use for weed control on non-cropland additional to the national regulation

that followed the EU-regulation. Examples of the alternative regulations were the

Dutch agreement of reduction of use, the Norwegian voluntary agreement concerning

publicly owned roads, special permits in Germany and a general tendency among

Swedish local authorities to stop using pesticides on non-cropland. There was also the

Swiss total prohibition by law of use of pesticides on roads, pavements and so forth

(Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.).

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The Danish voluntary agreement also included reporting and follow-up which Skov &

Landskab performed for the Danish Ministry of the Environment by means of a

questionnaire sent to all state institutions, counties and local authorities in Denmark.

Among the subjects reported were:

- The use of pesticides in counties and local authorities and on specific area types.

Only plant protection products were in focus.

- The number of counties and local authorities who have phased out the use of

pesticides completely.

- The public authorities’ actions toward phasing out expressed as actual plans.

- Critical elements in the different public authorities, i.e. the elements that make or

made the phasing out difficult.

Pesticide use in Denmark

Table 2 shows the development of the use of pesticides for weed control on publicly

owned non-cropland areas in Denmark in the period 1995-1999 as reported in the

questionnaires. The column at the far right shows the reduction in percent for each of

the public authorities: state, counties and local authorities.

The greatest reduction took place in the counties. The state had the predominant part

of the pesticide use in 1999. Of this use, half was located at the Ministry of Transport

and used for keeping railway areas free from weeds. In total, the use of pesticides for

weed control on publicly owned non-cropland in Denmark was reduced by 59 percent

from 1995 to 1999 (Kristoffersen & Møller 2001).

Table 2. Danish pesticide use for weed control on non-cropland during the period 1995-1999.Calculations based on numbers from Kristoffersen and Møller (2001).

An interesting detail concerning the specifications of the use of pesticides was that the

vast majority were plant protection products containing the active substance

Glyphosate, as can be seen when comparing Table 2 with Table 3.

Pesticide use Reduction[Tonnes of active substance] [%]

1995 1999 1995-1999State 13.370 7.820 42Counties 1.674 0.351 79Local authorities

113.721 3.634 74

Total 28.765 11.805 59

1 Data for local authorities from 2001.

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Table 3. Use of Glyphosate in state, counties and local authorities in tonnes. Calculations based ondata from Kristoffersen and Møller (2001).

Regarding Glyphosate, moreover, the counties had the largest percentage of reduction.

The tables illustrate the fact that the vast majority of the pesticides presently being

used contains Glyphosate, which in the near future might become a problem since

Glyphosate has been forbidden on these types of areas since the year 2000.

It should be noted that the pesticides used on non-cropland accounted for

approximately 12 tonnes, 0.3 %, in 1999 and 29 tonnes, 0.8 %, in 1995 of the total use

in Denmark. The main use was for agricultural purposes on cropland (Kristoffersen &

Møller 2001).

Table 4 shows how many of the 273 Danish local authorities that at the time of

registration in 2000 used pesticides for weed control on non-cropland. 70 local

authorities of the 250 answering the questionnaire had already ended their use of

pesticides. This equals approximately 40 %. Approximately 50 % of the local

authorities had a plan for their future use of pesticides. 91 local authorities,

approximately 35 %, had no plan and were still using pesticides.

Table 4. Pesticide use for weed control on non-cropland in local authorities in Denmark in 2000-numbers. Calculations based on numbers from Kristoffersen and Møller (2001).

Figure 1 shows past and expected development of the use of pesticides for weed

control on non-cropland in the period 1995 to 2003. In 1998 the voluntary agreement

came into force and in 1995 and 1999 registrations have taken place. The total stop of

the use of pesticides in 2003 is also plotted in the diagram. Compared to the fact that

approximately half the local communities had phased out pesticides in 1999 it can be

expected to achieve the goal of a total stop of the use of pesticides in 2003.

Local authorities Plan No plan Total

Use 89 91 180No use 28 42 70Total 117 133 250

1995 1999/2000 % reduction

State 6.880 5.555 19Counties 1.027 0.298 71Local authorities 5.876 2.154 63Total 13.783 8.007 42

196

Non-chemical weed control methods in Denmark

The non-chemical weed control methods used in Denmark are primarily motor

mechanical methods and thermal methods as well as a few manually performed

methods. The methods are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Non-chemical weed control methods in use in Denmark.

Compared to other European countries the actual use of non-chemical weed control

methods in practice was generally higher in Denmark. The most prevalent methods in

Europe were mechanical, whereas the methods in Denmark were thermal, mechanical

and manually performed. This cannot be explained by regulation of the choice of

weed control methods in Denmark since such does not exist. Neither does it exist in

the rest of Europe and must therefore to a great extent be explained by the voluntary

agreement (Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.).

Critical elements

Initially a positive critical element which is important in understanding the future

concept of non-chemical weed control is that the public authorities all recognised an

increased knowledge of the various methods during the period of time that has passed

since the agreement was signed. However there were no improvements of machinery

to encourage the general application.

0

10

20

30

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

tonnes of active

substance

1st

registration 2nd

registrationVoluntaryagreement

Total stop

Figure 1. Pesticide use in the period 1995-1999 illustrated with the most important events in thesequence. Calculations based on numbers from Kristoffersen & Møller (2001).

Grass areas Optimised grass growth by vertical cutting, etc.

Planted areas Mechanical weed control and soil coverage by mulchesand low plants

Paved areas Brushing, burning, harrowing and steaming

197

The fact that there were considerable extra economical charges involved in phasing out

the use of pesticides was generally a major critical element. Further reduction or a total

stop could mean great technical or work-related problems on certain area types like e.g.

road systems, squares, railway areas and airfields because the equipment simply was not

sufficient from a technical perspective (Kristoffersen & Møller 2001).

Research and Development in Denmark

Several experiments regarding thermal weed control methods have been carried out

during the last few years. These have included, for example:

- Dose-response tests regarding dose, driving speed, treated area, and treatment time.

The test should enforce the knowledge of the relationship between dose and

response by input of varying amounts of energy.

- Field experiments covering biological diversity throughout the year and

consequences for the weed control strategies on hard and semi-hard surfaces.

Minimisation of weeds on grass playing fields by optimising the growth of the grass

by designing different maintenance operations and maintenance strategies.

- Development of a material to be used in joints in both kerbs and pavements to

keep them free from weeds.

- The most recent projects are the development of a combined burner and steamer

and improvement and development of brushes also for non-chemical weed control

for paved areas in urban areas.

Thermal methods

Figure 2 shows a propane gas burner mounted on a tractor. By burning weeds with this

type of equipment it was possible to reduce weed infestation since the plant cells are

heated and then burst. Because of this the plant looses a lot of fluid and finally withers

and dies if done properly a number of times.

Figure 3 shows a Danish weed steamer. The principle of steaming was almost similar

to the gas burner, plant cells burst and the plant withers by being exposed to strong

heat and steam. In contrast to the burners there was no fire risk from using this

equipment.

Both Figure 2 and 3 show machinery from the dose-response-test. The machinery only

represented thermal methods: steaming and propane gas burning. A total of eight

different machines participated in the test and were all tested on three types of

vegetation representing typical weed species and with seven different energy doses.

The result of the test was that one gets the same good biological effect on the weeds

can be achieved by treatment with either steam or gas burning with equivalent energy

doses - 1000 kWh per hectare and approximately 80 kg propane gas per hectare

(Kristoffersen et al. 2001).

198

Figure 2. Propane gas burning equipment. Photo taken during dose-response test in autumn 2000.Picture: Camilla Blankholm Lophaven.

Figure 3. Steaming equipment. Picture taken during dose-response test in autumn 2000. Picture:Camilla Blankholm Lophaven.

199

Strategy development

During the period 1999-2001 different weed control strategies have been tested in six

local authorities in Denmark (Larsen & Larsen 2000). The test was finalised in 2001. A

number of strategies were tested in the experiment. The strategies involved weed

control by steaming, burning and brushing. The methods were applied with a varying

intensity to investigate the effect of an increasing level of weed control, but also during

the year and at different times to test the seasonal effect on the final weed infestation

by executing the weed control at different times of the year.

Figure 4 shows a reference stretch. The stretch had visible weeds to a height of 20-40

cm, i.e. the weed infestation was quite heavy.

Figure 4. Reference stretch from strategy-test, summer 2001. Picture: Palle Kristoffersen.

Figure 5 shows pictures from the propane gas burning treatments. The F4-stretch

shown to the left in figure 5 was to be treated four times a year during the three-year

period and is defined as a ‘minimum’ strategy. When the picture was taken the stretch

was burned three times that year, and the weeds had not disappeared. The amount of

energy used for the purpose was equivalent to 100 kg of propane gas per hectare per

treatment.

The F8-stretch to the right was to be treated eight times a year during the three-year

period. When the photograph was taken the stretch had been treated six times that

year. The strategy is called the ‘normal’ strategy. The weed infestation was significantly

lower than in the F4-stretch, which meant that burning eight times a year obviously

had an improved effect compared to burning four times a year.

200

Figure 5. Stretches treated with propane gas burning. To the left: four yearly treatments. To theright: Eight yearly treatments. Pictures taken in summer 2001. Pictures: Palle Kristoffersen.

Strategies

A number of strategies describing the economic costs related to choosing certain levels

of maintenance of the paved areas with regard to weed control were drawn up. The

strategies qualified and helped the local park management to prioritise their means of

business in choosing a weed control strategy. The strategies described the amount of

weed control, cleaning, weed infestation, consequences for paved areas, life span,

number of reconstructions of the paved areas and the cost of 30 years of

management including reconstruction. The strategies are described in detail in Table 6

(Kristoffersen & Larsen 2000).

The weed infestation decreases moving from left to right in the description of the

strategies. The expenses related to managing and reconstructing this type of area

decreases for each level of increasing weed control. This is due to an impediment by

the control elements of the weeds’ accelerated break down of the paved areas. The

span of the costs was from a maximum of 37 EUR/m2/30 years varying down to

approximately 12 EUR/m2/30 years for the ‘normal’ weed control strategy.

The strategies show that it can be expensive to be frugal when dealing with weeds on

non-cropland. The accelerated break down of the surfaces can lead to a threefold

increase of the costs related to managing and renovating paved areas over a 30-year

period when comparing the ‘no weed control’ strategy with the ‘normal’ weed control

strategy.

201

As the empirical basis of non-chemical weed control is expanded and confirmed with

both test results from the currently running R&D and real life experiences these

scenarios will be validated and adjusted to fitting present needs and knowledge.

Seen from a European perspective the Danish R&D ideas of primarily working with

thermal methods are in accordance with the rest of Europe. Approximately half of the

15 countries that participated in a European study confirmed that R&D focussed on

thermal methods like burning and steaming (Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.).

Conclusion

It is possible to manage and maintain non-cropland in urban areas without the use of

pesticides. This can be seen both experimentally and in practice in Denmark. The

Table 6. Five non-chemical weed control strategies.

Description No weed control Clean-up weedcontrol

Minimum weedcontrol

Normal weedcontrol

Maximum weedcontrol

Application On areas low inthe list of priori-ties

In outer areasand along kerbs

In residentialneighbourhoods,and along kerbs

On normally priori-tised areas, pave-ments etc.

On highly prioritisedlocalities, and high-value areas includ-ing areas with un-hewn stone

Treatment(yearly)

No treatment orcleaning

1 brushing 4 thermal treat-ments and 1brushing

8 thermal treat-ments

12 thermal treat-ments

Vegetation Overgrowing ofjoints and pavedareas

Overgrowing ofjoints, somevegetation onpaved areas

Overgrowing ofjoints, mostweeds below 5cm high

Overgrowing canbe prevented.Started weeds willbe below 2 cmhigh. No actualcontrol of startedweeds

Paved areas freefrom visually both-ering weeds. Jointsovergrown withmoss, Sagina sp.,and dwarf like typesof weeds

Consequences Paved areas notbrushable andsurface runoff isprevented. Pene-tration of waterinto the openjoints

Paved areashard to brush.Surface runoff iscomplicated.Some penetra-tion of waterinto open joints.

Weeds will notbother traffic.Weeds will openjoints, which mayrisk penetrationof water.

No damage on thepaved areas be-cause of weedgrowth

No damage on thepaved areas be-cause of weedgrowth

Life span Shortened from30 to 10 years

Shortened from30 to 15 years

Shortened from30 to 20 years

No shortening No shortening

Relay 3 times 2 times 1½ times 1 time 1 time

CalculatedValue

2

[EUR/m2/30

Years]

36.9 22.2 18.8 11.9 14.4

2 Calculated from 30 years of management and renovation, by the current rate of exchange 6 November 2001.

202

voluntary agreement has actually meant a reduction of the use of pesticides by

approximately 60% in a period of five years - and the bottom line has not even been

reached yet.

Even though it is no bed of roses because the non-chemical weed control methods are

expensive; the costs are higher than when using pesticides. It is also difficult because

the empirical basis is limited.

Perspectives

There exists a still increasing need for better equipment for weed control, and

somehow it seems that the machinery currently available is not sufficient to meet the

practitioners’ needs. Therefore there is a general agreement that new methods for non-

chemical weed control are needed.

Regarding the protection of our resources it can only be expected that even on

European level there will be an increased awareness of protecting ground and surface

water resources. These are the ones the societies rely upon for drinking water all over

Europe.

All of these demands point in one direction: decrease the use of pesticides for weed

control purposes. This will mean a higher weed infestation than traditionally accepted.

This is the situation society has faced and is still facing in Denmark; it means that it is

necessary for the actors in society to revise ideals of what is regarded as nice and what

can be accepted along roadsides and on pavements in the neighbourhood.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the dialogues about the drafts of this manuscript

with Thomas Barfoed Randrup and Cecil Konijnendijk, Danish Centre for Forest,

Landscape and Planning. Use of trade names in this paper does not imply

endorsement by the Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning of any product

or service.

References

Kristoffersen P & Larsen K (2000).

Kemikaliefri ukrudtsbekæmpelse. Stads- og haveneigeniøren 6-7: 6-11.

Kristoffersen P & Møller J (2001).

Undersøgelse af pesticidforbruget på offentlige arealer i 1999 og 2000. Skov &

Landskab, Hørsholm.

203

Kristoffersen P, Sørensen CB, Larsen K, Hansen P K, Noyé G & Hartvig P (2001).

Test af redskaber til termisk ukrudtsbekæmpelse, Fagbladet Grønt Miljø 5(1): 84-89.

Larsen SU & Larsen K (2000).

Pesticidfri Ukrudtsbekæmpelse på befæstede arealer, Forsøg 1999-2000,

Anlægsrapport 1.1. Frederiksborg Amt, Skov & Landskab, Hørsholm.

Lophaven CB & Kristoffersen P (in prep.).

Weed Control on non-cropland in Urban Areas in Europe. Journal of

Environmental Management. In review.

205

Urban Forest of Thessaloniki: Post-fire (1997)Restoration Perspectives

Ch. TourlakidisDivision of Reforestation of ThessalonikiThessaloniki, Greece

Abstract

The urban forest of Thessaloniki is an artificial one established over a period of 65

years. Its vegetation is composed mainly of Pinus brutia, Cupressus sp. and some other

species. The Greek Forest Service completed a number of activities, such as

establishment of forest roads, fire lanes, a fire watering system, recreation sites and

insect control.

In 1997, a fire destroyed 55% of the forest. Restoration started shortly after. The

District Forest Office cleared the burnt forest and the Division of Reforestation

constructed small-scale erosion and watershed control works. These included

matchsticks, log erosion barriers, ploughing & furrowing, small timbered dams, and

check dams. Reforestation plans were aimed at natural regeneration of Pinus brutia,

Cupressus sp. and Quercus coccifera on one hand. On the other hand artificial reforestation

was to be applied, using conifers and broadleaves, and mainly Cupressus sp., Cedrus sp.,

Quercus sp., Celtis sp., Fraxinus sp., Acer sp. and Robinia sp., some secondary species and

shrub species near recreation sites, forest roads and lanes, and Populus sp., and Platanus

sp. on stream bed sides.

Threats to the urban forest include land use change due to housing, forest fires, insect

pests, soil erosion, floods, drought, and heavy recreational exploitation.

A new project designed for the urban forest as a whole aims at vegetation

improvement and supplement, watershed management, new recreation design,

development of forest protection plans, and insect pest control.

Key Words: urban forest, forest fire, post-fire restoration.

Introduction

The urban forest of Thessaloniki covers the slopes of Kedrinos hills and expands

North-East of the town of Thessaloniki, bordering its residential areas. It is an

artificial forest, a result of a continuous and persistent effort that has lasted 65 years.

206

One case of reforestation is known from during the Turkish occupation in 1910. A

grove was established in an area of 20 hectares at a place called ‘Hilia Dendra’

(‘Thousand trees’). After liberation and the end of World War I, the first afforestating

effort was carried out in 1929 by Professor Petros Kontos and his students of the

newly established Forestry School at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

Reforestation schemes became more intensive after 1934, on the basis of an applied

study conducted by the head of the Thessaloniki Forest Office and later professor at

the Forestry School, Dr. Antonis Georgopoulos. He also established a small-scale

nursery near the forest to produce the necessary planting stock.

At the beginning, afforestation plans aimed at watershed management through

restoration of the degraded forest ecosystem, consisting of short high bushland with

woody, hard-leafed evergreen broadleaves. Recreation and environmental approaches in

forestry emerged later, after urbanisation of the surrounding area and city

development.

During the 1980s, afforestation was completed. The Division of reforestation of

Thessaloniki established 8 recreation sites and constructed 4 paths with total length of

7 kilometres crossing the forest. At the same time, the District Forest Office of

Thessaloniki designed and constructed 90 kilometres of forest roads, 83 kilometres of

fire lanes, and a fire watering system consisting of 3 permanent tanks automatically

filled and 41 water filling points scattered across the area.

The final result was a Pinus brutia forest mixed in many places with Cupressus sempervirens

var. orizontalis, C. arizonica. Other indigenous species used were Pinus pinea, P. halepensis,

Celtis australis, and some others. The Greek Forest Service was proud of this work.

Under the given circumstances this was believed to be the best protected urban forest

in the Mediterranean region.

Two forest departments manage the urban forest of Thessaloniki:

- The District Forest Office is dealing with ownership, protection schemes, and forest

management.

- The Division of Reforestation is dealing with reforestation, recreation and watershed

management plans.

Field data

Geografical data of the site

The entire forest covers an area of 3,020 hectares and is in fact the central part of a

wider forested region around Thessaloniki consisting of 23,500 hectares of forestland

that has been mostly artificially reforested.

207

The forest forms a protective belt, a natural wall against torrential effects of the

Kedrinos currents, secondly, as well as a recreation site bordering the city and an

environmental filter. Administratively eight local communities share this area, namely

Thessaloniki, Pylaia, Panorama, Triandria, Sykies, Ag. Paylos, Hortiatis and Pefka, all

belonging to the Thessaloniki prefecture.

Ownership

The urban forest of Thessaloniki is mainly state-owned (2,261 ha). Part of it consists

of private forest land (645 ha). Another part is rural land (114 ha) scattered across the

area. To satisfy community needs 52.2 hectares were allocated for purposes of

education, sports, water provision and religion.

State, private and rural lands are all under strict forest legislation. This creates a

confrontation between land owners and government, particularly in the case of the

rural land use because of its high value for housing. By a High Court decision

provoked by environmental groups, this rural land became classified permanently as

forestland. This decision created problems to landowners and this debate is still

continuing.

To solve this problem, the Greek Government has two alternatives, as changing

forestland to land for housing is against the law. The first is to compensate the owners

against the real value of their land, and the second to compensate their land with

public land of equal value outside the area of the urban forest of Thessaloniki.

Vegetation

According to Professor Athanasiadis, the area belongs to the submeditteranean vegetation

zone (Quercetalia pubescentis). This is the most peculiar transitional vegetation zone

composed of hard-leafed evergreen broadleaves and deciduous broadleaves. The zone

includes hilly areas with an altitude varying from 100 to 500 metres found at some

distance from the sea all over the Northern part of the country. This area in particular

belongs to the community ostryo-carpinion and the vegetative association of coccifero-

carpinetum.

