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URBAN-RURAL LINKAGESA N A N NOTAT E D B I B L IOGR A P H Y 1 9 9 4 - 2 0 0 4

UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME

ISBN: 92-1-131713-4HS/ 729/04E

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THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR’S MESSAGEWORLD HABITAT DAY

October 4, 2004

Cities – Engines of Rural Development

The United Nations has designated the first Monday ofOctober each year as World Habitat Day. It is an occasion toreflect on the state of human settlements and the basic rightto adequate shelter for all.

The theme of World Habitat Day on Monday 4October this year is, Cities – Engines of Rural Development.We chose this theme to underline the economic, social andenvironmental interdependence between urban and ruralareas. Sustainable development can only be achieved in bothareas if they are considered holistically as part of the same,integrated system.

The links between cities and the countryside depend onthe infrastructure connecting them. Improve the infrastructurenetwork, and rural production increases, giving people in thecountryside better access to markets, information and jobs.Cities are magnets for rural trade, and the gateway tonational and international markets. They benefit from ruraldemand for their output.

The better the links between cities and theirhinterlands, the easier it is for rural people to get jobs incities, and thus ease the problem of rural unemployment. Itis important that cities absorb excess rural labour. But in thedeveloping world, poor development in urban areas hasrestricted the options that would normally be open to ruralpeople.

A major hurdle to be overcome in developing countriesis the fact that secondary and tertiary towns are under-supplied and under-developed. This can be remedied byimproving the road, rail and other vital communications

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networks between them. Economic development in smalltowns can have a positive impact on the surrounding ruraleconomies through a greater demand for rural produce fromurban residents who normally have a higher purchasingpower.

Intermediate towns provide natural destinations forrural migrants seeking better opportunities. They also helpcushion the impact of major migration flows towards largecities.

In many poor countries, the scattered nature of ruralsettlements renders the provision of infrastructure andservices to rural areas extremely costly. There is no doubtthat a major cause of rural under-development is poor accessto basic infrastructure and services such as roads,telecommunication, health care, education, credit, marketsand information. Many of these can only be supplied andsupported from within the more populous urban areas. It is imperative, therefore, that if we are to achievesustainable economic and social development nationwideGovernments must integrate their country’s urban and ruralareas as a matter of policy. Stimulating balanceddevelopment between urban and rural constituencies meansstrengthening national, regional and local planning bodies.

On this World Habitat Day, we call upon all thoseconcerned about rural growth to integrate urbandevelopment fully into their plans and to bring a moreholistic perspective to our common future: Cities can be theengines of rural development.

Anna Kajumulo TibaijukaUnder-Secretary-General and

Executive Director

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FOREWORD

The Governing Council of United Nations Human SettlementsProgramme at its 19th session defined rural-urban linkages as“complementary functions and flows of people, capital, goods,employment, information and technology between rural andurban areas”. The integration of the rural-urban dimension inthe debate on poverty alleviation and sustainable ruraldevelopment and urbanisation, is essential.

This dichotomy has been addressed in key documents thatconstitute the backbone of UN-HABITAT’s mandate. Forexample, the Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements andparagraphs 163 and 169 of the Habitat Agenda, emphasizesthat urban and rural areas are interdependent economically,socially and environmentally; that an integrated approachis required to promote balanced and mutually supportiveurban-rural development. Paragraph 3 of the Declarationon Cities and Other Human Settlements in the New Millenniumstresses that cities and towns are engines of growthcontributing to the development of both rural and urbanhuman settlements. This bibliography brings togetherreferences to published materials from both conventionaland grey literature. They examine the major issues of theurban-rural linkages. The annotated references are organizedunder the following sub-themes: socio-economic, regionalplanning, rural-urban migration, environment, food andagriculture.The descriptors used are derived from the UNCHS Glossaryof Human Settlements Terms, the United Nations UNBISThesaurus and FAO’s AGROVOC Thesaurus. The abstractsincluded are the authors’ abstracts, when available.

This publication was released to mark the theme of WorldHabitat Day 2004 - Cities : engines of rural development - andin support the UN-HABITAT conference on Urban-RuralLinkages Approach to Development, 1-4 October 2004.