Before reforestation, this area was bushland of mainly Quercus coccifera, a very hard-

leafed, evergreen broadleaved species that may very easily transform from a tree to a

shrub due to, for example, goat grazing, forest fires, felling for obtaining fuelwood, and

so forth.

Phytogeography showed that during Middle ages this area was dominated by Oak forests

(Q. pubescens) in a mixture with other broadleaved species such as Acer campestris,

208

J F M J J S D Av

2.2 3.4 6.2 9.6 13.9 18.0 20.4 19.8 17.0 12.1 7.4 4.3 11.4

J F M J J S D Av

9.5 11.1 14.5 19.1 24.4 29.0 31.3 30.8 27.8 21.4 15.0 11.3 20.7

J F M J J S D Av

5.7 7.0 10.1 14.2 18.9 23.5 25.8 25.2 22.0 16.4 10.7 7.5 15.8

Fraxinus ornus, Carpinus betulus, Pistacia terebinthus, Ulmus campestris, Crategus oxyacantha,

Platanus orientalis, Populus alba, and so forth. Remnants of those forests still exist

scattered over either the area itself or in its vicinity (forest of Kouri). In the 14th century,

historian Houmnos describes vast broadleaved stands situated above the Acropolis of

Thessaloniki which inhabitants used for getting fuel.

Climatic considerations

Meteorological data presented here come from the Aristotle University Meteorological

Station, found at a distance of 1.5 kilometres of the area, over a period of 20 years

(1979-1999).

Air temperature

Information about average temperature throughout the year is summarised in Tables 1,

2 and 3.

Table 1. Mean average temperature throughout the year.

Table 2. Mean maximum temperatures throughout the year (warmest month so far was July 1998with an average 34.4oC).

Table 3. Mean minimum temperatures throughout the year (coldest month so far January 1982 with3.8oC).

The absolute maximum temperature measured in the area to date was 42.1oC on 7 July

1988, while the absolute minimum was -7.3oC on 10 January 1987.

Rainfall

The accumulative precipitation is 448.1 mm per year unevenly distributed over the year

as can be seen in Table 4. Maximum rainfall so far was 650.4 mm in 1987, while the

minimum level was 301.9 in 1984. Average rainfall for the growing season (March to

September) is 218.8 mm and for the wet period (October to February) 229.3 mm. The

209

J F M J J S D Av

71.0 68.0 69.0 67.0 67.0 60.0 59.0 63.0 66.0 71.0 75.0 72.0 67.0

J F M J J S D Av

24.7 32.7 42.3 37.6 41.4 33.5 24.3 23.1 16.6 42.6 74.5 54.8 448.1

driest season includes July, August and September. Temperature and rainfall are also

depicted in Figure 1. Rainfall has gradually decreased. During the last 9 years (1991-

1999), mean values reached 411.2 mm.

Table 4. Average rainfall (in mm) throughout the year.

Figure 1. Pluviothermic diagram for Aristotle University Meteorological Station.

Relative humidity

As Table 5 shows, relative humidity values from 52% to 84%.

Table 5. Relative humidity throughout the year.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Months

Tem

pera

ture

C

o

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Rain

fall m

m

Aristotle University og ThessalonikiMeteorological StationPluviothermic diagram for the period 1979-1990

J M M J S N

210

Winds

The most frequently occurring winds are Northwest (Vardaris), being strong (8-40 km/

h), cold and dry. The western winds bring rain. Southern wind is hot (livas) and if

blowing during summer months (July, August, September) raises fire risk.

Days with snow and fog are very rare, and frost is exceptional.

Climate

According to Mavromatis (1980) the climate of the site is Meditteranean (pluviothermic

diagram with reverse temperature and rainfall graphs, see Figure 1). It is semiarid with

cold winters.

Soil conditions

Geology - parent material

From this perspective, the area belongs to the Axios river zone that covers central,

northern Greece and expands up to Bulgaria. Parent material is sedimentary and

metamorphic from the quartenary period. Rock types identified in the area include red

argils, phyllites, gneisses, gabbros, lime schists, dunites, peridotites and serpentines.

These rocks form horizontal layers along the long axis of the area.

Soil

As a result of the underlying rock and the interaction with climate, relief, rock

withering, erosion, vegetation, time and influence by human, site soil belongs to the

division of red gleys with clay loamy texture, and to yellow, non-calcareous gleys with

sandy-loamy texture. Both include low levels of organic matter. What particularly

matters is heavy erosion that occurred over long periods. Parent rock is very often

superficial.

Fire risk and insect pests

This type of forest is very susceptible to fire risk, particularly during the summer

months (dry season). Because of this, the District Forest Office of Thessaloniki,

responsible for forest protection, established a fire station in the middle of the forest

with easy accessibility to all parts of the forest. Besides that, a zone at the edges of

forest roads and fire lanes is cleared from branches and grass every year, in late spring.

In 1998, the Greek government enforced an act and transferred forest fire

responsibility and control from the Greek Forest Service to the Fire Brigade

Department. Since then, the Greek Forest Service plays an assisting role in this serious

matter.

211

Another threat to the forest is the insect pest Thaumetopea pityocampa which causes

severe damage to Pinus brutia foliage by foraging during the autumn and winter months.

This loss weakens trees that struggle to recover their foliage every spring. Apart from a

negative aesthetic impact it causes allergic skin disease to passers-by.

In recent years, an approved biological product applied by air - with the active

ingredient Bachillus thurigiensis - is used to control the insect. This product poses no

risks to the rest of the insects in the forest.

Disaster

A fire broke simultaneously at five places on the afternoon of 6 July 1997, a very hot

dry day with strong hot southern winds blowing. Within 40 hours, 1,664 hectares i.e

55% of the urban forest burnt.

According to Margaropoulos (1955) there have been cases in the past where floods

from currents of the Kedrinos hills caused serious damage after heavy rainfall, even

with human casualties. Therefore, after the fire, the possibility emerged that such a

phenomenon might be repeated as it had been the case in other places in Greece (e.g.

Athens, Chalkidiki, Corinth and Crete).

Applied studies

A special committee was set up at the Prefecture of Thessaloniki to manage this

‘crisis’. The Division of Reforestation started the task of restoration while the District

Forest Office of Thessaloniki had to produce and remove useful dead timber and sell

it to sawmills.

Within the first month (July 1997) a plan was prepared by a team of the Division of

Reforestation staff, titled : ‘Applied study for erosion and water flow control of the

burned area of the urban forest of Thessaloniki’. A budget of 3,610,000 was

allocated. During the next two months another study was completed, namely: ‘Applied

study for reforestation of the burned area of the urban forest of Thessaloniki’

(budget: 3,610,000

Restoration

The first thing to define was the degree of environmental impact. Emphasis was

placed on small-scale works leaving nature to recover, giving it the initiative and time to

adjust itself to a new forest model more effectively. Under this view, two kinds of

works were allocated: those on a temporary (5-10 years) and those on a permanent

basis.

=C).

=C

212

The District Forest Office and the Division of Reforestation rapidly made contracts

with 5 forest cooperative workers and forest work constructors from the Thessaloniki

area for two assignments. The first was to clear-fell and remove dead, raw timber and

the terrible mess on the site. The second assignment was to construct erosion and

waterflow control works.

1.Erosion control works. These have been built up on a temporary basis (5 years), aimed

to stop sheet erosion caused by heavy rain. They offer first degree protection and

include:

a) Matchsticks. In practice these are rows made of large and small branches,

thin boles, and residues of clear-fellings, stuck on the ground in

horizontal lines (on the uphill side of the stumps) in areas where the slope of

the ground varies between 0-30%. The distance between these rows has been

calculated to optimally be 10-15 metres depending on relief. Their dimensions

are: height 0.75 m, width 1.0-1.5 m and length from 1 to a thousand and more

metres. These structures work like a water filter collecting sediment, sand and

stones moving down the slope, stopping sheet erosion during heavy rainfall.

663,000 metres of these were constructed.

b) Log erosion barriers. These are structures made of logs of dead pine and cypress

trees, stuck in the ground by poles or tied to tree stumps in horizontal lines in

places where the slope varies from 31- 50%. A little trench is dug upwards to

stop downwards rainfall. Distance between the log lines is estimated to vary

between 8-10 metres, height-width equals log diameter (20 centimetres) and

length ranges from 1 to a thousand and more metres. 84,000 metres were

constructed.

c) Clear-fellings. At places where the slope exceeds 50%, dead trees were cut to

pieces of about 1 metre in length and spread on the site. This measure was

applied to a total area of 83.6 ha.

d) Ploughing - furrowing. A heavy machine (bulldozer) with two ripers at the back

(nails 1.0 m long at 2.0 m distance from each other) ploughed the area just once,

horizontally, at a depth of 0.70-1.0 m between matchsticks where slope was 0-

30 %, leaving a furrow. The measure aimed at three targets. First, by furrowing

the ground, water, soil, and sediment are collected into furrows. Secondly, by

loosening ground soil rainwater is absorbed and penetrates more easily into

deeper layers without eroding the surface. Thirdly, plantation is facilitated.

2,146,000 metres were ploughed.

2.Waterflow control works. These constitute second-degree protection works affecting the

city of Thessaloniki below and supplementing erosion control works. These works

aim to control flooding, keeping in place water, mud, sand and stones that have

213

escaped erosion control works. These works are of two kinds :

a) Small timbered dams. These are constructed on a temporary basis (7-10 years).

They are wooden structures made with logs from dead pines and cypresses on

2nd and 3rd degree currents built at certain locations along currentbeds. The

dams are stacked 1.0 metres in height. 188 were constructed.

b) Check dams. These are permanent basic constructions made of concrete with

a height of up to 5.0 metres placed at the lower elevations of the 1st degree

current beds. 22 small dams were constructed.

3 Reforestation. The new type of ecosystem should be a stable, upgraded, and adapted to

climatic and soil conditions, more resistant to fire and insect pests, with a normal

resource of fauna and flora. Services offered to people are watershed management,

recreation, aesthetics, sports and education. The type of forest that matches these

demands is a mixture of broadleaved species and conifers from this vegetation zone.

There have been two approaches to this aim:

a) Natural regeneration. Design involved natural regeneration of Pinus brutia, Cup

ressus sp. and Quercus coccifera, wherever these could be established. Particularly

natural regeneration of P. brutia was at risk, as pine trees were weakened from

drought and pests. On the other hand, cypress was expected to cover only its

own restricted area.

b) Artificial reforestation. This aimed first of all to fill the gaps left from natural

regeneration, secondly to re-introduce species that disappeared long ago

because of human activity, and thirdly to renew and improve vegetation.

Regarding the latter, species selected were indigenous, with some exotic exceptions,

belonging to this vegetative zone and surviving and growing well under the existing

these climatic conditions. The list of species used includes conifer and broadleaved

species, evergreen and deciduous. Particular site, space, altitude and exposure were

taken into account.

Briefly, plantation layout followed the following rules:

- Conifers were introduced to poorer soils and south exposures, and included Cupressus

sempervirens, Cupressus arizonica, Cedrus libani, Cedrus Atlantica, Cedrus deodara, Thuja

orientalis. The exception was Pinus pinea, which was used on deep and better-quality

soils.

- Broadleaved species were used in better environments and on better soils in the

following order :

Quercus aegilops and Quercus pubescens on southern exposed sites.

Quercus ilex on northern exposured sites.

Quercus conferta on higher and northern exposured sites.

214

Celtis australis, Cercis siliquastrum, Fraxinus oxycarpa, Fraxinus ornus, Acer campestris, Acer

negundo, Robinia pseudacacia, Tilia tomentosa on certain places all over the area.

Secondary species such as Prunus insititia, Pyrus communis, Prunus avium, Cornus mas,

Crataegus monogyna, Morus alba, ficus carica, Eleagnus angustifolia, Juglans regia and so

forth were used at different locations among other species to modify the

environment.

Shrub species such as Laurus nobilis, Spartium junceum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Nerium

oleander, Ligustrum vulgare, Cotoneaster orizontalis etc., were established around

recreation sites, fire lanes, forest roads.

On current and stream sides, Platanus orientalis, Populus alba, populus nigra, Fraxinus

excelsior, Acer pseudoplatanus were established.

Planting material was produced at the forest nurseries belonging to the Division of

Reforestation of Thessaloniki. Planting material was either containerised or bare-

rooted. In some cases seeding was applied.

One should keep in mind that the result embodies a potential situation. Nature will

accept or refuse human options. The Forest Service will be there to make the necessary

manipulations needed each time.

All the work described above lasted 8 months, from July 1997 to the end of February

1998.

Perspectives

All the above interventions referred to the burnt area of the Thessaloniki urban forest.

Five years after the fire, a new project (2003-2006) for the entire urban forest financed

by European Union was developed with the following elements:

- Vegetation improvement and complementing;

- watershed management;

- recreation cost analysis and facilities (new Master plan); and

- forest protection, forest road improvement, watering system expansion, control of

insect pests, forest cultivation.

The ultimate principle is that urban forest should remain a natural forest with all

natural functions operative. This is secured at present with the strict forest law being

implemented.

215

References

Athanasiadis (n.n.).

Forest phytosociology. Giahoudi-Diapouli, Thessaloniki. (In Greek)

Kapetanopoulos G (1984).

Element electronic calculation of weight dams. Ministry of Agriculture 142800/

13.3.1984, Athens.

Kotoulas D (1985).

Management and control of torrents. Part 1. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,

University Press, Thessaloniki. (In Greek)

Kotoulas D (1989).

The small dams. Agricultural Chamber of Greece, Thessaloniki. (In Greek)

Kotoulas D (1997).

Management and torrent control in prefecture of Thessaloniki. Aristotle University

of Thessaloniki, Laboratory of Watershed Management, Thessaloniki.

Margaropoulos P (1950).

Hydraylic calculations of watershed management works. Ministry of Agriculture

KTGK & Forests, Athens. (In Greek)

Margaropoulos P (1955).

Applied study of watershed management of torrent Pylaeas (Kyberniou). Ministry

of Agriculture Y.P.E.M, Division of reforestation and Watershed Management,

Thessaloniki. (In Greek)

Mavromatis G (1980).

Le bioclimat de la Grèce. Relations entre le climat et la vegetation naturelle. Cartes

bioclimatiques. Institut des recherches forestiéres d’Athenes. Forest research V(1).

Stefanidis P (1990).

Morphometrical and hydrographical composition of torrent types in Northern

Greece. Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki. Scientific Annals of the

Department of Forestry and natural Environment. Appendix No 6 Volume LB

(Dissertation). Thessaloniki.

Stefanidis P, Sapountzis M & Stathis D (2001).

Sheet erosion after fire at the urban forest of Thessaloniki. Bulgarian Forest

Research Institute No 1. 2001. Printing House Bolid Bulgaria.

216

Spanos K et al. (2000).

Post fire establishment of plantings in the suburban forest park of Thessaloniki:

First results two years after the great fire. Forest Research Institute (NAGREF).

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Dept. of Forestry and Natural Environment.

District of Central Macedonia, Reforestation Directorate of Thessaloniki. National

Agricultural Research Foundation Vol. 13. Athens, Greece.

Vantellas A (1983).

Torrent basins of hydrographic network of Greece. Minisry of Agriculture, Athens.

(In Greek)

217

Arboricultural Research of Trees in City ofLjubljana and Instructions for their Care

Primoz OvenUniversity of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty,Department of Wood Science and TechnologyRozna dolina VIII/34, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

Abstract

In the City of Ljubljana 612 trees were investigated: 358 in Park Tivoli and 254 in other

areas of the City (Ambrozev trg, Eipprova, Mrtvaski most-Vrazov trg, Poljanski nasip,

Prule-Grudnovo nabrezje in Trnovski pristan). Species and biometrical characteristics

of trees were determined. Biotic and abiotic injuries of crown, stem and roots were

investigated. Growth history, wood structure and activity of the cambial zone were

additionally studied for 30 horse-chestnut trees. De-icing salts seriously affected trees,

growing along the streets. Early defoliation of horse-chestnut trees attacked by

Cameraria ohridella was not yet detectable in the annual increment or structure of the

wood. Trees were mechanically wounded by building operations, cars, vandalism,

mowing and non-professional pruning. Defects were described and adequate

arboricultural measurements were proposed for individual trees: 35 trees should be

removed and replaced, 26 trees needed a security system in the crown, 275 should be

nursed according to given instructions, and the rest of trees needed regular and

professional care.

Key words: arboriculture, urban tree, health status, hazardous trees, biotic and abiotic

injuries

Introduction

As opposed to larger European countries, management of street trees in Slovenia

lacked a systematic approach until recently. Increasing pressure of public opinion and

commercial interest for tree care during the last five years generated demands for

improved management. Interest for trees was mainly triggered by breakage and failure

of branches and trees in storms (wind, heavy snow) in the years 1996, 1998 and 1999,

as well as by an explosion of the horse-chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella)

population. Demands to cut down ‘sick and non-perspective’ tree species became very

strong, although the majority of trees are protected as a natural heritage. In response,

the City of Ljubljana initiated the research project “Arboricultural research of trees in

218

City of Ljubljana and instructions for their care” in 1999. Objectives of the project

were among others: to assess vitality of trees and to identify factors affecting it, to

evaluate hazard potential and to prepare instructions for tree care. Results of this

research are reported here.

Material and methods

Research included trees along streets with a high frequency of traffic and trees in Park

Tivoli. The latter served as a control trees and will be referred as to Park Tivoli trees in

this article. Street trees will be the term used to refer to first group of trees.

Due to the lack of data on trees in Ljubljana, we had to count the trees to obtain a

traceable identification number and to determine the species. Height and DBH (at 1.3

m above ground) were measured with Suunto instruments and served as basic

biometrical data.

To obtain an integral assessment of vitality of the investigated trees several methods

were used: visual assessment of the crown according to Rollof (1998); a study of the

anatomy of cambial zone was used to reveal seasonal activity of the cambium (Oven

1999); and dendrochronology was employed to reveal history of secondary growth of

trees in the last decades (Oven & Levanic 2001).

An evaluation of the hazard potential of the trees involved identification of target,

recording growth defects as well as the frequency and distribution of mechanical

wounds. Moreover, wood destroying fungi (fruit bodies) were identified and an

evaluation was made of the extent of decay using increment boring to obtain wood

cores, and drilling with a 3 mm bit to asses the colour, odour, and texture of the wood

particles. Methodologies described by Matheny & Clark (1994), Dujesiefken et al.

(1999) and Kowol et al. (1999) were applied.


Collection of basic data revealed that 612 trees were included in the arboricultural

research (Figure 1). The number of tree species was relatively small. All trees from

Park Tivoli were horse-chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum). This species also

prevailed among the street trees: 144 trees were horse-chestnut trees, 66 maples (Acer

psudoplatanus, A. platanoides, A. saccharinum) and 30 trees were willows (Salix x spulcralis).

The other trees were of the following species: Betula pendula, Ailanthus altissima, Platanus

x hispanica, Fraxinus excelsior „Pendula“, Sofora japonica and Tilia platyphyllos.

The majority of investigated trees were adults. Among the street trees only 13 were

young trees with a diameter at the breast height (DBH) smaller than 15 cm. 7 trees

219

(Salix x sepulcralis) had a DBH smaller than 10 cm. Due to a restoration program of

tree colonnades going on in Park Tivoli, the share of young trees was much higher, 121

horse-chestnuts had a DBH smaller than 15 cm. The DBH of adult trees ranged from

55 to 98 cm and the height ranged from 15 to 28 m.

Figure 1. Number of trees included in the arboricultural research in the City of Ljubljana.

Symptoms of more than one adverse factor diminishing the vitality of trees were

found for all investigated trees. All horse-chestnut trees were affected with C. ohridella

and Guignardia aesculi. The insect was detected in 1994 in Slovenia and is usually causing

defoliation in the middle of August every year. Typical symptoms of water stress and

de-icing salts were recognised on leaves of city trees, irrespective of the species. The

rate of street trees affected with de-icing salts reached 36 % (out of 131 trees) in the

examined city area Prule.

To examine the influence of above-mentioned adverse factors, a detailed analysis of

the seasonal duration of cambial activity and the history of secondary growth have

been studied in selected adult horse-chestnut trees.

The beginning of cambial activity did not reveal differences between affected street

trees and apparently healthy trees from Park Tivoli. The first cellular divisions in the

cambial zone were detected on April 21st, 1999 in both affected and healthy trees.

Differences between healthy park trees and affected street trees were visible at the end

of the growing period. The growing period of affected trees ended on August 4th, 2000

as assessed by the absence of cambial divisions. On the contrary, the cambial zone of

healthy trees still displayed divisional activity at this date. For all investigated affected

trees annual growth (increment) had already been completed by August 4th. This was

not the case for healthy trees. The annual increment consisted of already differentiated

wood elements and cells in the process of differentiation. It could be concluded that

the growing season of healthy trees is longer than the growing period of affected trees.

Park Tivoli

358 / 58%

Street trees

254 / 42%

No. of investigated trees = 612

220

The thickness of the annual growth rings in affected trees was smaller than in healthy

park trees (Figure 2).

Five groups of trees were selected for dendrochronology: six apparently healthy trees

from Park Tivoli, five topped trees, nine trees affected by de-icing salts and five trees

which were considered to be affected by C. ohridella earlier and more severe than other

test trees. Growth of apparently healthy trees was found to be stable during the last 80

years, despite unfavourable site conditions. Before 1954 tree rings of the other three

groups were two to three times wider than the reference trees. Thereafter the width of

the tree rings decreased, accompanied by changes in wood structure up to present

(Figure 2). Vessels of the trees affected with de-icing salts were numerous and smaller.

On the other hand, vessels were numerous but larger in topped trees, both compared

to healthy trees from Park Tivoli. It was concluded that the vitality of street trees in

Ljubljana had diminished primarily due to anthropogenic factors. It is supposed that

the survival chances of horse-chestnut trees drastically diminish due to a simultaneous

effect of a biological factor (leaf miner) and unfavourable anthropogenic influences.

Figure 2. Radial growth of apparently healthy horse-chestnut trees from Park Tivoli and affectedstreet trees in the City of Ljubljana during the last 80 years.

Identification of hazardous trees was based on the evaluation of target and inspection

of growth defects, frequency and distribution of mechanical wounds, identification of

wood destroying fungi (fruit bodies) and evaluation of extant of decay. Dead wood in

the crowns was present in each of the 612 trees. The number and diameter of dead

branches increased with diminishing vitality of trees. The presence of co-dominant

branches with included bark was the most obvious growth defect. Surprisingly all

investigated trees (612) were mechanically wounded. Improper and unnecessary

pruning (toping, flush cut) and failure of branches in crowns, vandalism, traffic

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year

0

500

1000

1954

19581973

1993

De-icing salts

Cameraria

Healthy trees

Topped trees

Radia

l in

cre

ment

(0,0

1 m

m)

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year

221

accidents on stems and construction activities around the root systems were identified

as main causes of damage to trees. Dieback of newly planted trees due to damage to

root crowns and vandalism was found to drastically diminish success of the replanting

program in Park Tivoli. Very often large pruning wounds and wounding of roots has

caused extensive dieback of cambium along the stems. In such cases bark is still

present on the stems, hence the defect cannot be recognized by visual inspection.

Measurements of electrical resistance of the cambial zone proved to be a very useful

tool for identification of such defects.

Instructions for management of investigated trees were prepared according to ZTV

Baumpflege (1993) and EAC (1999). Urgent felling (Figure 3) was recommended for

35 trees. For 26 trees it was recommended to use a security system in the crown (Cobra

system). Moreover, for 276 trees we recommended to employ one of the following

regular care pruning techniques, formative pruning, crown lifting and crown

maintenance.

Figure 3. Structure of recommended arboricultural measures for investigated trees in the City ofLjubljana.

For 275 trees (Figure 3) pruning for safety reasons was recommended, in addition to

other case sensitive recommendations. These included, for example, mulching,

supporting, removal of electrical infrastructure being attached to dead branches in

crown, removal of balustrades, prevention of parking, irrigation, change of the regime

of salt spreading, regular collection of affected leaves, and so forth.

In conclusion, it should be stressed that the decreasing vitality of trees and the

increasing rate of hazardous trees in the City of Ljubljana is due to anthropogenic

factors. The condition of trees could be improved by applying contemporary

arboricultural practice, which should replace the existing, experience-based approach.

It is likely however, that this could be achieved if stronger co-operation between the

Pruning for safety

resons

45%

Regular care

45%

Securty system in

the crown

4%

Felling

6%

(No. of trees = 612)

222

city administration, practitioners and research institutions could be established within

an extensive continuing tree program. Preparation of guidelines in Slovenian (Oven &

Zupancic 2001) could be considered as a first step in this direction.

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by the City of Ljubljana (Department of culture and

research, Department of municipal services and traffic) and the Ministry of Culture of

the Republic of Slovenia.

References

Dujesiefken D, Wohlers A & Kowol T (1999).

Die Hamburger Baumkontrolle – der Leitfaden für eine fachgerechte

Baumkontrolle. In: Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege

1999: 124-138. Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig.

European Arboricultural Council (EAC) (1999).

European Tree Pruning Guide. Tree Advice Trust, Forest Research Station, Alice

Holt Lodge, Wrecclessham.

Kowol T, Wohlers A & Dujesiefken D (1999).

Baumkontrolle nach Baumarten differenziert typische Schadsymptome bei Linde,

Eiche und Roßkastanie. Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 1999: 139-156. Thalacker Medien,

Braunschweig.

Matheny P & Clark JR (1994).

A photographic guide to the evaluation of hazard trees in urban areas. 2nd edit.

International Society of Arboriculture, Savoy, Illinois.

Oven P (2000).

Arboristicna naliza drevja V MOL in navodila za njihovo nego. Biotehniska

fakulteta, Ljubljana.

Oven P & Levanic T (2001).

Jahrringanalytische und holzanatomische Untersuchungen unterschiedlich

befallener Rosskastanien (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) in der Stadt Ljubljana

(Slowenien). In: Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege

2001: 254 – 259. Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig.

Oven P & Zupancic M (2001).

Navodila za obzagovanje urbanega drevja. V: Arboristicna preiskava izbranih

drevoredov v Mestni obcini Maribor in navodila za nego dreves. Biotehniska

fakulteta, Oddelek za lesarstvo: 90-99.

223

Rollof A (1998).

Vitalitätsbeurteilung anhand der Kronenstruktur. In: Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck

P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 1998: 142 – 151. Thalacker Medien,

Braunschweig.

ZTV-Baumpflege (2001).

Zusätzliche Technische Vertragsbedingungen und Richtlinien für Baumpflege. 4.

Auflage, Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung - Landschaftsbau e.V.

(FLL), Bonn.

225

Managing Forest Fires Near Urban Areas inMediterranean Countries

Ramon Vallejo, Susana Bautista, Jaime Baeza, and J.Antonio AllozaFundación CEAM, Parque TecnológicoCh. Darwin 14, 46980 Paterna, Spain

Abstracts

Wildfires are increasingly affecting the wildland-urban interface all over the world.

Therefore, protection measures are urgently required to prevent burning of structures

and to avoid post-fire damages in urban areas. Preventive measures are concentrated

on reducing the fuel load in the surroundings of settlements, to reduce flammability of

housing materials, and to ensure accesses and extinction systems. The complexity of

the problem of the wildland-urban interface makes it difficult to implement existing

regulations. Several techniques are developed to mitigate post-fire effects downslope.

Among them, emergency seeding has been widely used in the wildland-urban, interface

especially in southern California. The use of native herbaceous and shrubby species

together with onsite mulching material is recommended to protect only those hillsides

previously recognised as prone to soil erosion, and for those sites threatening

structures. In general, all restoration projects for burned lands should take into account

the principles of fire prevention

Key Words: forest fires, wildland-urban interface, fire prevention.

Introduction

Wildfires are becoming a major disturbance in forests and shrublands in the

Mediterranean, like in other parts of the world (Pausas & Vallejo 1999), and a threat to

properties and structures. In southern Europe, wildfires have greatly increased since

the last quarter of the 20th century, mainly in relation to rural land abandonment and

human activities (Moreno et al. 1998). A relevant part of wildfires in Mediterranean

countries affects periurban areas, and in many cases densely inhabited tourist areas in

summer, when wildfires mostly occur. The problem is likely to escalate in the future

with the urban developments in the coastal strips, which often invade wildland areas.

This generates the specific issue of fire management of the wildland/urban interface

(Davis 1990). This is especially critical in the USA, where in addition to the intermixing

of fuels with the settlements, in many cases the houses are made of wood and other

flammable materials (Cohen 2000). Unfortunately, experiences in the past

demonstrated the high danger for human beings and properties in these areas.

226

Particularities of the wildland/urban interface

For fire management, the wildland/urban interface has several characteristics (Davis

1990, Conard and Weise 1998, Cohen 1999) that deserve a different approach than

open wildland fires.

- Human activities are a major cause for fire occurrence, therefore high human

frequentation in the vicinities of settlements induces high ignition hazard. In this

way, the hot spots of high fire recurrence often happen in the wildland/urban interface.

- Fuels accumulated in vegetation, home ignitability and fuel load of buildings are very

high.

- Tourist developments often generate housing conflicts that may increase arson risk.

- Land abandonment is most frequent in periurban areas leading to the accumulation

of highly flammable fuels in the Mediterranean (Baeza et al. 1998).

- Urban development concentrates on private land, which complicates the intervention

of forest services for fire prevention measures (such as fuel control). In addition,

prescribed fire applications are restricted for safety reasons.

- High risk of structure losses in the first few hours of an incident, therefore fast in-

tervention is very critical.

- High human and property risk.

- Hazard of direct impact of post-fire flooding, erosion/sedimentation, and mud

flows on human population.

- High value of affected land. Therefore, higher potential investments for restoration

can be envisaged than in common wildlands.

- In general, closer proximity of fire brigades and (relatively) good access, though

sometimes access can be a bottleneck, demonstrated in some of the most dramatic

accidents.

Preventive measures

Fire prevention in the wildland/urban interface is relatively old as a recognised

problem (at least since the 1960’s in the USA) having old solutions as well, i.e.

managing fuels near structures (USDA 1996). But, in general, there is little real

implementation. Progress in those fields will require legal mandates, zoning regulations,

fire and building codes, insurance rating systems, and tackling social and psychological

factors (Davis 1990). In southern California (Conard and Weise 1998), mosaic burning

through prescribed fire programs was implemented since the 1980s to reduce fuel and

decrease the size of wildfires. According to the same authors, these programs have

been difficult to implement and little effective, especially in the wildland-urban

interface because of the risk of burning structures and public opposition. In view of

these limitations, Conard and Weise (1998) recommend to separate urban interface

areas from natural fuels through intensive and rotational fire risk management in these

areas, taking advantage of natural or man-made barriers, such as roads.

227

Fire prevention in the immediate wildland-urban interface has the twofold objective of

preventing ignition from the urban areas and preventing of damage in the settlements

from fires originated in wildland areas (Conard and Weise 1998). In these situations,

fire prevention is focused on the so-called “home ignition zone”, a zone with a 25-60

m radius surrounding the houses (Cohen 2000, Vélez 2000) or even less, e.g. 9 m

(SGSF 1998). Experimental and modelling evidence indicates that fuel reduction may

be inefficient at hundred of more meters around homes because the distance is greater

than necessary for reducing ignitions from flames. Also it is ineffective because it does

not sufficiently reduce firebrand production that potentially extend for several

kilometres away from structures (Cohen 1999). Tourist resorts would require a fire-

break strip at least 25 m wide, with adjoining trees pruned to a minimum height of 4 m

(Leone et al. 2000). Regulations intend to maintain a low fuel load in the home ignition

zone, to reduce flammability of housing materials, and to ensure access and proper

functioning of extinction systems. Usually there is no federal or national legislation in

this regard, but there is legislation at the local (community or municipality) level for fire

prevention in the periurban zone. In Spain, there is autonomic legislation for some

regions, e.g. in Catalonia a cleared protective belt of 25 m around urban settlements

should be maintained by the owners.

Vegetation management to reduce fire hazard should consider vegetation dynamics and

ecosystem conservation. In addition to fuel reduction, small changes in connectivity by

managing the spatial arrangement of fuels may largely influence fire spread (Turner et

Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3

Nu

mb

er

of

se

ed

lin

gs

(m

-2)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Slash

No slash

Figure 1. Control of fire-prone shrublands in Eastern Spain. Reduction of the fuel accumulator Ulexparviflorus germination by clearing and spreading slash on soil surface. Slash cover reduced seedgermination with respect to bare soil.

Ulex oarviflorus germination

228

al. 1989). Clearing techniques should be based on a deep knowledge of the biology of

the target plant species (fuel accumulators) in order to optimise the treatments. Often,

fire-prone ecosystems develop after land abandonment in southern Europe, and this

mainly occurs in the vicinity of settlements. As an example, in fire-prone shrublands

dominated by obligate seeders and fuel-accumulators, such as gorse (Ulex parviflorus) in

eastern Spain, clearing treatments spreading slash on soil surface allow reducing fuel

load and decrease gorse germination (Figure 1).

Post-fire emergency mitigation/rehabilitation treatments

Burned wildlands are exposed to increased water and wind erosion, and runoff, due to

the temporal loss of protective plant and litter cover. These processes can occur close

to structures, generating a high risk of damage to human properties and lives down

slope. The objective of post-fire management actions is to reduce runoff and soil

erosion, including offsite effects (flooding, mudflows, siltation), and promote

ecosystem recovery at the same time. The most common treatments are (Forrest and

Harding 1994, Robichaud et al. 2000):

- Seeding (aerial or ground) with mulching to promote a fast herbaceous cover to

reduce erosion risk;

- contour-felled logs;

- silt fences;

- check dams, gabions; and

- other hillside treatments: contour trenches, blankets.

This paper will concentrate on seeding practices, as they are controversial nowadays. In

a recent review (Robichaud et al. 2000), mostly based on the USA experience, several

potential shortcomings have been identified for seeding practices:

- Seeding may not be needed when natural regeneration is efficient;

- uncertain germination rates;

- risk of being affective only late in the first and second post-fire season; and

- competition of seeded non-native species (e.g. Lolium multiflorum) with native flora.

We have developed some experiments on post-fire emergency seeding in Eastern Spain

(Vallejo and Alloza 1998). The first step was to identify those burned areas that might

need emergency mitigation measures. The selection criteria were related to erosion and

runoff risk, namely steep slopes, erodible soil, and low regeneration capacity for

vegetation. Previous research (Abad et al. 1996) showed that the post-fire regeneration

capacity in eastern Spain was mainly controlled by the presence of resprouting species,

i.e. those areas dominated by resprouters showed an efficient plant cover regeneration,

229

quite independent of post-fire weather conditions, and unlikely to be improved by

seeding treatments. On the contrary, plant communities dominated by obligate seeders

often show slow plant cover regeneration, which, in addition, is highly dependent on

post-fire rainfall. This poor plant regeneration was concentrated on south-facing

slopes. Therefore, post-fire erosion and runoff risk could be assessed from pre-fire

conditions that can be obtained from available maps and/or a quick field survey just

after a fire.

Selected erosion-prone plots were seeded right after fires, using a mixture of seeds,

mulching material (200 gm–2 straw) and inorganic fertiliser. The seed mixture included

commercially available seeds of native or naturalised herbaceous species, combining

perennials with annuals, and grasses with legumes. Annuals show fast germination

ability after the first rain, whereas perennials allow longer persistence of plants,

independent of the uncertain flowering, seed production and germination rate of

introduced species. The different rooting depth and pattern of grasses and legumes,

and the potential N-fixing capacity of the latter, justify their mixed application.

Seeded plots showed a fast recovery of plant cover within two months after

application. Measurements taken 6 and 18 months after seeding showed a transient

increase in plant cover, especially significant under semi-arid conditions (Figure 2), with

almost all introduced species having disappeared after 18 months. Therefore, no

inhibition of regrowth of native species was observed in those plots. Treated plots

showed significantly lower erosion rates than the control plots (Figure 3). Therefore,

the technique proved to be efficient in protecting vulnerable ecosystems after fire.

Figure 2. Total plant cover 6 and 18 months after seeding in dry-sub-humid and semiarid burnedareas (mean values and standard error). Seeding + mulching treatment significantly increased plantcover in the short-term in semiarid conditions.

Dry-sub-humid

To

tal

pla

nt

co

ver

(%)

0

20

40

60

80

100

Semiarid

Seeding + Mulching

Control

6 months 18 months 6 months 18 months

*

230

We performed a subsequent set of erosion-plots experiments in a pine forest under

semi-arid conditions. The study was conducted in a periurban coastal stand moderately

impacted by tourist recreation and severely affected by a large wildfire. We compared a

seeding + mulching treatment with an only mulching treatment (no seeding) and

control plots. The two treatments applied showed similar results in terms of increasing

plant cover and reducing runoff and erosion, especially for the most vulnerable sites

within the burned stand (Table 1). It is interesting to note that mulching alone

protected soil surface from post-fire degradation and soil loss, and also enhanced

spontaneous plant growth (Bautista at al. 1996). Therefore, in our experimental sites,

mulching alone was effective and feasible enough as a mitigation measure after fire.

Table 1. Total sediment yield (g m-2) for the first 18 months after treatment application in a semiaridburned pine forest. B1, B2, and B3 sites represent increasing levels in fire severity.

Figure 3. Soil erosion rates in treated (seeding + mulching) and control plots in dry-sub-humid andsemiarid conditions (mean values and standard error). Seeding + mulching treatment significantlyreduced soil loss.

Semiarid

So

il l

os

s (

Mg

ha

-1 y

ear-1

)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Seeding + Mulching

Control

Dry-subhumid

Seeding +Mulching

Mulching Control

Site B1 14 9 18

Site B2 17 11 33

Site B3 21 18 292

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According to Robichaud et al (2000) and our own experience described above, various

alternatives are proposed to the shortcomings of seeding treatments:

1) Previous assessment of natural regeneration potential:

a) selection of areas with poor regeneration potential (e.g. low resprouters cover);

b) high runoff and erosion risk (steep slope, compact soils); and

c) high downstream risk of damage (infrastructures, homes).

2) Spreading mulch (preferably onsite slash) to ensure immediate soil protection

3) Selection of seeding mixtures using native species:

a) Fast growing annuals;

b) Perennials for the persistence of soil protection;

c) Grasses and legumes; and

d) Shrubs and trees to enhance secondary succession.

In general, all restoration projects for burned lands in fire-prone ecosystems, being

either seeding or plantation, should take into account the principles of fire prevention

(Vélez 1990). E.g. to avoid mono-culture plantations, to reduce fuel accumulator

species, to promote more resilient and late-successional vegetation (Vallejo and Alloza

1998), and to design all interventions in the landscape so to reduce the hazard of fire

spread (Turner 1994, Forman and Collinge 1996).

Acknowledgements

This research has been supported by the Regional Government of Valencia (Generalitat

Valenciana) and Fundación Bancaixa.

References

Abad N, Caturla RN, Baeza J, Bladé C, Vieira F, Carbó E, Valdecantos A, Bonet A, Serrasolsas

I, Guardia R, Raventós J, Alloza JA, Escarré A, Bellot J & Vallejo VR (1996).

Regeneración de los montes quemados. In: La restauración de la cubierta vegetal en

la Comunidad Valenciana. V.R. Vallejo ed. 51-148. CEAM, Valencia.

Bautista S, Bellot J & Vallejo VR (1996).

Mulching treatment for postfire soil conservation in a semiarid ecosystem. Arid Soil

Res. and Rehab., 10: 235-242.

Baeza MJ, Raventós J & Escarré A. (1998).

Structural changes in relation to age in fire-prone mediterranean shrubland. II Int.

Confer. on Forest Fire Research. Vol II, 2567-2578. Luso, Protugal.

232

Cohen JD (1999).

Reducing the wildland fire threat to homes: Where and how much? USDA Forest

Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-173, 189-195

Cohen JD (2000).

Preventing disaster: home ignitability in the wildland-urban interface. J. Forestry

98(3):15-21.