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URBAN-RURAL LINKAGESAND

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

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001Atkinson, A. (2000).Promoting sustainable human development incities of the South: a Southeast Asian perspective. In: Occasional Paper(UNRISD), no. 6/2000 / UNRISD, Geneva (Switzerland), 2000, 41 p.ISBN 92-9085-027-2. URBAN ENVIRONMENT; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; SUSTAINABILITY; CASESTUDIES; PHILIPPINES; THAILAND; INDONESIA

002Ayele, Gelan (2002).Trade liberalisation and urban–rurallinkages: a CGE analysis for Ethiopia. In: Journal of PolicyModeling, Volume 24, Issues 7-8, pp 707-738.STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT; STRUCTURALTRANSFORMATION; RURAL–URBAN MIGRATIONS; ETHIOPIAUsing a rural–urban computable general equilibrium (CGE) model,this paper examines the impacts of trade liberalisation onstructural transformation and overall growth of the Ethiopianeconomy. The simulation experiments suggest that the impacts oftrade liberalisation depend on wage-setting conditions in the urbanregion. With a fixed urban real wage, trade reform adversely affectsoverall economic growth mainly because of large contractions inthe urban region. If urban nominal wage is flexible, both rural andurban regions experience expansion in GDP. An important policyimplication of this analysis is that the success of trade liberalisationcritically depends on the extent to which product and labourmarket reforms are synchronised. On the other hand, simultaneousimplementations of nominal devaluation and reductions inexternal trade tariffs would not enhance structural transformationof the economy. However, this policy conflict does not necessarilyarise if the introduction and implementation of different policyinstruments of trade reforms are appropriately sequenced.

003Baker, J. (1995).Survival and accumulation strategies at therural-urban interface in north-west Tanzania. In: Environmentand Urbanization Vol.7(1), pp. 117-132.

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POVERTY; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; POPULATION;RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; RURAL URBAN MIGRATIONS;TANZANIAThis paper presents empirical material collected in the small townof Biharamulo (population 20,000) and four surrounding villagesin 1993. The study area is located in the Kagera Region of north-west Tanzania. The paper attempts to demonstrate how rural areasand small urban centres are economically interdependent.Biharamulo is a district headquarter town and fulfils, inter alia,important administrative, marketing, service and retailingfunctions. The paper discusses how the four villages interact withthe town and illustrates how village households adopt acombination of survival and accumulation strategies includingthe use of rural and urban resources. The most successful villagehouseholds appear to be those which use urban opportunities andassets (for example, urban employment, urban house and shopownership) to diversify income sources and thereby avoid theuncertainties of relying solely on marketable crop production forhousehold security. As a backdrop to the whole discussion, anattempt is made to analyze the types of households which mightbe poor or, at least, susceptible to poverty.

004Brandolini, Andrea and Cipollone, Piero (2003).Urban povertyin developed countries. In: Research on Economic Inequality, Volume9, 2003, pp. 309-343. POVERTY; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES;URBANISATION; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

005Bryceson, D.F. and Mbara, T.C. (2003).Petrol, pumps andeconomic slumps: rural-urban linkages in Sub-SaharanAfrica’s globalization process’ In: Journal of Economic andSocial Geography, vol. 94 (3), pp. 335-49, 2003.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT;AFRICAThe blurring of rural and urban space in Sub-Saharan Africa hasbeen a topical theme in recent years. Under economic duress,occupational distinctions between the two have tended todisappear. It is often inferred that burgeoning trade and service

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sector activities have encouraged greater personal mobility andrural-urban linkages as heightened movement of economic actorsbridge the physical distance between town and countryside.Meanwhile, the theme of globalization applied to Africa has tendedto suggest that physical distances are contracting as cyberspacetakes over. But amidst this debate, the fluctuating cost of petrol asa key determinant of physical movement and distance perceptionhas largely been overlooked. This paper examines Sub- SaharanAfrica’s rural and urban economies’ vulnerability to internationaloil price fluctuations, asking why this factor has been downplayed.Possible future petrol price trends and their effect on African ruraland urban development are probed.

006Bryceson, D.F. (2001).Countryside and city: balancing orblurring differences?’ In: Urban Development in a TransitionalContext, Development Research Series, Occasional Papers No.2, Research Center on Development and InternationalRelations, Aalborg University, Denmark, pp. 192-219, 2001.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT;URBANISATION

007Champion, Tony and Hugo, Graeme (2004).New forms ofurbanization: beyond the urban-rural dichotomy. AshgatePublishing ISBN: 0754635880. URBANISATION; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AREAS

008Chen, X. and Parish, W. L. (1996).Urbanization in China:reassessing an evolving model. In: The Urban Transformationof the Developing World, Oxford University Press,pp. 61- 92.URBANISATION; PLANNING; GOVERNANCE; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; CHINA