Conard SG & Weise DR (1998).

Management of fire regime, fuels, and fire effects in southern California chaparral:

lessons from the past and thoughts for the future. In: T.L. Pruden and L.A.

Brennan (Eds) Fire in ecosystem management: shifting the paradigm from suppres-

sion to prescription. Pp. 342-350, Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference Proc., no.

20, Tall Timbers Res. Station, Tallahassee, USA.

Davis J (1990).

The wildland-urban interface: Paradise or battleground? J. Forestry, 88 (1): 26-31.

Forman RTT & Collinge SK (1996).

The „spatial solution“ to conserving biodiversity in landscapes and regions. En:

R.M. DeGraaf and R.I. Miller (Eds) Conservation of Faunal Diversity in Forested

Landscapes: 537-569. Chapman & Hall, London.

Forrest CL & Harding MV (1994).

Erosion and sediment control: Preventing additional disasters after the southern

California fires. J. Soil and Water Conservation 49(6): 535-541.

Leone V, Saracino A, Trabaud L & Vélez R (2000).

Fire prevention and management policies in west Mediterranean pine forests. In:

Neleman G & Trabaud L (Eds): 335-353. Ecology, Biogeography and Management

of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia Forest Ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin,

Blackhuys Publ., Leiden.

Moreno, J.M., Vázquez, A. and Vélez, R., 1998.

Recent history of forest fires in Spain. In: Moreno, JM (Ed): Large forest fires, J.M.

Moreno ed., 159-185. Backhuys Pub., Leiden, The Netherlands.

Pausas JG & Vallejo VR (1999).

The role of fire in European Mediterranean ecosystems. In: Chuvieco E. (Ed): pp.

3-16. Remote sensing of large wildfires in the European Mediterranean basin.

Springer-Verlag.

Robichaud PR, Beyers JL & Neary DG (2000).

Evaluating the effectiveness of postfire rehabilitation treatments. Gen. Tech. Rep.

RMRS-GTR-63. USDA, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Res. Station. Fort Collins,

USA.

233

SGSF (Southern Group of State Foresters) (1998).

When the forest becomes a community. A forester’s handbook for the wildland/

urban interface. USDA Forest Service, Atlanta, USA.

Turner MG. (1994).

Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems. Landscape Ecology 9(1): 59-77.

Turner MG., Gardner RH, Dale VH & O’Neill R V (1989).

Predicting the spread of disturbance across heterogeneous landscapes. Oikos 55:

121–129.

USDA (1996).

Federal wildland policy. USDA Forest Service. Avaliable online at: (http://

www.fs.fed.us/land/wdfire.htm).

Vallejo VR & Alloza JA (1998).

The restoration of burned lands: the case of eastern Spain. In: Moreno JM (Ed)

Large forest fires: 91-108. Backhuys, Leiden, Holland.

Vélez R (1990).

Algunas observaciones para una selvicultura preventiva de incendios forestales,

Ecología, Fuera de Serie nº 1: 561-571.

Vélez R (2000).

Otras infraestructuras preventivas. In: Vélez R (Ed) La defensa contra incendios

forestales: 14.82-14.86. McGraw-Hill, Madrid.

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Partnerships for urban forestry

Chapter 6

237

The White Rose Forest – A Catalyst for theRegeneration of a Region

Alan SimsonLandscape at Leeds Research Group,Faculty of Health and Environment, LeedsMetropolitan UniversityBrunswick Building, Leeds LS2 8BU.United Kingdom

Abstract

It is generally believed that there is a ‘north – south divide’ in the UK, largely broughtabout by the undue centralisation of economic power on London and the southeastregion. The UK Government addressed this issue in December 1997, when it publis-hed a White Paper entitled ‘Building Partnerships for Prosperity’, which set outgovernment plans for the development of the English Regions. The subsequent ‘Re-gional Development Agencies Act’ (November 1998) set up nine RegionalDevelopment Agencies (RDA’s), one of which was the Yorkshire and Humber RDA,now known as Yorkshire Forward.

In the preface to its new Regional Development Strategy, Yorkshire Forwardarticulated a vision of a “world class region, strong and globally competitive, a goodregion within which to live, work and play, and be educated”. To assist in developingthis vision, Yorkshire Forward commissioned Leeds Metropolitan University (LMU) toresearch and collate a wide range of statistical indicators about the region, its economy,its environment and its quality of life.

As a result of this research, Yorkshire Forward recognised that rapid improvement inattracting and retaining inward investment into the area could be facilitated bycombining commercial success with environmental improvement, particularly bysignificantly increasing the tree and woodland cover of the region and by being at thecutting edge of sustainable development.

After a programme of consultation with the National Urban Forestry Unit (NUFU)and numerous other agencies, it was decided to develop a strategy for enhancing thetree and woodland cover of the Yorkshire region. This was officially launched on 1st

August 2000 as the White Rose Forest (WRF). The project initially concentrated on thefive local authority metropolitan districts of West Yorkshire, including all the cities,towns, villages and their rural hinterland. The project aimed to increase the total

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woodland cover of the region to at least 6,5 % by 2016, which would entail theplanting of a minimum of 4000 ha of new woodland planting.

The vision of the White Rose Forest was to “create a genuinely sustainable well-wooded landscape which will benefit the people, the economy and the wildlife of(West) Yorkshire”. This paper considers the rationale behind this vision, its core aimsand priorities and the key actions involved in its delivery, including its role as a forumfor cross-authority working, training and research. The paper will conclude bysuggesting that the White Rose Forest could be considered as a national model forpromoting the positive role that trees and woodland can play in helping to deliver thewide range of policies of a Regional Development Agency.

Key words: urban forestry, trees, woodland, catalyst, regional regeneration, regionaldevelopment agency.

Introduction

There are those who say that there is a division between the people who live in thenorth of the UK, and those who live in the south. The implication is that in the north,things are not so good; there is a measure of unemployment, there is a post-industrial,despoiled landscape, the quality of life is compromised and people, particularly youngpeople, are leaving for richer pickings elsewhere. In the south however, the implicationis that the quality of life is good; there is full employment, there is a qualityenvironment, life has a certain ‘style’ to it. Like all good urban myths, there is a grainof truth in it although, as might be expected, it is not quite as simple as that.

What is true is that, historically speaking, too much power – particularly economicpower – has been centred on London. It has been suggested that, in terms ofeconomic performance, if London sneezed, then the English regions caught a badcold. Joking apart, what this means is that by setting a rigid, ‘one size fits all’ economicpolicy based on London, the government were contributing to this so-called ‘north-south divide’, or more accurately a ‘south-east – all other regions’ divide, by notrecognising that each region has its own aspirations, its own set of problems, andprobably its own ways of trying to solve them.

The UK government has made some progress with trying to address this issue. Walesand Scotland now enjoy a measure of devolution, and Northern Ireland has a measureof self-determination as well. In December 1997, it was the turn of the Englishregions, when the government published a White Paper entitled ‘Building Partnershipsfor Prosperity’, which set out plans for the development of the English regions. Thesubsequent Regional Development Agencies Act of November 1998 set up nine

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Regional Development Agencies (RDA’s), one of which was the Yorkshire & HumberRDA, now known as Yorkshire Forward.

Yorkshire and Humber Region

Regional Development Agencies have both a wide networking role and a policydevelopment brief, as well as being responsible for delivering some services directly,but their core task is to revitalise their region by developing and delivering a new,visionary Regional Economic Strategy. Yorkshire Forward’s vision is simple andstraightforward. It is to be “the driving force behind the economic regeneration ofYorkshire & Humber, delivering a programme of change that will make a positivedifference to our people, our businesses and our environment” (Yorkshire Forward1999a).

To achieve this, the RDA articulated six prime objectives:- To grow the region’s businesses;- to achieve higher business births and survival rates;- to attract and retain more inward investment;- to improve education, learning and skills;- to target community-based regeneration programmes; and- to get the best from the region’s physical and environmental assets.

As part of the preparation for their new strategy, the Yorkshire & Humber RDAProject Team commissioned Leeds Metropolitan University to undertake a study ofthe region to produce a series of baseline studies (LMU 1998). This research presenteda picture of Yorkshire & Humber’s regional performance across a wide range ofregional issues and performance indicators, including environmental quality. The broadconclusion was that, although there were many significant success stories and newregeneration opportunities, the region was not performing well.

The region of Yorkshire & Humber is a strange admixture of contrasts. It covers ahuge area, in excess of 15,500 km2, and has a population of more than 5 millionpeople – approximately the same as Scotland or slightly less than Denmark. They arenot evenly distributed, there being an average of 0,3 people/ha in parts of the northof the region and 10,39 people / ha in parts of the south (the UK average is 3,6people/ha). The region has an ageing population, and it is predicted that over 10 % ofthe population under the age of 30 will have left the region by 2016. There are 9universities and over 40 colleges in the region, producing just over 10 % of all UKgraduates, and yet in 1996, the region was ranked 36 out of 38 when compared againstother comparable regions in the EU with regard to the percentage of 16-18 year oldswho were in some kind of education or training. The region’s GDP was only 87 % of

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the EU average in 1996, with low levels of manufacturing investment, low employmentin the high technology sectors, low investment in research and development and poorsmall firm formation and survival rates. And yet the regional capital, the City of Leeds,has the fastest-growing city economy in the whole of the UK (LMU 1998).

Worst of all, from the urban forestry point of view, was the fact that the region hadone of the lowest percentages of woodland cover in the UK (4,3 %). This comparesvery unfavourably with the 7,6 % average woodland cover in England, let alone theaverage UK cover of 10,8 %, and is way behind that found in many mainlandEuropean countries. Worst still, although parts of Sheffield, Rotherham and Barnsleybenefit from being part of the South Yorkshire Community Forest, which is graduallyincreasing the local woodland cover, Wakefield has the lowest woodland cover of anyBritish local authority (3,5 %).

Depressing though these statistics are, they did serve a purpose. It was recognised bythe RDA Project Team that rapid improvement in attracting and retaining inwardinvestment into the area could only be made by combining business success withenvironmental improvement, being at the cutting edge of sustainable development,and significantly increasing the tree and woodland cover of the region (YorkshireForward 1999b). It is interesting to note that whilst the Regional DevelopmentAgencies were beginning to find their feet, the Forestry Commission was being re-organised by having their regional administrative boundaries re-drawn to co-inside withthe new RDA boundaries. More significantly however, they published a new series ofstrategic priorities and programmes under the guise of a new English Forest Strategy(Forestry Commission 1998). Wales and Scotland were to have their own strategies.

Under the English Strategy, four Programme Actions were proposed:- Forestry for Rural Development;- Forestry for Recreation, Access & Tourism;- Forestry for Environment & Conservation; and- Forestry for Economic Regeneration.

Specifically pledged under the latter was a commitment to encourage the RDA’s to useforestry & woodland programmes to help deliver their vision, and also to encouragethe development of new urban forestry initiatives that demonstrate ‘achievementthrough partnership’ approaches. This new strategy represented a significant stepforward for forestry, and particularly urban forestry, in the UK. An early initiative bythe National Urban Forestry Unit (NUFU), in partnership with a number of otherorganisations, persuaded Yorkshire Forward of the merits of using a long-term,regional programme of urban forestry as a catalyst for the regeneration of the region,and thus the concept of the White Rose Forest was born (Simson in press).

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The White Rose Forest Strategy

Stimulated by their own beliefs in large-scale urban forestry and bolstered by a numberof UK governments reports (DETR 1999), NUFU commissioned a feasibility studyinto this potential regional urban forestry project (NUFU 1999), and following wideconsultation and an appraisal of existing regional and sub-regional planning and policyinitiatives, a one day seminar was held in Bradford in the September of 1999 to fullydiscuss the project. There was sufficient unanimity of purpose amongst the assembledpotential partners for a Forest Strategy Consultation report to be commissioned andpublished by NUFU in February 2000, although at that time, it was deemed politicallywise to limit the project to west Yorkshire, a sub-region of the county (GroundworkWakefield 2000).

Caution was thrown to the wind in July of that year, when it was agreed to change thename of the project to the White Rose Forest (WRF), thus declaring the project’sregional aspirations by adopting the floral emblem of Yorkshire. An outline strategywas also published that endeavoured to set out the first steps that would be required inorder to progress the project. These were:

- To establish a lead body capable of shaping and championing the strategy;- to make an inventory of existing and potential woodland sites to identify

opportunities for planting, public access and the enhancement of bio-diversity;- to relate the White Rose Forest Strategy to the rest of the region’s land-use planning

framework;- to secure the resources to enable the partners to implement the strategy;- to develop demonstration projects to promote the forest concepts; and- to raise public awareness of the benefits of more trees and woodland in and around

towns.

The project was officially launched on 1 August 2000 in the City of Bradford. Thepartnership comprised Yorkshire Forward, the Government Office for Yorkshire &The Humber, the National Urban Forestry Unit (NUFU), the five local authorities thatmake up West Yorkshire, and some 15 other institutions and organisations who had acommitment to or an interest in delivering the Forest on the ground (Simson in press).To date, this list of partners has remained the same, although several other localauthorities have expressed an interest in joining the partnership.

The mission statement for the White Rose Forest states that it is to “create a genuinelysustainable well-wooded landscape which will benefit the people, economy and wildlifeof (West) Yorkshire” (NUFU 2000). This would be achieved by establishing three coreaims:

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Economic aims - to improve the environment of (West) Yorkshire, as a means ofincreasing the region’s capacity to attract and retain successful businesses by:- Creating a more attractive setting for housing, business and commerce;- involving the business community in planning for new woodland;- giving priority to areas identified for future development;- including economic, training and employment objectives in the planning and

design of woodland projects; and- helping to market local wood products.

Social aims – to involve local communities in site identification, planning, planting andaftercare by:- Encouraging and promoting safe and easy access to woodland;- helping community groups to identify sites and to plan, plant and manage trees and

woodland where appropriate; and- consulting with local people when planting is proposed by WRF partners.

Environmental aims - to increase the quality, quantity and physical continuity of tree andwoodland cover in (West) Yorkshire, on a scale that will improve air quality, stabiliseand reclaim dereliction, reduce the risk of flooding and enhance bio-diversity by:- Protecting and enhancing existing woodland areas of conservation value;- respecting landscape character when designing new woodlands;- assessing sites for existing archaeological, historical, ecological and social value;- selecting plant species which are appropriate to the local landscape;- targeting resources to the priority areas; and- relating the White Rose Forest to national sustainability indicators.

Of vital important was the fact that this strategy was wholeheartedly politicallyendorsed by Graham Hall, the Chairman of Yorkshire Forward, and in particular theeconomic benefits that would accrue from the project. He said: “The future economicsustainability of Yorkshire and Humber is linked directly to the quality of life of localpeople, and the environment plays a vital role in both. A greater investment in theplanting and management of trees and woodlands will bring all kinds of benefits, fromcleaner air and more accessible wildlife, to the reclamation of wasted land and reducedstorm-water flooding. The fortunes of the region are bound to improve as aconsequence.” (NUFU 2000)

The management of the project

Responsibility for running the WRF is taken by a Steering Group and DevelopmentTeam, chaired by the author. This meets every other month and is supplemented byquarterly meetings of a Land Use Survey Group, an External Funding Group and The

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Development Officer Management Group. A Development Officer has been in postsince January 2000, and he is responsible for collating the annual planting programme,liasing with appropriate grant-making organisations, and drawing up a Business Planfor the Forest, in consultation with the project partners. A standard price of £12,000/ha. (approximately 19,675/ha.) has been agreed between the partners for theestablishment of new woodland. This guarantees funding for a five-year establishmentperiod, and although the cost may seem high, it does include a contingency sum of£5,000 ( 8,195) which can be claimed should poor site conditions demand additionalinvestment to ensure that robust woodland is quickly established. Community liaison isparticularly important, and to help with that task in the multi-ethnic communities ofthe industrial areas of Yorkshire, the White Rose Forest leaflets have been produced ina number of ethnic minority languages.

The Development Officer has a heavy workload, and in September of this year,funding was secured to appoint a White Rose Forest Partnership Manager, initially fora period of a year, to take on some of this load, but with the additional remit topromote the project politically and commercially.

Priority areas for planting have been identified, which include:- Transport corridors;- river valleys;- the old coalfield area;- extensions to existing local initiatives;- areas of social and economic deprivation; and- potential links between significant existing woodlands.

Future developments

Thus, significant achievements have already been made, but what of the future? It wasalways envisaged that it would take a generation to achieve the White Rose Forest, andalthough the momentum is building up, the amount of new planting achieved to date islower than had been hoped, only 44 ha of new woodland having been planted betweenthe 1998/99 and 2000/2001 planting seasons. The Foot and Mouth epidemic in theUK during the spring and early summer of 2001 was partially responsible for these lowfigures during the last planting season, because access to potential planting land wasprohibited. However, the momentum is building up with the 2001/2 season’sprogramme being about 40 ha, and the figures for 2002/3 and 2003/4 are provisionally54 ha and 60 ha respectively.

It has also proved necessary to draw up a legal agreement between the partners,primarily so that the White Rose Forest can access grant aid for tree planting or

C=

C=

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research purposes. It is also a useful cement to bind the Partnership closer together incommon purpose, which in turn assists the promotion of the project as a single entity.Finding a form of agreement that was acceptable to local authorities, public limitedcompanies, voluntary organisations and charitable bodies has not been easy, but a JointVenture Agreement has been drawn up. A final draft will be agreed by January 2002,and a high-profile media event will be staged in the spring of 2002 to re-state thecommitment of the various partners to the project and to raise the political profile ofthe project in the region.

Such activity is of crucial importance to the future success of the White Rose Forest. Itis sometimes hard to persuade local politicians of the economic merits of a projectsuch as the White Rose Forest. Large or regional scale environmental improvementinitiatives such as this find themselves in competition with demands for funding fromother large-scale projects, such as new business or commercial start-up support,infrastructure or transport projects, and it is becoming increasingly necessary to be ableto justify environmental improvement investment programmes in terms of theeconomic benefits which will accrue as a result of their implementation. In otherwords, in order to secure appropriate levels of resourcing, both financially and in termsof land-use allocation, for regional-scale environmental improvement works, includingurban forestry, there must be a sound economic rationale behind the proposals. TheWhite Rose Forest has begun to do this. Figure 1 indicates the potential contributionsthat the White Rose Forest can make to Yorkshire Forward’s Regional EconomicStrategy (RES). Selected objectives from the RES have been chosen to illustrate themost significant contributions that the WRF can make.

In order to deliver these significant contributions, and to progress urban forestry on aregional scale, the spectrum of people with whom urban foresters should be involvedextends far beyond what might be termed ‘urban tree people’. It is likely to involveliaison with political and professional colleagues who, in the normal run of events,might not consider themselves to be ‘pro-urban trees’.

One such liaison has occurred between the White Rose Forest Partnership and aregional organisation known as Concourse, a registered charity dedicated to the supportand promotion of multi- and inter-disciplinary professional working in theconstruction and design industries. The dialogue with Concourse is significant, becauseConcourse has had discussions with the Council for Architecture and the BuiltEnvironment (CABE), an organisation set up by the government to take over much ofthe role played by the Royal Fine Arts Commission in championing good design in thebuilt environment. Part of CABE’s remit is to set up Regional Centres for the BuiltEnvironment, in conjunction with all the professional institutes associated with the

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Objective 3: to attract and retain more investment by providing the right product for investors andmore effective marketing of the Region:

Deliverables: Delivery through the WRF:A) Market the Region more effectively: Woodland planting to improve the major

transport corridors, eg. targeting key sitesalong the motorway network with theHighways Agency.

B) Increase inward investment: Promote Yorkshire as an increasingly greenplace to live and work.

Objective 5: Implement targeted, community-based regeneration programmes to improve the livingstandards of the Region’s most deprived communities:

Deliverables: Delivery through the WRF:A) Develop sustainable neighbourhoods: Working with local communities to improve

their local environment

C) Increase the capacity of individuals, Through participation in the development local groups and businesses to be and delivery of schemes, and the acquisition effective partners, to influence of skills and experience. decisions and to participate in Regional initiatives:

D) Regenerate the region’s town and Through street tree and city centre city centres: arboretum projects, contributing to high-

quality urban landscapes.

E) Encourage community enterprise: Work with local Groundwork Trusts oncommunity enterprises ( eg Wakefield andthe proposal for a Community Forester.

Objective 6: getting the best out of the Region’s physical assets and conserving and enhancing itsenvironmental assets:

Deliverables: Delivery through the WRF:C) Optimise the availability of land The establishment of a wooded landscape and property for business: infrastructure, contributing to the supply of

high-quality sites for development.

E) Protect and enhance the Region’s Directly through woodland establishment on environment: disused and derelict land, and indirectly

from the environmental benefits of treecover (eg. improved air quality).

G) Promote initiatives to make better The establishment and management of use of natural resources: woodland for recreational use and the

sustainable harvesting of woodland for

Figure 1. Selected objectives of yorkshire forward’s regional economic strategy deliverable by theWhite Rose Forest (WRF).

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built environment, as well as networks of artists and other agencies. This was one ofthe recommendations of Richard Rogers’ Urban Task Force, and was endorsed by thegovernment’s Urban White Paper (DETR 2000). The likely location for the Yorkshire& Humber Regional Centre is Leeds, although there will be several satellite centres inother towns and cities around the region. There is cross-party political backing for theproject, and urban forestry and the White Rose Forest Partnership have been in on theground floor of these negotiations. The application and bid to CABE for setting upthe initial phase of this centre was submitted on 31st October 2001.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it was always intended that, as well as providing a catalyst for the social,economic and environmental regeneration of the Yorkshire Region, the White RoseForest would act as a forum for the partners to exchange ideas, experiences andinformation, and to provide opportunities for cross-authority, multi-disciplinaryworking, training and research. Indeed, this was deemed to be essential, if progress wasto be made in promoting urban forestry within the region and expanding its influence.It has taken a while for this sort of activity to get off the ground, but initiatives havestarted to develop. One such initiative that will hopefully bear fruit in the future isinvestigating the concept of ‘green asset management’.

All local authorities in England are required by central government to draw up anAsset Management Plan, which is reviewed annually. In assessing which assets shouldbe included in the Plan, two questions are asked. First, “is there a maintenance liabilityassociated with the asset?”, and secondly, “is there an opportunity cost associated withthe holding of the asset?” To date, this has been defined narrowly, and it is only reallythe property portfolio of the local authority that features in these Asset ManagementPlans, together with prime areas of developable land, if there are any in local authorityownership. There are plans however to include other structures, such as bridges,possibly public squares, art treasures and museum artefacts, and stocks and shares. Butnot trees, or woodlands, or urban green space generally. Why not? The selection criteriathat deems what can be included in an Asset Management Plan would certainly applyto trees and urban forestry.

Research and discussion within the Partnership have agreed that the economic value ofa piece of commercial real estate depends just as much on where it is, as what it is. Inother words, location is everything, and it can be responsible for up to two thirds of thevalue of a commercial asset. Urban forestry can help to create location, and in somecases, makes it entirely. Thus trees and urban forestry deserve to be included in everylocal authority’s Asset Management Plan, indeed it must if the concept of urban

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forestry is to be accepted as a prime mover in the regional or local regeneration game.It will be interesting to see whether progress can be made with these discussions, andwhether they turn out to be a good example of multi-disciplinary, cross-authorityworking and research.

Professionals involved in urban forestry should understand the benefits of multi-disciplinary working, and the creativity of the shared experience. We sometimes needto work hard at fanning the embers of the sort of productive relationships betweenindividuals, groups or partners that cannot be easily defined, or legislated for, ororganised or monitored, but where there is nevertheless a genuine delight in the cultureof the shared experience and the resulting progress made. If such a workingrelationship can be achieved within the White Rose Forest Partnership, then it couldwell become a powerful model of an urban forestry-stimulated catalyst for regionalregeneration for other regions to seriously consider.

References

DETR (1998).

The Regional Development Agency Act. Department of Environment, Transport& the Regions, London.

DETR (1999).

A better quality of life: A strategy for sustainable development in the UK. London.

DETR (2000).

Our towns and cities: The future – delivering an urban renaissance. November2000. Department of Environment, Transport & the Regions, London.

Forestry Commission (1998).

A focus for England’s woodlands - Strategic priorities and programmes: 16.Forestry Commission.

Groundwork Wakefield (2000).

The West Yorkshire Forest: A strategy report. Groundwork Wakefield.

LMU (1998).

The state of the region, A report for the Yorkshire and The Humberside RegionalDevelopment Agency. Leeds Metropolitan University, European Regional Businessand Economic Development Unit, Leeds.

NUFU (1999).

The West Yorkshire Urban Forest : The planning context for a West YorkshireStrategy. National Urban Forestry Unit, Wolverhampton.

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NUFU (2000).

The White Rose Forest: A strategy for urban and rural renewal in West Yorkshireusing trees and woodland. National Urban Forestry Unit, Wolverhampton.

Simson AJ (in press).

Regional Regeneration and the White Rose Forest. Paper given to IUFRO’s 4th

European Forum on Urban Forestry, May 2000. Durham, UK. Proceedings.

Yorkshire Forward (1999a).

Yorkshire and Humber Regional Planning Guidance: 58. Yorkshire Forward, Leeds.

Yorkshire Forward (1999b).

Turning the vision into reality: A regional economic strategy for Yorkshire andHumber. Yorkshire Forward, Leeds.

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Challenges of Neighbourhood Participation inCity-Scale Urban Green-space Planning

Ann Van HerzeleVrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Human Ecology.Laarbeeklaan 103, B1090 Brussel, Belgium

Abstract

This paper deals with an unique example of how an active strategy of internal andexternal negotiation together with the early involvement of public actors led toconsensus for creating a new 17 ha park in a former railway yard in the city ofAntwerp (northern Belgium). Comparable experiments abroad have shown thatinvolving the public in large-scale urban renewal plans is quite problematic. The mainobstacles are the multiple-level interests, the diversity of stakeholders, the long timespan and the abstract level of the discussions. In addition, it is difficult to provide anoverview of the large scale of this project with its somewhat unlimited possibilities andalternatives. In an attempt to cope with these problems, informal participatoryworkshops involving ‘key actors’ were organised parallel to and interactively with theformal visionary process. The aims were to generate a creative input from the publicand to initiate a participatory process in the long term. Based on these experiences, thispaper aims to summarise and discuss a vision on the approach of participatoryplanning for large-scaled urban greening.

Key Words: urban greenspace, public participation, greenspace planning.

Introduction

The participation of people in shaping their local environment plays a central role inthe creation of liveable neighbourhoods. Although there is a trend to base planningprocesses on broad discussion and an interactive dialogue, and the number of groupsgetting involved and their powers are increasing, individual citizens hardly get a chanceto participate in this market of negotiations. The willingness of local authorities toprovide space for them to take part in the planning process is often limited to the levelof their direct living environment. Consequently, projects planned on a higher level -for example where city issues are at stake - often lack public understanding because theimpact on the surrounding neighbourhoods is neglected. On the other hand, well-meaning attempts and experiences have shown that involving the public in large-scaleurban renewal plans is quite problematic. The large scale of the plans bring manyobstacles to effective public involvement such as the diversity of the stakeholders, the

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multiple levels of interest, the long time span and the abstract level of the discussions.In addition, it is difficult to provide an overview of the large scale of the project withits manifold possibilities and alternatives. This paper addresses possible approaches toacting and organising in the face of those obstacles related to the complex situation ofa the visionary process for an urban renewal project in a former railway yard in the cityof Antwerp. The case was chosen as it demonstrates so many challenges shared muchmore broadly.

Study context

The planning process concerns a former railway yard (24 ha) which is situated in thenorthern part of Antwerp, the district of Antwerp North (Flanders, northernBelgium), between the city centre and the port of Antwerp. The surrounding, densely-built neighbourhoods provide housing to over 35,000 inhabitants and are characterisedby low income levels, unemployment, high percentage of migrants, poor urban designetc. In addition, a recent study (Van Herzele et al. 2000, Van Herzele & Wiedemann inpress) showed that the neighbourhoods of Antwerp North are the most problematic inthe supply of green spaces on different functional levels.

In April 2001 the city government established a three step planning procedure. In thefirst step an internal consensus was reached on the future role of the area and thepreconditions for development. The largest part (17 ha) was designated to become apark and the remaining area in the western side for business development. In autumn2001 a successful external negotiation with the property owner, the Railway Company,was finished. In the third step the city will conduct the further project development inco-operation with other parties involved. Activities in this phase will be the clean up ofthe soils, the draw up of the land use plan and the organisation of an architecturalcompetition.

This paper deals with the first step of the planning procedure in which the city aims tocreate clarity about the objectives and to “speak with one voice” during the externalnegotiations. It particularly draws on the experiences from the study ‘Groen op hetSpoor’ (Van Herzele 2001) which was commissioned by the city authority to supportthe visionary process. This study was meant to provide essential elements for theunderpinning of the park idea, as well as to answer the many questions on where andwhat kind of greening should be developed. In the framework of this study aparticipatory approach was developed with the aim to generate a creative input fromthe public and to initiate a participatory process in the long term.

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Critical issues and obstacles to effective involvement

To develop an appropriate approach this study started to consider a range of criticalissues in large-scale planning contexts. These issues make social interaction and moreparticularly the engagement of the wider public most difficult. The overview is basedon the exploration of comparable experiences elsewhere and the observations made inthis case. It seemed that even in largely different contexts, planning in large-scale urbandevelopment shares many challenges.

Many alternatives

Large-sized open spaces, especially when located in densely built areas provide asomewhat unlimited array of possibilities and alternatives for development. Incontrast, there is limited room to manoeuvre, as urban development increasingly needsto act in a market-led world where productivity and financial benefits are in the centreof attention. In this context the creation of greening is often seen as a visuallyattractive adjunct or as an environmentally conscious backdrop to development ratherthan as a necessary element to support the quality of life. In addition, the shift in land-use policy towards a more compact city form puts first pressure on those open spaces,which have so far remained undeveloped. In many examples the conflictingrequirements of providing space for business, housing and infrastructure and thedemand of the residents for green spaces have constrained the participation process asthe polarisation of those demands has deadlocked communication.

Multiple-level interests

Even when green space creation gets a serious chance in the development processconflicts of interest are likely to arise from the wide range of claims for attention. Incase of large development areas the geographical area of interest is not easilyrecognisable to both local authorities and inhabitants. Empirical studies do assume thatgreen spaces fulfil different functions at different levels (see: Van Herzele &Wiedemann in press). City parks, for example, may have significance to the totality ofan urban area for recreation, while at the same time they have a strong connection withthe very local popular culture and social life. In a participatory process dealing withlarge spaces, conflicts may arise between the everyday needs of the immediatecommunity and the demands of the larger community. In addition, there often exists adrive to use urban development (including city parks) as a prestige object and even as amarketing promotion feature, presenting the city as attractive for investment, tourismetc.

Complexity in decision-making

Decision-making involved on the level of large developments, which is a very strategicone, is inherently political rather than technical. Planners might be strongly influenced

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by political pressures and external circumstances such as budgetary constraints ratherthan being driven from an articulated view of community needs. Moreover,negotiations operate in a multiplicity of formal and informal arenas and micro-processes within institutions and among local business interests may play a prominentrole. The complexity and confidentiality of negotiations and the unpredictability ofoutcomes are extremely difficult to manage in face of the public. On the other handlack of openness may cause uncertainty and distrust among the public andconsequently block their willingness to participate.

Abstract level of discussions

A common question in participatory planning is the difficulty to engage people withstrategic level planning where issues are discussed at a higher level of abstractionwithout being made concrete in practical measures. Many examples have shown thatonly when plans become tangible or conceivable participants become active. On theother hand, planners may feel hindered when too detailed issues are raised at this levelof general strategic choices.

Long time span

Involving people in a planning process does arouse expectations and hopes for thefuture. In the case of a large-scale development, realisations in the field will probablyonly become visible after many years. Continuation in communication over such a longtime span is difficult to organise and is often constrained by a loss of engagementamong participants. Moreover, on the short term local residents will be confrontedwith the inconveniences caused by works in the area, which may also be conductive toits negative image.

Vision on the participatory approach

Following the objectives of the study and in response to the described methodologicalchallenges, a vision on the overall approach was developed. It is described using fivekey characteristics. In an effort to make the vision on the approach more concrete, thedescription of each refers to practical experiences from application in this case.

Defining the area’s role as a whole

It was seen as crucial to first decide on the role and main function of the area as awhole by means of describing clear alternatives from the very beginning of theprocess. In the case of Antwerp North many uncertainties have arisen about the newrole of the railway yard during the past years. Residents and neighbourhood groupshave been requesting a park for several years. Within the city departments, however,diverse development scenarios have been proposed ranging from industrial

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development or the construction of a road to the creation of a park. It was decided toassess the main scenarios using a Geograhical Information System (GIS) tool for thedetection of their impact on the supply of green spaces on different functional levels(see: Van Herzele & Wiedemann in press). In a first step the deficiencies of greenspaces’ supply within the potential ‘catchment area’ of the railway yard were assessedon two functional levels (city quarter or 800 m and city district or 1600 m). Next asimulation exercise was carried out using the different development scenarios discussedduring that time. The results were linked to the demographic data of theneighbourhoods located within the catchment areas. The results were discussed in thefirst ‘Thinking Day’ of the formal visionary process (see the next paragraph). Based onthe quantitative results, the participating officials were given the choice between a parkwith importance for the surrounding neighbourhoods or a park with importance for aconsiderable part of the city. The latter opinion was adopted, which means that it wasdecided that the park should have an unbroken surface of at least 10 ha and green-space should be the dominant function of the former railway yard. Supported by thisdecision, the planners were able to develop a first planning concept, which waspresented for discussion in the first participatory workshop.

The experience from this case was that the visualisation of the impact of the differentdevelopment scenarios has helped the city officials to see how the proposed scenarioswill change the deficiencies and has supported the choice for the park idea as the mainfunction of the area. In this very early planning phase the quantitative assessment usingGIS has worked as ‘strategic ammunition’ leading to quickly balancing a series ofcompeting claims and interests by quantifying the more ‘intangible’ benefits of urbangreening. Moreover, the decision made about the park scenario in the first ThinkingDay has allowed for a more open discussion in the workshops about the park qualitieswithout arousing false hopes.

A parallel process of formal and informal visioning

The visionary process established by the city government used the format of three‘Thinking Days’. Administrators from different city departments as well as politiciansand external experts were invited by the city planning team to develop a shared visionon the function of the area and to set preconditions for development. During themeetings the city officials worked together in prioritising between often conflictinggoals (e.g. the demand for housing provision, the adequacy of transportation, the city’svision on economic development, the lack of green-space) and in negotiating aboutthe proposed planning concept for development using feasibility requirements. Parallelto this internal negotiation forum two participatory meetings were organised within theframework of the ‘Groen op het Spoor’ study. In contrast with the formal visionaryprocedure, these meetings operated with a creative orientation, involving ‘key actors’

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for discussion in ‘Creative Workshops’. About forty people collaborated, beingrepresentatives of neighbourhood groups, local schools, ethnic minorities, publicagencies (culture, sports, housing, crime prevention, sustainable development, etc.),business actors, regeneration practitioners, health workers, youth workers, a priest, andso forth, and independent local residents as well. The objective was to create a free andinformal setting which could provide distance from pressures: no decisions to make,no interests to defend etc., and give participants greater freedom to pursue ways ofthinking. At the beginning of the first workshop the city planning team presented theirfirst conceptual ideas which were used as a starting point for discussion. During thesecond workshop the planners presented new ideas and solutions in response to theoutcome of the first one and raised issues to be explored more in detail in workshopactivities. A constant and main concern of the ‘Groen op het Spoor’ study has beenthe interaction between both processes and in particular the implementation of theideas from the workshops into the formal process. However, as the outcome of theCreative Workshops could not be predicted - some scepticism was even apparent in theplanning team - implementation could not be foreseen at the outset. The outcome wassuccessful and was taken on board by the planning team in producing their planningconcept and it was decided to present the workshop results in the third Thinking Day.There the ideas from the workshops were welcomed as ‘high quality’ and it wasdecided to also include the workshop minutes into the Consensus Note (2001), whichwas the end product of the visionary process. As a formal document it was approvedby the city government in September 2001 and has gone through the externalnegotiation process in October 2001

In this case, the parallel construction allowed for flexibility, improvisation andreflective reasoning both in the concept development by the planners and theorganisation of interactions between the two processes. The creative workshopapproach has enabled to interactively build rich ideas, to freely exchange interests andconcerns within a wide scope of possibilities and in direct contact with theprofessionals. A main element is that such settings are more likely to provide quick andoptimal results as polarisation of interests is less likely to occur. Furthermore, theoutcome could provide a creative input to the formal policy forum where moreinstrumental and rational considerations were dominating the discourses. However, theinformal forum was not always able to stay clear from strategic considerations. Thiswas particularly clear where the desirability of business development in a part of thearea was discussed. The participants felt that they had to anticipate the externalnegotiations with the property owner by providing the necessary feasibility conditions.

Mixed level involvement

In the context of a large-scale development it is important to simultaneously

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concentrate on small areas of neighbourhoods and gain insight in the wider strategiccontext. Therefore, it has been the purpose from the start to encourage local actors tothink beyond their own circle of neighbourhood relations and to link actors operatingat higher city levels (e.g. involved in tourism, cycling routes, cultural heritage) with thediversity of local situations. The creative workshops were designed as a mixed levelnegotiation platform for people to identify with interests and considerations atdifferent city levels (from very local to city level). The multiple level interests wereclearly reflected in the discussions during the workshops. Considerations weresimultaneously given to a variety of functional levels ranging from the surroundingneighbourhoods to the whole city and even wider. High hopes were expressed, forexample, for the fact that the development of a park in this area should turn thecurrent negative image of deprived neighbourhoods into a positive one. It wasgenerally taken for granted that people from outside the surrounding neighbourhoodsshould be attracted to the park. This should make the neighbourhoods more importantwithin the context of the whole city. However, an important precondition was that thewider level is not equal to large-scaled functions or events. The balance between bothlevels needs careful attention so that the park will be both of significance in the everyday life of the people who live nearby and a valued symbol of where they live.

From participants’ reactions after the workshops it became clear that the mixed levelapproach has had a learning effect in widening participants’ perspectives. Existingrelations were seen in a different context and this has influenced the content of thediscourse. Moreover, participants have not only begun to see another’s point of viewbut also could break away from assumptions taken for granted about each other’s waysof thinking. City officials were surprised, for example, that the locals were thinking in amuch wider scope than they had expected and vice versa, local residents were surprisedthat officials working at the city level were thinking along the same lines as they do.

Focus on the quality of discourse

In a planning process where place creation is the clear purpose, people’s involvement isnot only about the creation of a collectively shared vision but also about the goal ofusable changes worth making and to reach acceptance towards action. In the casedescribed here, the quality of discourse was seen a main argument for implementation.Therefore it was the aim to undertake great efforts to stimulate the creative input fromthe workshop participants. The variety of participants was seen as a first element tobring in a diversity of knowledge and life experiences generating a rich and creativediscourse. It was aimed to cover the main interests and controversies (leisure, sports,health, safety, youth, ethnic minorities etc), as well as to bring in people with a keyposition in neighbourhood surveillance, cultural events, schools, social welfare work,city tourism etc. About sixty people were personally invited and actively encouraged to

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participate in two workshops. As a second element an informal setting was intended tostimulate a constructive debate. Interaction in small groups was used to encourage awide range and form of understanding, to facilitate the expression of ideas, toilluminate different perspectives through debate within the group, to avoidpreconceptions about the plan and to involve people more actively. Not everyone canbe expected to easily engage themselves in the abstract, conceptual and systemisedreasoning of plan making. Therefore, in the workshop approach it was seen asimportant to make room for manifold sorts of reasoning such as topic-oriented ordetailed reasoning as well as reasoning on the whole picture. Although the proper wayis to plan before designing and to design before managing, in this early planning phasepractical reasoning on design or even management was not denied. In order to makethe size and form more concrete, connections with the neighbourhoods werevisualised by means of street plans on which the walkable area (400m) around theproject was shown and participants were asked to draw attractive routes to the futurepark. To stimulate the brainstorm sessions, copies of the conceptual ideas andprovocative images of park characters were also used. Outcomes were discussed in aplenary feedback meeting. In addition, contact with the planners during the workshopswas considered an important pre-condition toward the implementation of ideas.Careful observation and reflection have enabled the planners to be responsive to theconsiderations and ideas expressed. In addition, much attention was given to thewriting of the minutes as a supporting tool for implementation.