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009Cohen, Barney (2004).Urban growth in developing countries:a review of current trends and a caution regarding existingforecasts. In: World Development, Vol.32(1), pp.23-51.URBANISATION; CITY GROWTH; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES;AFRICA; ASIA; LATIN AMERICAThe purpose of this paper is to clarify the nature of the on-goingurban transition in developing countries, the quality of theavailable data, and the uncertainty of existing urban forecasts.Although the recently released United Nations’ publication WorldUrbanization Prospects is an invaluable resource for those interestedin studying urban change, the data in the report are somewhatdeceptive in their apparent completeness and beyond the narrowconfines of technical demography there is a great deal ofmisunderstanding and misreporting about what these data meanand how they should be interpreted. For example, while the scaleof urban change is unprecedented and the nature and direction ofurban change is more dependent on the global economy than everbefore, many aspects of the traditional distinction between urbanand rural are becoming redundant. This paper provides a broadoverview of the available evidence on patterns and trends in urbangrowth in developing countries, highlighting regional differenceswhere appropriate. The paper also examines the quality of pasturban population projections and finds that there has beenconsiderable diversity in their quality by geographic region, levelof development, and size of country.

010Gordon, A.; Davis, A.; Long, J. and Meadows, K. (2000).Therole of natural resources in the livelihoods of the urban poor.In: Policy Series - Natural Resources Institute no. 9 / NaturalResources Inst., Chatham (United Kingdom) , 2000 , 47 p.ISBN 0-85954-520-2 NATURAL RESOURCES; POVERTY;URBAN AGRICULTURE; EMPLOYMENT; MIGRATION;TENURE; DEVELOPING COUNTRIESThis paper examines the role played by agriculture and naturalresources in the livelihoods of the urban poor. It demonstratesthat this role has important policy implications.

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011Dayaratne, Ranjith and Raja Samarawickrama (2001).Empowering communities in managing rural urbanencounters: the concepts and practices of the housing andcommunity development program in the peri-urban areasofColombo. In: DPU International Conference: Rural-UrbanEncounters: Managing the Environment of the peri- UrbanInterface, London 9-10 November 2001, University ofBahrain / Colombo Municipality Council.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AREAS; COMMUNITYDEVELOPMENT; URBANISATION; SRI-LANKAPeri-urban areas of Colombo have been battling the trauma oftheir communities whose cultural identities are neither urban norrural. Their life styles are dislodged from the traditional situationswhile unhealthy policies and the transition forces have posedserious issues to the development agencies and practices. ColomboMunicipality Council together with other development agencieshave launched a program aimed at dealing with essentially socialand spatial issues of the peri-urban areas. Based upon the conceptsof community empowerment and capacity building, this programhas enabled the communities to deal with the traumatic impactsof the urbanization practice. This paper examines the Housingand Community Development Program (HCDP) of the ColomboMunicipality Council of Sri Lanka.

012Debertin, David L.(2001). A Comparison of social capital inrural and urban settings.Full text: http://www.uky.edu/~deberti/socsaea.htm SOCIAL CAPITAL; RURAL-URBANLINKAGES; COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTThis paper examines some of the ways in which social capitalnetworks develop and operate and contrasts the differencesbetween rural and urban settings based on “case studyobservations” of rural communities and urban subdivisions. Alist of potential researchable questions involving social capitalis developed and some ideas are proposed for empiricallyanalyzing these questions and issues.

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013Eastwood, R. and Lipton, M. (2000).Rural-urban dimensionsof inequality change. In: WIDER Working Papers (UNU), no.200 / World Inst. for Development Economics Research,Helsinki (Finland) , 2000 , 62 p. ISSN 0782-8233Full Text: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/economics/dpEastwood.pdfRURAL-URBAN LINKAGES ; LIVING STANDARDS; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; ECONOMIC SECTORS;CONSUMPTION; INCOME; POVERTY; HEALTH; EDUCATION;DEMOGRAPHY; URBANISATION

014Fleisher, Belton M. and Wang, Xiaojun (2001).Efficiencywages and work incentives in urban and rural China. In:Journal of Comparative Economics, Volume 29 (4),pp. 645-662URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; PRODUCTIVITY; INCOME; CHINAThis paper examines incentive-wage effects for production andfor managerial/technical workers in both urban and rural Chinesenonagricultural enterprises. We report strong evidence ofproductivity-enhancing wage behavior among enterprises in allownership categories. There is also evidence that firms payinghigher efficiency wages experience less shirking among theiremployees. We find that the profit-maximizing potential ofincentive-wage setting is not fully exploited, although there is weakevidence that joint ventures come closer to profit-maximizingbehavior at this margin of wage/employment behavior than docollectives or state-owned enterprises