In this case, the planning team has welcomed the workshop discussions as veryconstructive, providing them with new ideas as well as supporting them in their ownideas. Moreover, the output from the workshops has provided a wider base from whichto argue during the Third Thinking Day of the formal visionary process. Althoughthere was general agreement on the quality of the output, some critical notes wereexpressed on the ‘representativeness’ of the ideas. The workshop participants whoshowed a more than average interest in public policy, did not really represent thegeneral public and its average concerns and preferences. Another question emergingfrom the experience is the extent in which the discussion needs to be framed at theoutset. Some of the participants felt that the first conceptual ideas presented by theplanners at the start of the first workshop limited their creative thinking during theworkshop discussions. In contrast, others expressed that those ideas stimulated theircreative thinking. A clear limitation, however, was the short time span of the process.Processes of creative thinking need time. It seemed that during these two workshopsseveral problems, options and ideas were left unexplored. On the other hand it is notrealistic to expect participants to engage in long procedures as they might be too costlyin terms of the time and the energy the participants have to invest.

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Balancing openness and confidentiality

Openness during the whole process, from initiation to implementation andcontinuation is a pre-requisite for building trust among the public. A challengetherefore exists in bringing people into the participatory process at the very early stagesof project development. Involving the wider public early in the process requires a highdegree of openness which, however, is not always felt as being desirable in planningfor large-scale development which is inherently strategic. In the case described theplanning team was initially hesitating to open the doors for citizens as this couldpossibly affect the negotiations with the railway company and arouse false hopesamong the local residents about the creation of a park in that area. Finding a balancebetween openness and confidentiality of information has been a continuous subject ofdiscussion in the framework of the ‘Groen op het Spoor’ study and between the city’splanning and communication departments. It was only from the moment that the parkscenario got accepted by the officials participating in the first Thinking Day that theyagreed upon the workshop approach in the ‘Groen op het Spoor’ study. Later on thediscussion continued when the Consensus Note was made: what information can begiven to the wider public and when? Then, the city’s communication department tookon an active role and organised an exhibition for the wider public. After heated debateit was decided to display the entire concept, along with a request for ideas, opinionsand further questions. The exhibition was concluded with a ‘talk café’, an informalpublic meeting where representatives of the city authority and railway company werebrought together in a panel and were asked to react to the issues raised during theexhibition and in the public meeting held at a local café. After the external negotiationsmore room was given to providing information more widely. Since then, the media areactively involved and the residents are regularly informed about the plan making bymeans of leaflets. Recently, a ‘Planning for Real’ event was organised in which almost200 people participated in providing their ideas about a range of design questions.

Residents responding widely and enthusiastically to consultation does not usuallyhappen as a result of one-off participatory events. In the long term the objectiveshould be the infusing of ideas into the wide array of social networks. So far, a clearvision and active strategies on how to draw attention from a wider public are lacking.Wider forums, such as the organisation of the interactive exhibition createopportunities for generating new ‘members’, new ideas and feedback. However, asthere was no strategy followed to establishing links with institutions (e.g. schools, socialwelfare work) and neighbourhood associations, only a limited section of the public wasreached. In this case, it also appeared that residents who were already participating inthe workshops or the exhibition, showed a range of expectations, uncertainties andeven distrust about their real impact. The further development of the plan has to paycareful attention to continuation of effective communication. This is not an easy taskin a context where political and external pressures as well as uncertainty about further

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internal co-ordination make the further process less transparent. Also the legal contextmay not be favourable to participatory approaches, for example, the internationaldesign competition’s rules exclude citizens from taking part in the evaluation of thedesign proposals.

Conclusions

The purpose of the participatory approach in this case was not to confront interestsand viewpoints with each other and to reach a compromise, but to move peopletoward a common understanding of the issues and to create a sense of shared goals.The reactions from participants after the workshops suggest that a commonunderstanding was a significant outcome. Through this process of making sensetogether, no one set of interests was predominating the discourse and the ideasexpressed were linked up with the realities of local situations. However, as planninginherently seeks to connect knowledge and ideas to action, implementation to makethem true is the real challenge. This case has shown that much strategic power of thevisioning lies in co-ordination: the careful preparatory work and the flexiblemanagement of this intensive visionary process by a handful motivated people fromthe planning department as well as the elaborate workshop design in the ‘Groen op hetSpoor’ study. Most important are the exploration of the context in which approacheswill be practised - which includes sensitivity to how social interactions and settings mayshape the outcomes of participatory activities - and a flexible process management inorder to integrate participatory outcomes with policy making. Flexibility wasparticularly important as objectives and targets were an output rather than an input tothe process. In addition, a constant attention for new information and ideas that ariseduring the process is required.

The most powerful tool for implementation, however, has been the quality of thediscourse. Quality of discourse very much depends on the quality of the participants,the richness of their ideas and the way they are articulated, argued and mediated. Thehigh quality mutual work of workshop participants and planners has resulted in apowerful strategic idea, which has gained acceptance among the decision-makers and ison its way to enter popular consciousness.

The experience from this case, however, is limited to the very initial stage of visioning.The local population represents a huge potential, so far largely untapped, to delivercreative ideas, skills and manpower to contribute in the further planning, design andmanagement of the new park. The challenge will be to explore and develop possiblelinkages between the idea development in formal planning and day-to-day processesnot labelled officially as planning and designing. In addition, concerning the long time

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span of the project, it is important to create a positive atmosphere around the project,showing people that things are changing and progress is being made. Nieuwinckel(1996) notes that a stimulating image of the city is needed to enable continuation ofthe creative generation of solutions: giving a positive meaning to urban culture is animportant part of this.

Each planning process based on consensus building will be unique in its organisationstructure and will require particular mechanisms at various stages for involving localpeople in the development process. Nevertheless, it is hoped that some general lessonscan be learned from this case and that its experiences will contribute to planning forurban greening that will no longer remain the exclusive domain of experts andauthorities, but will become a playground for all those it is designed to serve.

Acknowledgements

The ‘Groen op het Spoor’ study was carried out within the framework of the project‘Visieontwikkeling Spoorwegemplacement en Omgeving’ and financed by the ‘FederaalProgramma Grootstedenbeleid 2001’. The author would like to thank all the workshopparticipants, the planning team and the regeneration department for collaboration inthe activities and helpful feedback.

References

Herzele A Van (2001).

Groen op het Spoor (Green on the Rail). Supporting study in: OB/planningscel..Het grootstedenbeleid van de federale regering. Spoorwegemplacement enOmgeving. Consensusnota, October 2001.

Herzele A Van, Wiedemann T & Overmeire M Van (2000).

Stedelijk Milieu (Urban Environment). In: Steertegem M Van (Ed) Milieu- enNatuurrapport Vlaanderen MIRA-S 2000. Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij & GarantUitgevers NV, Leuven/Apeldoorn.

Herzele A Van & Wiedemann T (in press).

A Monitoring Tool for the Provision of Accessible and Attractive Green Spaces.Article accepted for publication in Landscape and Urban Planning.

Nieuwinckel S (1996).

De Wonderjaren Voorbij? Wijkontwikkeling in Antwerpen. In: De Decker P,Hubeau B & Nieuwinckel S (Eds) In de ban van stad en wijk. EPO Berchem.

OB/planningscel (2001).

Het grootstedenbeleid van de federale regering. Spoorwegemplacement enOmgeving. Consensusnota.

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Urban Forestry in India and Nepal

Klaus SeelandChair of Forest Policy and Forest Economics,Swiss Federal Institute of TechnologyZurich, Switzerland

Introduction

By the year 2025, it is expected that two thirds of the world’s population will live indeveloping countries and the majority of them in and around cities. Urbanisation is aphenomenon in history, a development process characterising the rise of civilisation allover the world caused by a social division of labour and the development of politicaland social institutions. Urbanisation in non-European cultures, particularly with theadvent of colonial expansion in the two Americas, in Africa and most parts of Asia,has been marked by a process of demographic and cultural change and in recentdecades by a rapid population growth. Whereas the pre-colonial capitals of those areaswere centres of state power and administration or the stronghold of tribal rulers, thesewere either transformed to colonial cities representing the culture of the new rulers, ornew settlements were founded that developed from fortifications and commercialtowns into colonial cities. Urban development itself often was, and with respect toeconomic globalisation still is, a legacy of European political domination andexpansion in overseas areas. Social inequality and political domination was thus astructural characteristic of colonial urban development in the South. Along with ratherstable political conditions during the period of colonial rule and the improvement ofhealth services, a tremendous increase of the population contributed to an even morerapid growth of large cities. During the 20th century there was a remarkable drain ofrural poor and landless people searching for alternative sources of livelihood to thecities. Settlements that were planned for a few thousands of inhabitants grew to largeagglomerations hosting millions of people living with inadequate infrastructure. Whenthe colonial period came to an end and the previous colonies became independentstates, urban growth still used to continue and often with a much higher speed thanbefore. Industrialisation and ambitious targets of economic growth encouraged peopleto move to the cities. Thus regional and social unbalanced development within thedeveloping countries accelerated.

Major problems of urban environments in developing countries

The deterioration of living conditions, living standard and quality of the environmentin urban and peri-urban areas in developing countries is not always perceived bymunicipal authorities as a deficient situation. It has become, however, an all-pervading

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phenomenon they have to cope with. Crisis management tries to avoid the collapse ofthe metropolises and to provide at least the most vital and basic services to the publicsuch as electricity and water supply, waste and sewage water disposal, traffic, healthservices and security. Public administration has severe difficulties to meet proper urbanlivelihood standards due to a lack of finances and administrational capacities. Aninherent inertia of the administrational staff and the politically responsible decisionmakers who sometimes show a lack of motivation as only few believe that there is achance for a change for the better. This hampers the process of finding solutions tothe manifold problems connected to the administration of large agglomerations.Taking all difficult circumstances into account one must admit that quick solutions tothe vast field of problems for a public green space policy in developing countries arenot at hand at the moment. However, the situation aggravates silently and there isdefinitely an urgent need for solutions at almost any level of the problem scenario.

In a nutshell, the major problems of public green space management in urban areas indeveloping countries are:

As the situation varies to a great extent depending on the country one looks at, we willtake India and Nepal as examples for steps that have been taken at the political and theimplementation level. Both countries are located in South Asia, but vary in size anddegree of urbanisation as well as in many other aspects. They have a common Hindutradition, mentality and culture and share similar approaches to face the challenges ofurban green space management. Both countries in principle have a top-down-approachto the management of their nationalised forests and have recently turned to social andcommunity forestry schemes based on participation intending to favour a decentralisedand more democratic management of forests and forest resources. These participatoryapproaches have been, based on the experiences that were made in joint forestmanagement (India) and community forestry (Nepal), partly tried to extend to themanagement of urban green spaces as well. Firstly, let us have a look at India and thenat Nepal.

• increasing population rate / over-population• migration from rural areas to the large agglomerations• air (toxic gases, heat and dust) and water pollution• little problem awareness among the public• little or no support by politicians concerning green space and related matters• solid waste disposal problems• lack of hygiene and sanitation• poverty creates slum and squatter areas• encroachment of wastelands by in-migrating people from rural areas, mostly with

herds of domestic animals• lack of open free space in and around cities

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Participatory urban green space management in India

Urban demographics in India in the 20th century show a tremendous growth.According to census data, The population of the 384 urban agglomerations increasedmore than ten times from approximately 30 million in 1901 to 307 million onehundred years later. In 2001 more than 30 percent of the Indian population lived incities and the official growth rate against 1991 was 41 per cent. The actual growth isgenerally suspected to be much higher. Unregulated growth due to immigration fromthe countryside to slums and squatter settlements that are inhabited by a large numberof unregistered people who are not recorded in any statistics.

The administrational set-up of public environmental management in India is dividedinto three levels: the Ministry of Urban Development (Indian Union) at the centralgovernment level, the State level, the district level and finally the level of themetropolitan authorities. The legal basis for environmental legislation at present is the74th Amendment Act to the Indian Constitution, 1992. It focuses particularly on urbanagglomerations, as they are the most relevant centres of economic growth andgeneration of surplus value as well as modern development. It allots particular politicalimportance to municipal bodies (power, competence and finances) with the objectiveof supporting local self-government through deregulation and decentralisation. In thisregard the 12th Schedule of the Indian Constitution enables municipal bodies toinitiate among other measures for, e.g.:

These initiatives are relevant sectors of planning and management as far as urbangreen space in the widest sense is concerned. There is a lot of management capacity,political responsibility and financial resources and competence involved, marking anempowerment of the municipal authorities. It is therefore important that they are nottoo disperse and distributed over several levels of public administration. The majortypes of measures that have been taken up in the green sector over the recent decadesare:

• urban planning• regulation of land use and construction of buildings• planning for economic and social development• water supply• public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management• provision of urban amenities and facilities (parks, gardens and playgrounds)• cremation grounds

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• Urban Community Forestry (e.g. in Ahmedabad, Gujarat)Urban community forestry is by and large an adaptation of the principles andpractices of community forestry to urban conditions. Major objectives are theexclusion of unauthorised land users, free riders illegally appropriating green spaceproducts such as e.g. flowers, fruits, fuel wood or leaf fodder, squatters encroachingon public green space, etc. The goal of urban community forestry is a joint manage-ment of the respective municipal authorities with the legitimate users (registeredgroups of tax paying town dwellers) who have been allotted with an area of greenspace in order to manage and to care for it. Usually they are entitled to usufructrights for a certain time that has agreed upon in a contract.

• Greenbelts (e.g. in New Delhi; in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh)Greenbelts around the metropolitan area or at the outskirts of the inner city, wherethere is no or only little space for public green areas, provide the agglomeration witha cordon sanitaire, a large green space surrounding the core built area with meadows,parks, broad alleys and forests on public land.

• Green Partnership Projects being a co-operation of NGO, industrial enterprises,Government Departments, and private and public international donorsGreen partnership projects are the most recent developments in the green space ma-nagement sector uniting institutions and voluntary agencies in their efforts tocontribute to the upgrading of public green space, providing funds and managerialexpertise under prevailing conditions of small administrational budgets.

These measures always link social and environmental objectives such as incomegeneration for the urban and peri-urban poor with tree planting, nursing, watering,protecting saplings, and so forth. Major objectives are poverty eradication and theimprovement of the environmental living conditions including air quality (by reducingthe number of old and extremely air polluting vehicles), solid waste disposal and thesupply of safe drinking water. Anti-land speculation measures and the upgrading ofwaste lands suitable for urban agriculture and urban forestry, mainly through fencing,afforestation and enrichment planting are important objectives in urban green spacepolicy and management. Women’s clubs, youth clubs and religious institutions areproviding opportunities for self-employment by establishing school gardens andnurseries, temple forests to enhance diversity of tree species and medicinal plants.India’s mega-cities such as Mumbai (Bombay) with 13 million, Calcutta with 11 million,Delhi with 9 million and Chennai (Madras) with almost 6 million inhabitants, tomention only the largest ones, are urban landscapes of their own. Excluding Mumbai,which is an exception due to its location on a rather small peninsular, they are verymuch outspread, including forests, pastures and agricultural land for horticulture and

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livestock keeping for the production of dairy products. Much intensified industrialproduction areas and densely built service oriented housing quarters with a largeinformal sector absorbs lots of land and labour in urban agglomerations. Tocompensate for these living conditions in a hot sub-tropical country, this requires greenspace areas to provide air circulation and free space to roam around under shady treesin a cool breeze, where lawn and flowers counterbalance the monotonous townscapeof mostly functional buildings. The aesthetic requirements combined with practicalamenities matter a lot for the satisfaction of basic quality of life standards in a countrywhere a substantial part of the urban population lives below the poverty line.

Urban community forestry management in Nepal

Nepal is a landlocked country located at the southern slopes of the Central HimalayanRange covering an altitude between 70 m and 8,848 m above sea level and an area of147,181 km2. Since 1991 Nepal is a constitutional monarchy with a population ofabout 25 million people in 2000, who are predominantly Hindus, and an annualpopulation growth rate of 2.5 per cent. The country ranges among the economicallyleast developed with a per capita income of US $ 210. It is country with a remarkablerural-urban migration and a high rate of dependence on forest products of all sectionsof the population. With the new Nepalese Constitution of 1990, democratisation anddecentralisation was promoted all over the country. In 1993 a strong Forest UserGroup Committee movement based on (1) a strong tradition of independent villagecommunities, (2) strong self esteem of castes and ethnic groups, and (3) self-relianceand economic subsistence was encouraged by local NGOs, the newly establishedpolitical parties and international development donor support. The socio-culturalvalues and ecological traditions of highly independent mountain communities havebeen transferred to urban livelihood conditions during the last decade. Urban life inNepal, which is still mostly an agrarian country, has a more or less rural character.Cities, perhaps apart from the capital Kathmandu, being an agglomeration of severaltowns with an estimated population of about one million in 2001, are big villages. Thisfacilitates the transfer and application of community development and communityforestry programmes to urban areas.

The alienation of the population from natural renewable resources through the ForestAct of 1957 by which all forests were nationalised has been counterbalanced bydecentralisation and the local self-management of forests in the wake of thecommunity forestry programme. This programme was established for the first time in1978. It was tried to transfer the mostly good experiences with community forestry inthe mid-hills of Nepal to urban and peri-urban areas of central and southern lowlandNepal. Urban forestry is yet little developed and shares many of its problems withIndian cities, as the social and cultural conditions of both countries are rather similar.

266

Obstacles to sound urban forest management are a strong social hierarchy andinequality of status and power due to the Hindu caste system and corruption in theadministration is common. Transgressions to the protected urban forests of otherusers than those who are entitled to use and manage the forests in and around thecities is one major problem caused mainly by poverty and sometimes by the illegalappropriation of timber and non-wood forest products by traders. Another form ofmismanagement in the urban forestry sector is caused by wealthy and influential peoplewho illegally fell trees to construct buildings or cut access roads to their housesthrough urban forests or clear-fell plots of urban forests to convert them into buildingsites.

However, even if urban forest protection schemes work well, there is a danger offurther degradation of non-protected forests in the vicinity or that the poorest peoplewho rely most on irregular use of forest produce are excluded from their customaryrights of small-scale exploitation. Furthermore, access to forest user groups, rural orurban, is more often than not denied to the poorest and low status people. Thuscommunity forestry can be an ambiguous approach to protect forest as social equity isdifficult to be achieved. The possibility of turning the rural poor to even moremarginal people and make them living in a state of misery is something that has to bepaid attention to. If neglected, this may raise opposition, if not obstruction, with theincreasing portion of the lower and lowest urban as well as rural sections of thesociety. The intention of the community forestry programme in Nepal is, however, asfar as the present political circumstances allow, a socially equal, not individualappropriation of economic benefits. And not at least it heads for sustainability offorest management through re-investment of a reasonable portion of the profit drawnfrom the managed forests into seedling production, planting, fencing and patrolling.This is a commitment that is a contractual obligation and precondition for handingover a forest to a forest user group.

Conclusion

Urban forestry in India and Nepal, as in many other developing countries, is a domainof self-management or joint management of locally appropriated resources in whichsocial objectives in focus through and in combination with urban environmentalmanagement. Social cohesion is enhanced through co-operation of members of forestuser groups, neighbouring communities who care for the quarter’s green space, as wellas through government institutions and non-governmental organisations, national,regional and local. Administration is often by-passed, like in Nepal, where a lack instaff capacities slows down the process of democratising the forests or urban forestrytends to become a grass-roots movement such as in more and more municipalities inIndia.

267

One aspect that gets less attention with the rise of the community forestry programmeand the decline of commercial timber harvesting oriented forestry, however, is theaspect of national equity. The benefits of urban community forestry go primarily tothe immediate users and to people who feel concerned and participate actively in it.There is little or no nation-wide distribution or appropriation in the form of revenuedrawn from the forest, as was the case when forests were commercially exploited bythe state. Decentralisation and democratisation of forest use and management focuseson a more direct access to, use of and responsibility for forests and green space in acommunity’s surroundings. The political legitimacy of urban community forestry lies inits service to the whole urban society. It is not an exclusive appropriation of economicbenefits or profits, but meant to be a contribution to the urban society as a whole.Provided that town and country implement community forestry as a societalassignment based on broad co-operation, it may serve the quality of the forest as itmay benefit the society. The examples of India and Nepal show ample hope thatexclusive state administration may not be the only way to handle forests and urbangreen space for good, but that there are other ways of a socially and environmentallysustainable use and management of these common pool resources.

269

Informing the public about the ecological impactof different methods for road and pavementwinter maintenance in Vienna

Monika Sieghardt and Martin WresowarInstitute of Forest Ecology,University of Agricultural Sciences.Vienna, Austria

Abstract

For city administrations in northern and middle Europe a severe conflict existsbetween the public demand for unrestricted mobility during winter season and thedemand for keeping urban vegetation alive. On behalf of the municipality of Viennaan environmental compatibility evaluation of road and pavement winter maintenancemethods was carried out reviewing scientific and public literature and own respectiveresearch as well. Most de-icing products in trade are promoted as being ecologicallycompletely harmless even when containing hazardous chemicals. Users can sometimeshardly distinguish how the chemical declaration and recommended application dosescorrelate with actual application fields and temperatures and what is the ecologicalimpact of the concerned product. The study includes the following wintermaintenance products: Gravel and expended clay (EC); halogenides (NaCl, MgCl

2,

CaCl2 and mixtures), K

2CO

3; N-containing de-icers (ammonium sulphate and urea).

Model calculations based on the ecological impact of the concerned product and ondifferent settings like type and quantity of de-icer, tree size and soil surface area lead tothe following environmental compatibility ranking for different methods of winterroad and pavement maintenance:

Key words: de-icing–agents, eco-toxicology

Introduction

For city administrations in northern and middle Europe a severe conflict existsbetween the public demand for unrestricted mobility during the winter season and thedemand for keeping urban vegetation alive. In Vienna the use of common salt as de-

Gravel = EC >> EC+Urea = EC+K2CO3 >> ammoniumsulphate Urea K2CO3 >

NaCl+CaCl2>NaCl

270

icer is restricted by order. Especially on pathways, minor roads, playgrounds, bikingways and parking areas the use of alternative de-icers is encouraged. Some of thesealternative de-icing agents have a high nitrogen content.

In Vienna a municipal institution called Öko-Kauf Wien (translated as ‘ecologicalbuying Vienna’) exists. In the project, information is collected to make ecological-orientated decisions when buying different equipment or rolling stock. This institutionconsists of a changing number of administrative departments and working groups aswell as of experts for special fields, who can be co-opted according to necessity. Onbehalf of the city department for environmental protection, which is part of ‘Öko-Kauf Wien’, an environmental compatibility evaluation of winter road maintenanceproducts was carried out. Our task was to review the respective scientific and publicliterature as well as own research in that field. The output of this evaluation wasextended knowledge on the environmental impact of different road wintermaintenance practices. Results can be seen at the homepage of the department (http://www.wien.gv.at/ma22/pool/doc/auftaumittel_abs.pdf) as well as a public abstract ofthe main results to be included in an information leaflet for city inhabitants.

The review focuses on comparing ‘conservative’ de-icing agents like NaCl, or CaCl2

and MgCl2, and so-called ‘alternative’ de-icers like potassium carbonate and N-

containing de-icers like urea and ammonium sulphate. We tried to answer the followingquestions:- Which products are applied and in trade for winter road maintenance: what is on the

market?; which names are used?; how is the chemical declaration of these products?;what are the advertisement strategies of the traders?

- What are the fields of application for different winter maintenance products: what isused for highways, roads, airports, pathways, pedestrian zones, parking areas, bikingways, and playgrounds?

- How effective are different winter maintenance methods?- What is the ecological impact of different winter maintenance products?- Which figures provide a simple tree/soil model concerning the impact of

applications of different de-icers?

Traded winter maintenance products

Table 1 summarises some traded products for Austria and gives information abouttemperature limits and application fields. Gravel and expanded clay are the ecologicallymost harmless products, but they are ineffective in terms of traffic security. Moreover,they involve high removal costs and problems in the sewage systems and because ofdust emission they are not well accepted by the public. In terms of eco-balanceexpanded clay comes off worse than gravel, because of high energy input during

27

1

Product Production Constituents GrainSize

Appliedas

Applicationlimits

Dosesg/m

2

Application fields

Gravel quarry basalt, dolomite variabel - 250 pavementsroads

Expanded Clay clay burned at1200 °C

light expanded clay aggregates variabel - - pavements

Anti-Gliss clay burned at1200 °C

clay aggregates variabel 8 pavements

Salt rock- or seasalt Na+ (39,3 %)Cl – (60,7 %)

0,15-5mm

wet salt(brine)

- 8 °C 6-15 roadshighways

CaCl2 by-product ofsoda

Ca++ (28 %)Cl – (51 %)

3-3,5 mm wet salt(solution)

- 22 °C 10 roadshighways

DI-Mix mixture 70 % NaCl30 % CaCl2

3 mm dry - 10 °C 6-15 roadshighways

Streumittel G- 149 mixture 96 % CaCl2, 2% MgCl2,2 % NaCl

variabel dry - 22 °C 6 roadshighways

ICE-Remover Monroex-73, Ice-Melter,Arkas Eisfresser

mixture 91 % CaCl2, 9 % unsoluble variabel dry - 22 °C - roadshighways

Greeny Eisschmelzer,Floralis Streudas,

Eskimo

gravel + brine 85 % gravel, 15 % NaCl variabel dry - 8 °C 30 (roads), pavements

K2CO3 potash, potas-sium-hydroxide

K2CO3 0,15-3mm

dry - 5 °C 6,25 roadspavements

Leca-Tau Sole D,Polar-Ultra-Grip

expanded clay +brine

EC aggregates + 15 % K2CO3 variabel dry - 5 °C 3016

pavements

Leca-Tau, Öko-Tau expanded clay +brine

light expanded clay aggregates +(NH2)2CO

variabel dry - 7 °C 15 pavements

Polar-Eis-Stop,Murexin-Eis-Ex

(NH4)2SO4 variabel dry - 7 °C 30-50 pavements

Plantabon Eisex mixture 67-80 % (NH4)2SO4

5-11 % (NH4)3PO4

12-17 % (NH2)2CO2-5 % unsoluble

0,9 mm dry - 7 °C 30-50 pavements

Table 1. Properties of different traded winter maintenance products.

272

production. For halogenides different mono-salts and mixtures are marketed withdifferent grain sizes and application limits. Some traded de-icing products are marketedwith advertisement slogans such as: ‘alternative de-icers, biological de-icers, ecologicallycompletely harmless, improving the environment, de-icer and fertiliser in one’ evenwhen containing ecologically hazardous chemicals. Trade names even suggest benefitsto the environment: Greeny, Floralis, Plantabon, Ökotau are trademarks that persuadepeople to apply them with the intention to do less damage to the environment. Usersare hardly able to distinguish how chemical declaration and recommended applicationdoses correlate with application fields, temperatures and ecological sensitivity of theenvironment.

Pathways of winter maintenance products to the vegetation site

Winter maintenance products are administered to the vegetation site partly as aerosol,partly deposited as contaminated snow or as contaminated runoff depending on trafficspeed, pavement construction and technical equipment (Figure 1). Paved areas arenormally not perfectly sealed; salt solutions penetrate through the surface or throughthe soil of the tree site and contaminate soil solution and groundwater or reach thesewage system. Between 20 to 60% of applied de-icers are transported by air,

snow,de-icing

agents, gravelaerosols

spray, contaminated

snow (snowploughing)

melting water, runoff

snow, de-icing agents, gravel

contaminated snow&

gravel

road

pavement

melting water,

runoff

25 % of applied de-icers reach via aerosol, spray and dust the vegetation site, depending on wind and traffic speed

40 % of applied de-icer reach the vegetation site depending on

type of snow ploughing, traffic speed and protection of tree disk

groundwater, aquifer

drainage

sewage

dust from

gravel

gravel

Figure 1. Pathways of de-icing agents and gravel to the vegation site.

273

deposited 2-40 m from the road. 90% of air-transported de-icer are deposited between15 and 20 m from the road (Leonardi & Flückiger1987, Blomqvist & Johansson 1999).On average 25% of applied de-icers reach the vegetation site via aerosol, spray anddust, depending on wind direction, wind and traffic speed (Blomqvist 1998).

Ecological impact of gravel and expanded clay

Traffic smashes gravel into small particles. The impact of these abrasive dust particleson human health is rather low (Litzka et al. 1995, Neuberger 1996), depending on howlong the material remains on the pavement, on traffic frequency and speed. Mechanicalinjuries of stems of road trees may occur depending on traffic speed and particle size.Gravel and expanded clay enhance soil surface sealing, change permeability for waterand air, surface and soil temperature and soil quality as seedbed. Soil structure maybenefit from their application. Dust layers on plants change the energy balance ofleaves and needles (Eller 1977). For dark coloured dusts the surface temperatureincreases, reflection decreases. Impact on spectral absorption by leaves has beenreported (Sieghardt 1983). In some cases stomata are sealed and gas exchange isreduced. The surface chemistry of vegetation and soil changes according to thechemical properties of the applied product influences the mycorrhiza distribution andquality (Turnau 1990). Gravel and expanded clay may cause mechanical problems inthe sewage systems (Matsché 1996).

Ecological impact of chloride-containing de-icers

Salt (NaCl), the most common and cheapest de-icer is very efficient in terms ofimproving traffic security in winter season, but even when applied as wet salt or brinewith reduced doses, it directly and indirectly causes dysfunction and instability ofurban greening (Figure 2). Chloride is highly toxic to the vegetation. It changes themembrane permeability of cells and increases the osmotic potential. Growthreduction, chlorosis and necrosis of leaves and dieback of tree crowns are symptomsthat occur after salt application. Via cation exchange high sodium saturation in soilscauses desorption of other cations (K, Ca, Mg, NH

4) and metals, which percolate

through the soil and in the worst case are leached out. This nutrient depletion is crucialfor growth of urban vegetation and misbalances mineral nutrition (Ruge 1974,Kreutzer 1974, Ernst & Feldermann 1975). Loss of calcium enhances the susceptibilityfor soil compaction at tree sites causing shrinkage and dispersion of soil aggregateswith negative impacts on soil water balance and soil aeration. Sites becomephysiologically dry. After high and frequent NaCl application doses, free Na+-ionsoccur in the soil solution via re-desorption of Na against H+ and cause alkalinisationby formation of sodium hydroxide. The increase of pH causes dissolution and loss ofhumus and changes of the bioavailability of heavy metals (Amrhein et al. 1992). MgCl

2

274

and CaCl2 are less harmful because they contain basic double charged cations, but they

still have the disadvantage of containing Cl as toxic anion (Bogemans et al. 1989). Clpercolates quickly through the soil system and contaminates the groundwater oraquifer and exceeds the target values for drinking water. In Austria, 8 drinking watersupply-sources were analysed, 5 of them situated near highways showed extraordinaryhigh chloride contents, wells along the most frequented transit route Brenner-highwayhad o be closed because of Cl-contents between 200 – 500 mg/l which manifoldexceeded target values (Peer & Podlesak 1991). High salt contents in the sewage water(> 2 % salt content) decrease the efficiency of nitrogen-decay; nitrification anddenitrification in the sewage system are reduced (Dincer & Kargi 1999).

Ecological evaluation of potassium carbonate (K2CO

3)

This chemical has a four times higher price compared to NaCl and is not directly toxicfor urban vegetation. In urban vegetation sites the usual practice of litter removal oftenleads to potassium deficiency, so in this respect this de-icer is ecologically indifferent aswell as the anion is. High K-uptake increases frost hardiness of urban plants. Onecrucial effect of this alternative de-icer is its potential for direct soil alkalinisation.

pota

ssiu

mcarb

onates

odiu

mchlo

ride

growth ↓↓↓↓ growth ↑↑↑↑ ↓↓↓↓,

stressresistance ↑↑↑↑

chloroses

necroses

Cl - (toxic)

Cl -, Na + ↑↑↑↑

Na +

soilcolloidK+

Ca ++

destruction of

soil aggregates

(and humus) Mg ++

pH ↑↑↑↑

K+, Ca++, Mg++, (NH4+)

heavy metal dislocation?


K+↑↑↑↑,

Ca++, Mg++↓↓↓↓

K+ (nutrient)

pH ↑↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑

destruction of

soil aggregates

and humus

Ca ++

Mg ++

formation of

HCO3-, CO3

2-,

carbonates

nutritional

imbalances

Figure 2. Ecological impact of sodiumchloride and potassiumcarbonate.

275

Potassium carbonate solution has a pH of up to 14. After frequent application of highdoses soil structure collapses and soil humus is dissolved. NH

4, Ca and Mg are

exchanged against K and washed out with the percolating water. Deficiency symptoms,like growth reduction, necrosis and chlorosis occur due to nutritional imbalances aswell as decrease of soil aggregate stability (Sieghardt et al. 1998, Sieghardt 2000). Theseeffects are minimised and stabilised by formation of hydrocarbonates and carbonatesin calcareous soils (Figure 2). Because of high pH of solution-solution hypotheticallythe sewage water could be alkalinised and ammonia dissolved and evaporated. Inpractical experiments no increase of ammonia concentrations occurred, because of thehigh dilution rates in communal sewage water systems. Positive effects of potassiumcarbonate on the biozönoses of sewage systems have been reported (Frühwirth 1990).

Ecological impact of nitrogen containing de-icers

The ecologically hazardous constituents of nitrogen containing de-icers that are soldunder different trademarks are urea (46,6 % N) and ammonium sulphate (21,2 % N).These are frequently-used fertilisers. Primarily, the idea to use a fertiliser for de-icing

Figure 3. Ecological impact of sodiumchloride and potassiumcarbonate.

soilcolloid


ure

a(N

H2 )

2 -CO

NH4←←←←2 H+ + urea

hydrolysis, OH

NH3pH ↑↑↑↑

toxic

NH3,

NH4+

root growth &

mycorrhiza ↓↓↓↓,

element imbalances ↑↑↑↑

nitrifcation

pH↓↓↓↓

NO3-

K+, Ca++, Mg++,

NO3-

denitrification

N2O, NO

Norg

am

moniu

msulfate

NH3

2 H+

NH3,

K+, Ca++, Mg++,

NO3-, SO4

--

(NH4)2SO4

pH ↓↓↓↓

NO3-, NH4

+,

SO4 ↑↑↑↑

NO3-, NH4

+ ↑↑↑↑

growth, transpiration, element imbalances ↑↑↑↑

sensitivity against pathogens, drought, frost ↑↑↑↑

N2O, NON2O, NO

276

seems to be striking and harmless to the environment. This idea turned out to betotally wrong (Figure 3): N-containing de-icer are heavily affecting vegetation, soils,water and sewage systems by over-fertilisation and enhancing nutritional imbalancesand reducing frost hardiness (Balasch 1987).

Urea-hydrolysis causes a local increase of soil water pH and a higher solubility forammonia in water (Gubler 1993). Ammonia is highly bio-toxic: root growth andmycorrhiza frequency decrease. When penetrating to the ground- and surface water itis highly toxic for fish and for most micro-organisms (Dobson 1991) and has animpact on drinking water quality. Enzymatic hydrolysis of urea in soils is highlyoxygen-demanding, a severe problem in frequently compacted urban soils. Ammoniumitself causes an exchange against other cations resulting in nutritional deficiencies andimbalances. When it is nitrified, this 2 H+ are generated and pH decreases. In thesewage systems this process causes problematic changes and enhances the ammonium-output into surface waters. Urea also contributes to gaseous losses of Ammonia, N

2O

and NO via denitrification. The increasing uptake of nitrogen by urban vegetationenhances growth and imbalances the nutrient ratios in the biomass and increasestranspiration as well as the susceptibility to several stresses like drought, frost andpathogens (Bloom 1997, De Visser et al. 1996). The organic nitrogen pool in the soil isenriched presumed enough carbon is available. Even when we assume that urban sitesare in general low in nitrogen, uncontrolled applying nitrogen via de-icing agents isproblematic and enhances deficiencies by increasing growth and relatively dilutingother elements.

Ammonium sulphate reacts physiologically acidic in soils and decreases NH3-toxicity

depending on soil temperature and pH. Ammonium sulphate is highly corrosive(Dirnböck 1993). Additional to the impact of enhanced nitrogen supply and growththe nitrogen cycle is affected: nitrate availability as well as diverse exchange processesof cat ions versus ammonium is increased. It contains sulphate, which is easily leachedand as well easily taken up by vegetation. Excessive sulphate availability may enhanceinstability of urban vegetation as well.

Model calculations

Figure 4 shows the results of model calculations comparing element fluxes andenrichments after application of different de-icing agents. The respective calculationsinclude average deposition rates and are based on a tree disk of 4 m2, a tree with aDBH of 40 cm, a crown diameter of 7 m and de-icer applications according topractical doses and 20 times per year. The output is calculated via tree-leaf-litter andherbaceous vegetation, fertiliser recommendations are for forest plantations for onerotation of 80 years. Losses to the soil and the groundwater are not considered. Urea

277

with 46 % N-content generates an input that is equivalent with 1,5 times therecommended fertiliser amount for 80 year rotation. Ammonium sulphate andpotassium carbonate contribute to extraordinary high accumulation of N and Krespectively, which exceed the fertiliser recommendations for one forest rotationperiod in between two years. Brine impregnated expanded clay is evaluated ecologicallyless harmful and has the additional advantage of being an antigliss.

Environmental compatibility ranking

Based on these results the following environmental compatibility ranking for differentmethods of winter road and pavement maintenance is presented (without consideringthe impact on ground- and surface water):

0

200

600

1000

1400

N N K Cl Na N K

Ammonium- Potassium- Exp. Clay + Exp.Clay +

Urea sulfate carbonate NaCl NaCl Urea K-carbonate

Deicing agents and elelments

g / tree

input (g/ tree) output (g/ tree) accumulation (g/ tree) recommended fertilizer (g/ tree)

Calculations including average deposition ratestree disk = 4 m2, tree DBH = 40 cm, crown diameter = 7 m,deicer application = 20 times/year, output calculated via tree-leaf-litter and herbaceous vegetation,fertilizer recommendation for forestry for one rotation.

Figure 4. Element balance for different de-icers.

Gravel=EC>>EC+Urea=EC+K2CO3>>(NH4)2SO4 (NH2)2-CO K2CO3>NaCl+CaCl2>NaCl

278

References

Amrhein C, Strong JE & Mosher PA (1992).

Effects of de-icing salts on metal and organic matter mobilization in roadside soils.Environmental Science and Technology 26: 703-709.

Balasch (1987)

Die Anwendung von Auftausalz und dessen Alternativen unter ökonomischen undökologischen Kriterien. Dissertation an der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien. Wien.

Blomqvist G (1998).

Impact of de-icing salt on roadside vegetation, a literature review. VTI Rapport427A.

Blomqvist G & Johansson EL (1999).

Airborne spreading and deposition of de-icing salt – a case study. Sc. Tot.Environm235: 161-168.

Bloom AJ (1997).

Interaction between inorganic nitrogen nutrition and root development.Z.Pflanzenernaehr. Bodenk. 160: 253-259.

Bogemans J, Neirinckx L & Stassart JM (1989).

Effect of de-icing NaCl and CaCl2 on spruce (Picea abies). Plant and Soil 120: 203-211.

De Visser P, Keltjens W & Findenegg G (1996).

Transpiration and drought resistance of Douglas-fir seedlings exposed to excessammonium. Trees 10: 301-307.

Dincer AR & Kargi F (1999).