015Gubry, P; Ngwe, E. Tchegho, J.-M. and Timnou, J.-P. (1996).Le retour au village: une solution à la crise économique auCameroun? Ministère de recherche scientifique ettechnique, Yaounde (Cameroon); Institut de Formation etde recherche démographiques, Yaounde (Cameroon); 206p.ISBN 2-7384-4225-0 RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; MIGRATION; RURALPOPULATION; POVERTY; LIVING STANDARDS;EMPLOYMENT

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016Hope, Kempe Ronald and Edge, Wayne A. (1996).Growthwith uneven development: urban-rural socio-economicdisparities in Botswana. In: Geoforum, Vol. 27 (1), pp. 53-62URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DISPARITIES;CITY GROWTH; BOTSWANAThe benefits of Botswana’s post-independence rapid economicgrowth have not quite trickled down to the masses, particularlyin the rural areas, and this has led to a situation that can beclassified as growth with uneven development. This paperexamines and analyses this phenomenon in Botswana from theperspective of the urban-rural divide. The paper concludes with adiscussion on policy imperatives for narrowing the urban-ruralsocio-economic disparities.

017Hugo, G. (1996). Urbanization in Indonesia: city andcountryside linked. In: The Urban Transformation of theDeveloping World, Oxford University Press, pp. 133-184.URBANISATION; CITY GROWTH; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES;SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS; INDONESIA

018International Labour Organisation (ILO) (1998).The futureof urban employment. ILO, Geneva (Switzerland) ,64 p. ISBN92-2-110337-4 EMPLOYMENT; URBAN AREAS;URBANISATION; UNEMPLOYMENT; POVERTY; LABOURMARKET; INVESTMENT POLICIES; DEVELOPING COUNTRIESEmployment is, in its essence, a poverty-related issue. This isbecause the ILO believes that the most sustainable solution topoverty alleviation is through employment creation. The fast rateof urbanization in the developing world intensifies its implicationsfor urban poverty and unemployment. In other words,urbanization is accompanied with urbanization of poverty intoday’s world, especially in developing countries. This publicationpresents the immense problems and enormity of the tasksconfronting those who lead the cities and highlights what localauthorities can do to help alleviate poverty and generate

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employment opportunities for the increasing numbers of urbanpoor. The original edition of this paper represented the ILO’scontribution to the Second United Nations Conference on HumanSettlements in Istanbul in June 1996. It served as a backgroundpaper to the Habitat II Dialogue for the 21st century on the Futureof Urban Employment which was organized by the ILO. Thisrevised version of the paper (1998), produced in response tocontinued high demand, provides updated data and overall policyguidance for the ILO’s developing programme on urban povertyalleviation and employment promotion.

019Locher, Uli (2000).Are the rural poor better off than the urbanpoor? In: Labour, Capital and Society. 3(1).pp. 108-135SOCIALCAPITAL; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMICDISPARITIES; INCOMEThis article has a single objective: I intend to show that despite thegreat visibility of human misery in urban settings, rural povertyis actually more widespread and severe.” (p. 108) In support ofthis argument, Locher documents the urban-rural poverty gap,then moves to an examination of theoretical concepts andprejudices of empirical urban poverty research and presentsempirical evidence from Latin America. The article concludes anevaluation of usefulness of the theories discussed, and implicationsfor urbanization.

020Laquinta, D.L. and Drescher, A.W. (2000).Defining theperi-urban: rural-urban linkages and institutionalconnections. In: Land Reform, Land Settlement andCooperatives (FAO), (no.2) p. 8-26.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SUB-URBAN AGRICULTURE;RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; URBANISATION; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; POPULATION DYNAMICSThis paper uses definitions and concepts of the peri-urban area,and explores the implications for planning and management ofnatural resources in the rural-urban interface. In exploring this,the authors attempt to define the social footprint, with the aim tofoster effective interdisciplinary discussion.

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021Lu, Ding (2002).Rural–urban income disparity: impact ofgrowth, allocative efficiency, and local growth welfare. In:China Economic Review, Volume 13 (4), pp. 419-429URBAN–RURAL LINKAGES; INCOME DISPARITY; ALLOCATIVEEFFICIENCY; INCOME; CHINAHistorical data of economic development suggest a Kuznets–Williamson type of relationship between economic growth andincome disparity. Using China’s provincial data, we first try todetermine to what extent such a relationship is valid in the urban–rural disparity context. Next, we identify some factors other thaneconomic growth that might have affected urban–rural disparity.In particular, we calculate and compare the inter-sector grossallocation effect (GAE) at the provincial level to discern the impactof labor mobility and allocative efficiency on urban–rural disparity.We also try to evaluate the contribution of local governance tourban–rural disparity by looking into regional differences ineffectiveness of economic growth to raise local standard of living.Policy implications of the findings are discussed in the light ofChina’s institutional reforms and development strategies.

022Lynch, Kenneth (2004).Rural-urban interaction in thedeveloping world. London; New York : Routledge. ISBN:0415258715 URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT; POPULATION; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

023Nunan, F. and Shepherd, A. (1998).Where city meets country.Is the peri-urban interface a concept that counts? 2 p.Department for International Development (DFID), NaturalResources Systems Programme, 94 Victoria Street, London,SW1E 5JL, UK.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; R&DMETHODOLOGY; NATURAL RESOURCES; REGIONALPLANNING; PERI-URBAN AREASThis paper examines management of natural resources in the peri-urban interface. This research was done in the framework of thePeri-urban Interface Production Systems Research programme,one of seven portfolios which together constitute DFID’s Natural

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Resources Systems Programme. The research emphasises a moveaway from a simple geographic definition of the interface to anunderstanding based on intensive linkages and flows of, forexample, commodities, wastes and labour.

024Okpala, Don C.I. (2003).Promoting the positive rural-urban linkagesapproach to sustainable development and employment creation: therole of UN-HABITAT. In: FIG Regional Conference on urban-ruralinterrelationship for sustainable development, Marrakech, Morocco,December 2-5, 2003.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; EMPLOYMENTGENERATION; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT; URBANISATIONN; UNITED NATIONS

025Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) (1998).Popular urban economy at the heart of theeconomy and of urban society. In: Club du Sahel: Bulletin no.18 (March 1998) p. 3. Organisation for Economic Co-operationand Development (OECD), 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 ParisCedex 16, France.ECONOMIC IMPACT; RURAL-URBANLINKAGES; MALI; SAN PEDRO; IVORY COAST; ADDEDVALUE; EMPLOYMENT; INFORMAL ECONOMYThe modern sector of an urban economy provides a significantportion of the added value. Most jobs, however, are created by thepopular urban economy sector which is based on meeting basicneeds.

026Pedersen, Poul O. (2003).The implications of national-level policieson the development of small and intermediate urban centers. . In:Integrating Rural Development and Small Urban Centres: AnEvolving Framework for Effective Regional and Local EconomicDevelopment March 18-19, 2003 Washington DC.

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Full text: http://www.worldbank.org/urban/urbanruralseminar/papers/pederson.pdf. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; GOVERNANCE;ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; REGIONAL PLANNING; PERI-URBAN AREASIn the dichotomous world of centre–periphery theories, ruraldevelopment, urban bias and rural–urban linkages, the small andintermediate urban centres (SIUC) tend to disappear. Urban studieshave tended to focus on the capital or other large cities, whilstrural development projects often do not even mention the smallrural towns or regional centres where the project administrationand the services on which the rural areas depend are mostlylocated. One of the reasons for the invisibility of the SIUC is theircomplex and often unclear position in development. From an urbanpoint of view, their development represents a decentralisation ordeconcentration of activities; from a rural point of view, theyrepresent a point of concentration and centralisation. This makestheir position open to different interpretations, reflecting real orpotential conflicts between rural and urban interests and betweenlocal/regional and national interests.

027Potter, Robert B. and Unwin, Tim (1995).Urban-ruralinteraction: physical form and political process in the ThirdWorld. In: Cities, Volume 12 (1), pp. 67-73.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES, DEVELOPING COUNTRIES,ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; POLITICAL CHANGEThis paper provides an examination of the implications for urban-rural interaction in developing countries of the increasing trendtowards the creation of vast megalopolitan urban systems andof recent political changes in the world order. This is developedas a critique of Potter and Unwin’s (1989) edited volume on thegeography of urban-rural interaction in developing countries. Inthe first part of the paper, the global recession of the late 1980sand early 1990s is seen as being significant for the furthergravitation of private capital to urban cores. The second half ofthe paper examines some of the implications of the collapse ofstate socialism in Eastern Europe and the former USSR for urban-rural interaction in developing countries. In conclusion, it isargued that increasing disadvantages accruing to the rural poor