Salt inhibition of nitrification and denitrification in saline wastewater. Environ.Technol. 20: 1147-1153.

Dirnböck G (1993).

Umwelt- und Rechtsaspekte beim Streudienst. Mitteilungen des Institutes fürStraßenbau und Straßenerhaltung der Technischen Universität Wien, Heft 3. Wien.

Dobson MC (1991).

De-icing dalt damage to trees and shrubs. Forestry Bulletin 101. London.

Eller BM (1977).

Beeinflussung der Energiebilanz von Blättern durch Straßenstaub. Angew. Bot. 51:9-15

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Ernst W & Feldermann D (1975).

Auswirkungen der Wintersalzstreuung auf den Mineralhaushalt von Linden. Z.Pflanzenernaer. Bodenk. 6: 629-640

Frühwirth I (1990).

Einsatz von Kaliumkarbonat als Auftaumittel: Auswirkungen auf die Kanalisationund auf die biologische Abwasserreinigung. Diplomarbeit am Institut fürWassergüte und Landschaftswasserbau der Technischen Universität Wien, Wien.

Gubler A (1993).

Literaturstudie: Salzersatz im Winterdienst. Institut f. Verkehrsplanung,Transporttechnik, Strassen- und Eisenbahnbau, Zürich.

Kreutzer K (1974).

Bodenkundliche Aspekte der Salzanwendung. Eur. J. For. Path. 4: 41-44.

Leornardi S & Flückiger W (1987).

Die Verfrachtung salzhaltiger Verkehrsgischt entlang Autobahnen und ihre Wirkungauf exponierte Gehölze. Straße und Verkehr 1-87.

Matsché N (1996).

Aspekte zum Salzeinsatz im Winterdienst: Auswirkungen auf das Wasser. In: LenzP (Ed) Aspekte zum Salzeinsatz im Winterdienst.

Neuberger M (1996).

Staubbelastung durch Straßenstreusplitt. Waste Magazin 3/96: 11-13.

Peer Th & Podlesak K (1991).

Auswirkungen von chloridhältigen Auftaumitteln auf Wasser und Boden im Bereichvon Autobahnen und Schnellstraßen. Österreichische Wasserwirtschaft,Sonderdruck 43: 24-36.

Ruge U (1974).

Ursachen der Schädigung des Straßenbegleitgrüns in Städten und an der Autobahn.Eur. J. For. Path. 4: 48-49.

Sieghardt H (1983).

Beeinflussung der spektralen Absorptionseigenschaften der Blätter von Hederahelix durch Staubimmissionen. Phyton 23: 177-184.

Sieghardt M, Wresowar M & Tartar A (1998).

Potassium carbonate as an alternative de-icer: impact on soil properties on vegeta-tion. NHP Report 43: 41-51.

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Sieghardt M (2000).

Aktuelle Untersuchungen über die Auswirkungen von Auftausalzen auf Böden. In:Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 2000. ThalackerMedien.

Turnau K (1990).

The influence of industrial dusts on mycorrhizal status of plants in Pino-Quercetum forest. Ecological and applied aspects of ecto- and endomycorrhizalassociations 28(1-4): 529-533.

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Appendix

283

Programme: Florence, Italy, 29-31 March 2001

Conservation and management of historical parks

Thursday 29 March

Plenary session

Time: 13.00 - 18.00

Kim Wilkie (Landscape Architect, UK)

Case studies of restoration projects: the Park of the river Thames and Villa La

Pietra.

Laura Gatti (ISA, Italy)

Historical parks, old trees: technical and research aspects of their conservation

and restoration.

Thomas Randrup and Cecil Konijnendijk (Danish Forest and Landscape

Research Institute, Denmark).

Review of higher education on urban forests and trees in Europe.

Roberto Causin (University of Padova, Italy)

Management of root disease in the Botanical Garden of the University of

Padova.

Mirella Di Giovine (Municipality of Rome, Italy)

The system of urban and historical Parks of Rome: case studies of the

Caffarella and Castelfusano Parks.

Emilio Amorini (Research Institute of Silviculture, Ministry of Agriculture and

Forest Politics, Italy)

The Castelfusano forest management: suggestions and issues.

Mario Bencivenni (University of Milan, Italy)

A walk through the historical public parks in Florence.

Fabio Salbitano (University of Florence, Italy)

The Urban Forest of Florence: environment, management and directions.

284

Programme, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 28-30 June 2001

Multifunctionality in urban forestry

Thursday 28 June

Plenary session

Time: 13.30 - 17.00

Rien van den Berg (Dutch Service of Land and Water Management, theNetherlands)Experiences with establishment of multifunctional urban and periurbanwoodlands in the Netherlands.

Janez Pirnat (Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia)Multifunctionality in urban forests - a dream or a task?

Primoz Oven (Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia)Report on research of trees in the city of Ljubljana (1999-2000).

Dusan Robic (emeritus professor of Phytosociology, University of Ljubljana,Slovenia)Forest vegetation of Slovenia as a reflection of physical environment and humanactivity.

285

Programme:11-14 November 2001, Wageningen,The Netherlands.

International Policy Research Symposium on: The changing role offorestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development

Monday 12 November

Plenary sessionTime: 10.00 - 18.00

Nicolas Hanley (EU Division Nature & Biodiversity, DG Environment)The European Commission’s nature management policies and strategies inchanging European societies.

Nathalie Bertrand (Cemagref, France) & Marie-Christine Kovacshazy(Commissariat du Plan, France)Developments and recent driving forces in rural areas in a European perspective.

Gregory Ashworth (University of Groningen, the Netherlands)Developments and recent driving forces in urban areas in a Europeanperspective.

Klaas Kerkstra (Wageningen University, the Netherlands)Interaction between urban and rural areas in Europe – underlying processes andtheir consequences for forest and nature management.

Robert Sommer (University of California, USA)Changing relationships between people and nature - the impact of urbanizationand rural development.

Niels Elers Koch (Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Denmark)The challenges of changing urban-rural relations for forest and nature management in Europe.

Birgit Elands (Wageningen University, the Netherlands) & Thomas O’Leary(University College Dublin, Ireland)Multifor: the role of forests for rural development in Europe – introduction andmain results.

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Kjell Nilsson & Cecil Konijnendijk (Danish Forest and Landscape ResearchInstitute, Denmark)COST-E12: Urban forests and trees – introduction and main results -

Changing form, benefit and functions of urban forests and trees

Tuesday 13 November

Parallel sessions COST E12Time: 9.30 - 15.00

Developing the Social Values of Urban Forests

Sjerp de Vries and Martin Goossen (the Netherlands)Professionalising planning for the social functions of forests and nature areas.

Klaus Seeland (Switzerland) and Fabio Salbitano (Italy)The potential of social integration in some of the major cities of multiculturalSwitzerland and Italy in urban green areas.

Christin Janssens and Danny Wildemeersch (Belgium)Social learning and urban forestry planning - the case of Flanders.

Developing Innovative Programmes for Urban Forestry

Kevin Collins and John Brosnan (Ireland)Ireland’s NeighbourWood scheme - urban greening through partnerships.

Alan Simson (United Kingdom)The White Rose Forest - A catalyst for the regeneration of a region.

Ann Van Herzele (Belgium)Challenges of neighbourhood participation in city-scaled urban green-spaceplanning.

Case Studies of Urban Woodland Planning and Design

Simon Bell (United Kingdom)Use and abuse of woodlands in Central Scotland.

Dominique Blom (the Netherlands)Urban woodlands in the lowlands.

Iris Bernstein (Israel)Creating an urban forest in the city of Maale Edomim, Israel

287

Innovative approaches in selection and establishment of urban treeresources

Innovative Approaches in Plant Selection and Pest Control

Arne Sæbø (Norway), Thorarinn Benedikz (Iceland), Thomas Randrup(Denmark) and Jos Van Slycken (Belgium)Plant selection for street trees, park trees and urban woodlands.

Joanna L. Francis (Ireland)Enhancing the diversity of woodland field layer communities in urban plantationwoodlands for amenity and wildlife purposes

Marel Tomalak (Poland)Biological and integrated control of insect pests in urban parks and forests.

Innovative approaches in urban tree establishment

Stephan Pauleit (Germany), Louis Marie Rivière (France), Laure Vidal-Beaudet(France), Jose Luis Garcia-Valdecantos (Spain), Gemma Garcia-Marin (Spain),Monique Bodson (Belgium), and Nerys Jones (United Kingdom)Tree selection and establishment practices in Europe - Results from a Europeansurvey.

Monika Sieghardt and Martin Wresowar (Austria)Informing the public about the ecological impact of different methods of roadand pavement winter maintenance in Vienna.

Palle Kristoffersen and Camilla B. Sørensen (Denmark)Weed control in the urban environment in Denmark.

Improving Urban Soils for Urban Trees

Els Couenberg (the Netherlands)The Amsterdam Tree Soil revisited.

Jürgen Samyn (Belgium)The assessment of mulch sheets to inhibit competitive vegetation in treeplantations in urban and natural environment.

Jitze Kopinga (the Netherlands)The effect of adding mycorrhizae to planting soil on the establishment and firstgrowth of street tree plantings.

288

Innovative approaches in urban forest and tree management

Developing management systems in urban forestry

Werner Pillmann (Austria)Management of urban greenery - a system oriented model of tasks in urbanforestry.

Jens Ole Juul (Denmark), Susanne Guldager (Denmark), Alexander Alekseev(Rusland), Cecil Konijnendijk (Denmark), Evgeny Kouznetsov (Rusland) andAndrey Selikhovkin (Rusland)Developing an information system for structural urban green planning and management in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Martin Hermy and Johnny Cornelis (Belgium)Towards a monitoring method and a number of multifaceted and hierarchicalbiodiversity indicators for urban and suburban parks.

Management of urban woodlands

Åsa Ode (Sweden)Visual aspects in the management of urban woodland.

Anna Jönsson and Roland Gustavsson (Sweden)Management styles and knowledge cultures of yesterday and tomorrow formultiple use and urban woodland management.

Case studies of urban forestry ownership and management

Ömer Eker and Kenan Ok (Turkey)Results of changing social demands in Istanbul Bahcekoy Forest Enterprise: acase study.

José-Luis Garcia-Valdecantos and Maria-Louisa Tello (Spain)A historical case of periurban forestry: the ‘Sotos Históricos’ of Aranjuez, Spain

289

Programme, Thessaloniki, Greece, 11–13 April2002

Treats to urban forests and trees - the North-South perspective

Thursday 11 April

Plenary session

Time: 14.00 - 18.00

Guido Kuchelmeister (Tree City Initiative, Germany)

Urban forestry as a development tool.

Alicia Chacalo (Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico)

Urban forestry in the South: the case of Mexico City.

Klaus Seeland (Technical University of Zurich, Switzerland)

Urban and community forestry in India and Nepal.

Syaka Sadio (FAO)

Urban forestry issues in Africa: case studies in Near East (Egypt, Sudan) and

Sahelian (Mauritania, Malia and Ethiopia) countries.

Ramon Vallejo Calzada (CEAM, Spain)

Managing forest fires near urban areas in Spain.

Helen Michalopoulos (National Agricultural Research Foundation/

Forest Research Institute of Thessaloniki,Greece)

Pests and diseases to urban forests in Greece.

Alexandros Dimitrakopoulos (Dept. of Forestry and Natural Environment,

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece)

Analysis of the wildland fire problem of Greece at the urban-rural interface.

Christos Tourlakidis (Director of Reforestation Service of Thessaloniki, Greece)

Periurban forest of Thessaloniki: Post-fire restoration and perspectives.

290

Bruges, Belgium, 13-15 June 2002

Integrating research and practice - optimal use of open space inEurope

Thursday 13 June 2002

Plenary Session

Time: 14.00 - 16.30

Peter Janssens (Benelux)

Urban forestry and efficient use of open space in western Europe from a

research point of view.

Roel Vanhaeren (Flemish Community, Forest and Green Areas Division)

Realising urban forests in Flanders: a policy perspective.

Ellen Moons (Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium)

Cost-revenue analysis of urban forests from a research point of view

Muriel Eyletters (Université Libre de Bruxelles)

‘Diagnosis of trees capacity to live in an urban environment’.

Ilse Wuyts (Ministerie van het Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest)

„The Green Logic“, Renovation of street trees in Brussels.

291

Participants – Florence, Ljubljana, Wageningen,Thessaloniki, and Bruges

Participants at the COST E12 meetings in Florence (29-31 March, 2001), Ljubljana(28-20 June, 2001), Wageningen (11-14 November, 2001), Thessaloniki (11-13 April,2002) and Bruges (13-15 June, 2002)

Lastname Firstname Country

Aertsen Ekko The NetherlandsAmorini Emilio ItalyApostolides Christos GreeceAshworth Gregory The NetherlandsBaines Chris United KingdomBakker Teije The NetherlandsBell Simon United KingdomBencat Tibor SlovakiaBencivenni Mario ItalyBenedikz Thorarinn IcelandBernstein Iris IsraelBianchi Massimo ItalyBirot Yves FranceBlioumis Vaius GreeceBlom Dominique The NetherlandsBodson Monique BelgiumBonsen Karel The NetherlandsBorzan Zelimir CroatiaBostjan Anko SloveniaBroekhuijsen - de Hes Sanneke The NetherlandsBrosnan John IrelandBrus Robert SloveniaBuck Alexander AustriaBussche Brenda BelgiumBuyse Griet BelgiumCalvo Enrico ItalyCausin Roberto ItalyChacalo Alicia MexicoChristodoulou Athanasios GreeceCollet Gregor GermanyCollins Kevin Ireland

292


Couenberg Els The NetherlandsCuizzi Danielle Italyde Deugd Maartje The NetherlandsDe Nutte Tim BelgiumDe Rogatis Anna Italyde Schrijver Filip BelgiumDe Vico Fallani Massimo ItalyDe Vreese Rik Belgiumde Vries Sjerp The NetherlandsDe Wilde Joris Belgiumde Winter PJ The NetherlandsDevaere Veerle BelgiumDi Giovine Mirella ItalyDimitrakopoulos Alexandros GreeceDominguez Gloria SpainDrénou Christphe FranceDucatillion Cathérine FranceDujesiefken Dirk GermanyEdelin Claude FranceEdwards Penny United KingdomEker Ömer TurkeyElands Birgit The NetherlandsEriksson Liselott SwedenEyletters Muriël BelgiumFalck Jan SwedenFede Salvatore ItalyForrest Mary IrelandFrom Johanna SwedenGarcia-Marin Gemma SpainGarcía-Valdecantos José Luis SpainGatti Laura ItalyGauthier Michelle FAOGerman Chiari Cristina SwitzerlandGhag Jasbinder United KingdomGijsbers Ineke United KingdomGijsel Katrijn BelgiumGoossen Martin The NetherlandsGorissen Dries BelgiumGundersen Vegard Norway

293


Gustavsson Roland SwedenHanley Nicholas EUHasler Berit DenmarkHatzistathis Athanasios GreeceHermy Martin BelgiumHeyens Veerle BelgiumHoogstra Marjanke The NetherlandsHunter Beatrice The NetherlandsHyttinen Penti COSTHärdter Ulf GermanyJager Laslo HungaryJansen Hans The NetherlandsJanssens Peter BelgiumJensen Frank DenmarkJóhannesson Arni IcelandJones Nerys United KingdomJuul Jens Ole DenmarkJönsson Anna SwedenKalb Joop The NetherlandsKassioumis Konstantinos GreeceKeizer Gerrit Jan The NetherlandsKerkstra Klaas The NetherlandsKnol Reijer The NetherlandsKoch Niels Elers DenmarkKonijnendijk Cecil Denmark/The NetherlandsKoolen Jos The NetherlandsKopinga Jitze The NetherlandsKovacshazy Marie-Christine FranceKristofferesen Palle DenmarkKuchelmeister Guido GermanyKvarda Eva AustriaLagerstrom Tomas SwedenLarsen J. Bo Denmarkle Floch Sophie FranceLub Jan The NetherlandsLöfström Irja FinlandMalamidis George GreeceMartin Luis PortugalMcCormack Art Irelande

294


Michalopoulos Helen GreeceMoons Ellen BelgiumMotta Emma ItalyMussche Sylvie BelgiumMutto Sergio ItalyNachtergaele Jeroen BelgiumNas Rob The NetherlandsNieto Laura SpainNilsson Kjell DenmarkNiskanen Anssi FinlandNyhuus Signe NorwayO’Sullivan Rory IrelandO’Brien Elizabeth United KingdomOde Åsa SwedenO’Leary Tomas IrelandOlsen Ib Asger DenmarkOosterbaan Anne The NetherlandsØsterbye Lars DenmarkO’Sullivan Rory IrelandOttitsch Andreas The Netherlands/AustriaOven Primoz SloveniaPaganova Viera SlovakiaPálsson Jóhann IcelandPapageorgiou Kostas GreecePauleit Stephan United Kingdom/GermanyPetit Franck BelgiumPiggen J The NetherlandsPillmann Werner AustriaPirnat Janez SloveniaPlana Eduard SpainPotyralska Aleksandra PolandPræstholm Søren DenmarkQuist Willem The NetherlandsRandrup Thomas DenmarkRautamäki Maija FinlandRego Francisco PortugalRobic Dusan SloveniaRolf Kaj SwedenRydberg Dan Sweden

295


Sadio Syaka FAOSalbitano Fabio ItalySamyn Jürgen BelgiumSanesi Giovanni ItalySchanz Heiner The NetherlandsScheirlinck Hans BelgiumSchmidt Gbor HungarySchraml Ulrich GermanySchröder Klaus GermanySeeland Klaus SwitzerlandSelby Ashley FinlandShannon Denis IrelandSiegel Gunther COSTSieghardt Monika AustriaSimson Alan United KingdomSiwecki Ryszard PolandSkarphédinsdóttir Ragnhildur IcelandSlee Bill United KingdomSneep Huib The NetherlandsSoares Ana Luísa PortugalSommer Robert United States of AmericaSteidle-Schwahn Anna GermanyStoffer Bart The NetherlandsStoker Christian SwitzerlandSupuka Ján SlovakiaSusca Vito ItalySzepesi András HungarySæbø Arne NorwayTello Maria-Luisa SpainTerrasson Daniel FranceTomalak Marek PolandTourlakidis Christos GreeceTrakolis Dimitrios GreeceTyrväinen Liisa FinlandUilarino Jose SpainValk Remco The NetherlandsVallejo Ramon Spainvan den Berg Rien The Netherlandsvan der Sleesen Sasha Ireland

296


van der Wiel Hans The Netherlandsvan der Wielen Pierre The NetherlandsVan Herzele Ann Belgiumvan Holsteijn Hein The NetherlandsVan Hoye Dirk Belgiumvan Ingen Michel The Netherlandsvan Kerckhove Geert BelgiumVan Slycken Jos Belgiumvan Tuyll van Serooskerken Frederik The Netherlandsvan Vliet Kees The NetherlandsVarga Gabor HungaryVeer Marije The NetherlandsVisschedijk Peter The NetherlandsVon Weisenberg Kim FinlandVriesman Kees The NetherlandsVuletic Dijana CroatiaWeber Norbert GermanyWiegersma Lodewijk The NetherlandsWiersum Freerk The NetherlandsWilderink Ellen The NetherlandsWilkie Kim United KingdomWohlers Antje GermanyWuyts Ilse BelgiumZagas Theocharis Greece

COST Office

COST domain: Forests and forestry products

EUR 21524 — COST Action E12 — Urban forests and trees — Proceedings No 2

Edited by: C. C. Konijnendijk, J. Schipperijn, K. Nilsson

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2005 — 296 pp. — 17.6 x 25 cm

ISBN 92-898-0009-7

The purpose of this report is to make available the outcome of the work of COST Action 722 ‘Short-range fore-

casting of fog, visibility and low clouds’, which was carried out from 2002 to 2003. During this period, an inventory

of existing forecast methods and ongoing projects was made and an evaluation of requirements from customers

and from forecasters was prepared. These results will be used for the next phases of COST Action 722. However,

they could be also useful for a wider community interested in the processing of input data (in-situ, satellites), numer-

ical and statistical forecasting and in application purposes.