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of the Third World as a result of the resurgence of globalcapitalism are likely to lead to major inequalities between urbanand rural areas, which will require urgent attention by the worldcommunity if significant political unrest is to be avoided

028Ravallion, Martin and Datt, Gaurav (2002).Why haseconomic growth been more pro-poor in some states of Indiathan others? In: Journal of Development Economics, Vol.68(2),pp.381-400. POVERTY; INEQUALITY; ECONOMICGROWTH; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; HUMAN DEVELOPMENT;REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; INDIAWe use 20 household surveys for India’s 15 major states spanning1960–1994 to study how the sectoral composition of economicgrowth and initial conditions interact to influence how muchgrowth reduced consumption poverty. The elasticities of measuredpoverty to farm yields and development spending did not differsignificantly across states. But the elasticities of poverty to (urbanand rural) non-farm output varied appreciably, and the differenceswere quantitatively important to the overall rate of povertyreduction. States with higher elasticities did not experience higherrates of non-farm growth. The non-farm growth process was morepro-poor in states with initially higher literacy, higher farmproductivity, higher rural living standards (relative to urbanareas), lower landlessness and lower infant mortality.

029Robredo, Jesse M. (2003).Linkaging urban centers and ruralcommunities: the Metro Naga experience. . In: Integrating RuralDevelopment and Small Urban Centres: An Evolving Frameworkfor Effective Regional and Local Economic Development. March18-19.Washington DC.Full text: http://www.worldbank.org/urbanurban ruralseminar/papers/jesse-robredo.pdfRURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT; PERI-URBAN AREAS; PHILIPPINESCities always figure prominently in discussions on developmentconcerns for one simple reason— they are where the action is. Ahandbook on government notes that “cities generate andaccumulate wealth and are the main centers for education, new

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jobs, innovation, culture and greater economic opportunity.” TheUN itself projects that within the next decade, 43% of the Asianpopulation will be living in cities. The economic and socialopportunities that cities offer, however, have ironically led togargantuan problems that are often described as the ill effects ofurbanization. In the Philippines, these effects are not only evidentin Manila, the country’s premier city, but in small cities such asNaga, as well. This paper presents our experiences in tackling thesechallenges— while at the same time, helping address the concernsof and spurring growth in our neighboring municipalities— byimplementing the Metro Naga concept.

030Sahn, David E. and Stifel, David C. (2003).Progress towardthe Millennium Development Goals in Africa. WorldDevelopment, Volume 31 (1), pp 23-52.MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS; POVERTY; WELFAREMEASURES; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; AFRICAWe analyze demographic and health surveys to examine theprogress of African countries in achieving six of the sevenmillennium development goals (MDG) set forth by the UnitedNations. Our results paint a discouraging picture. Despite somenoteworthy progress, the evidence suggests that, in the absence ofdramatic changes in the rates of improvement in most measuresof living standards, the MDG will not be reached for most indicatorsin most countries. The results are particularly sobering for ruralareas, where living standards are universally lower, and whererates of progress lag behind urban areas.

031Sangwan, Sneh(2003). Rural-urban divide: changing spatial patternof social variables. New Delhi : Concept Pub. Co.URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT;POPULATION DYNAMICS; CITY GROWTH; INDIA

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032Sato, Hiroshi (2003).The growth of market relations in post-reform China: a micro-analysis of peasants, migrants andpeasant entrepreneurs. New York: RoutledgeCurzon.ISBN: 0700717269. URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; URBAN-RURAL MIGRATIONS; MARKETS; AGRICULTURE; ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT; PRIVATE SECTOR; CHINA

033Satterthwaite, David (2000).Seeking an understanding ofpoverty that recognizes rural-urban differences and rural-urban linkages. In: World Bank: Urban Forum on UrbanPoverty Reduction in the 21st Century. Full text: http://www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/docs/UR_Satterthwaite.doc.URBAN POVERTY; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC; DEVELOPMENT

034Satterthwaite, David and Tacoli, Cecilia (2003).A criticalreview of the role of small and intermediate urban centresin national, regional and local economies of low- and middle-income nations, with particular reference to ruraldevelopment and poverty reduction. In: Integrating RuralDevelopment and Small Urban Centres: An EvolvingFramework for Effective Regional and Local EconomicDevelopment. March 18-19, 2003 Washington DC.Full text: http://www.worldbank.org/urban/urbanruralseminar/papers/satterthwaite-tacoli.pdfRURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT;PERI-URBAN AREAS; DEVELOPING COUNTRIESSince the early 1960s, small and intermediate urban centres haveattracted the attention of policy-makers and planners. Differenttheoretical approaches have underpinned such interest and therelated policy interventions, which are discussed in detail inSection 5. Early views of the role of small and intermediate urbancenters in regional and rural development fell within the generalparadigms of modernization and dependency theories. In the first,small towns are seen as centres from which innovation and

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modernisation would trickle down to the rural population. Hence,the most effective and rational spatial strategy for promotingrural development is to develop a well-articulated, integrated andbalanced urban hierarchy. This network of small, medium-sizedand larger urban centres is described as ‘locationally efficient – itallows clusters of services, facilities and infrastructure that cannotbe economically located in small villages and hamlets to serve awidely dispersed population from an accessible central place’

035Seeth, Harm Tho et al. (1998).Russian poverty: Muddlingthrough economic transition with garden plots. In: WorldDevelopment, Volume 26 (9), pp.1611-1624.POVERTY; TRANSITIONAL ECONOMIES; HOUSEHOLDS; URBANAGRICULTURE; FOOD; RUSSIAHousehold-level analysis based on a comprehensive survey inthree regions of Russia sheds some light on new dimensions ofpoverty. An important aspect of households’ responses to economicstress in the transition economy is home gardening and subsistenceagriculture in urban and rural areas. Subsistence agriculture playsan important role in real income and food consumption of themiddle-income strata. The income-poor also tend to have poorplots and gardens. Household labor force, distance to plots, andopportunity costs of time are the main determinants of the level oflabor allocation to household agriculture. While on averagemarginal returns to labor in household plots are about 0.50 US$/day, they are not different from zero for the poor. Agriculture policyneglects this sector which now provides almost 40% of Russia’sagricultural output.

036Smit, W. (1998).The rural linkages of urban households inDurban, South Africa. In: Environment and Urbanization,10(1), pp. 77-87.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; SOUTH AFRICAThis paper describes the linkages between low-income migranthouseholds in Durban and their rural home areas. Theserelationships can be seen as a continuum, from households whichregard their rural homestead as their real home to households

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who seem to have severed their rural ties. For a number ofhouseholds, described as “multiple-home households”,maintaining both an urban and a rural base provides a safetynet in times of economic hardship or political violence. In orderto address the needs of these households, housing and ruraldevelopment subsidy policies should take variations in householdsize into account and allow greater choice in the allocation ofsubsidies between urban and rural homes.

037Tacoli, Cecilia. (1998). Rural–urban interactions: A guide to theliterature. In: Environment and Urbanization 10(1) pp. 147–66.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT;POPULATION DYNAMICS; AGRICULTURE; EMPLOYMENT;RURAL AREAS; URBANISATIONThis paper reviews some of the recent literature on rural-urbaninteractions, with particular attention to the ways in which theyhave been affected by recent and current economic, social andcultural transformations. The paper is organized as follows: thefirst three sections discuss definitions of rural and urban areasand activities, review conceptual frameworks and consider howrural-urban interactions are conceptualized within developmentplanning. The last four sections review empirical studies ondifferent flows connecting rural and urban areas (flows of people,of goods and of wastes), and on sectoral interactions (agriculturein the cities, non-agricultural employment in the countryside andrural-urban inter-linkages in peri-urban areas).than portrayed byadministrative delimitations, especially when towns’ use of ruralresources is considered; population movement, especiallytemporary and seasonal migration, is not usually reflected incensus figures and can make enumerations of ruraland urbanpopulations unreliable; finally, a large number of households inurban areas tend to rely on rural resources, and rural populationsare increasingly engaged in nonagricultural activities.

038Tingbé-Azalou, A. (1997).Cultural dimensions of rural-urbanrelations in Benin. In: Rural-Urban Dynamics in FrancophoneAfrica, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala (Sweden), pp. 79-

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89.CULTURAL VALUES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT;RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; BENIN

039Trager, Lillian (2000).Migration and rural-urban linkages:implications for rural development, poverty alleviation andgender relations. Ibadan: Centre for Gender, Governance,and Development.URBAN-RURAL MIGRATIONS; POVERTY;GENDER; RURAL AREAS; URBANISATION; SOCIO-ECONOMICENVIRONMENT; AFRICA; NIGERIA

040Vennetier, Pierre (2003).Citadins et développement descampagnes au Cameroun. Paris: Harmattan. 230p.TOWNS; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIO-ECONOMICENVIRONMENT; CAMEROON

041United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat)(1999). Perspectives on urban-rural synergies: report of acolloquium. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Centre forHuman Settlements (Habitat). ISBN: 9211314356 URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT;POPULATION DYNAMICS; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

042Wilhelm, L. (2000). Supply networks and how markets work inAfrica and Madagascar. In: Food into cities. Selected papers ; FAOAgricultural Services Bulletin (FAO) , no. 143 / FAO, Rome (Italy).Agricultural Support Systems Div., 2000, 26 p. ISBN 92-5-104478-3.FOOD SUPPLY; URBAN AREAS; MARKETING CHANNELS;MARKETS; CAPITAL; CREDIT; RISK; SUPPLY BALANCE;DECISION MAKING; AFRICA; MADAGASCARThis paper is based on research carried out by the author in somesub-Saharan African countries, including appraisal studies formarket rehabilitation projects funded by Coopération Françaiseand the Caisse Française de Development (Wilhelm, 1994).1 Itconsists of three chapters, the first of which provides a general

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overview of food supply systems and discusses the role andfunctions of urban markets in sub-Saharan Africa. The secondchapter analyses the internal organization and operation of majorsupply and redistribution markets and the conclusions andrecommendations for improving FSDSs in Africa are outlined inChapter 3.

043Xiaokai, Yang and Rice, Robert (1994). An equilibrium modelendogenizing the emergence of a dual structure between the urbanand rural sectors. In: Journal of Urban Economics, Volume 35 (3) pp.346-368. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES, MANUFACTURINGINDUSTRY; AGRICULTUREThis paper presents a general equilibrium model whichformalizes the trade-off between economies of specialization andtransaction costs. The comparative statistics, based on cornersolutions, indicate that the general equilibrium will shift betweenseveral market structures as transaction efficiency is improved.Introducing a differential in transaction efficiency between theagricultural and manufacturing sectors, we derive the emergenceof a city from the evolution of the division of labor, which is drivenby improvements in transaction efficiency. The division of laboris necessary but not sufficient for the emergence of cities. Asufficiently high transaction efficiency will make a city emergefrom a high level of division of labor between specializedmanufacturers.

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044Abramovay, R. and Sachs, I. (1996). Nouvelles configurations villes-campagnes. In: UNHCS (Habitat) Habitat II - Dialogue no. 6: Landand Rural/Urban Linkages in the Twenty-First Century, Proceedings ofthe Conference held in Istanbul, June 6 1996 (UNCHS).Full Text:http://www.unesco.org/most/pp7.htmREGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; REGIONAL PLANNING; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES

045Adarkwa, Kwasi Kwafo. (1998).The Role of regionaldevelopment in closing the gap between rural and urbanareas. In: Regional Development Dialogue. 19, no. 2, pp. 50-64. United Nations Centre for Regional Development.REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES;DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

046Bertrand, M. and Dubresson, A. (ed.) (1997).Petites etmoyennes villes d’Afrique noire. Karthala, Paris.URBAN AREAS; TOWNS; REGIONAL PLANNING; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; AFRICA

047Bhargava, Gopal (2001).Development of India’s urban,rural, and regional planning in 21st century: policy perspective.New Delhi : Gyan Pub. House. ISBN: 8121207142REGIONAL PLANNING; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; INDIAThe book explores an in-depth study of various socioeconomic,spatial and infrastructural factors of urban, rural and regionalplanning framework in the 21st century scenario. The urbanplanning scenario in the new millennium is examined with theempirical data and policy perspectives. The emerging challengingissues of housing crisis, slum and squatter settlements,environmental chaos, the spectacular growth phenomenon ofinformal sector in metropolitan cities have been studied

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048Douglass, Mike. (1998).Globalization, inter-city networks andrural-urban linkages: rethinking regional development: theoryand policy. In: Regional Development Planning in the 21stCentury: Latin America and the Caribbean. Proceedings of theRegional Development Forum for Latin America and theCaribbean. 1-3 December 1997, Santa Fe de Bogatá, Colombia,edited by Claudia Hoshino, pp. 113-145. Nagoya, Japan: UnitedNations Centre for Regional DevelopmentURBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT;GLOBALISATION; LATIN AMERICA; CARIBBEAN

049Edgington, David W. and Fernandez, Antonio L. (2001).TheChanging context of regional development. In New Regions:Concepts, Issues, and Practices; vol. 2, 3-17. Westport, CT:Greenwood Press. REGIONAL PLANNING; REGIONALDEVELOPMENT; SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION; PERI-URBAN AREAS

050Evans, Hugh Emrys. (2001).Regional development throughrural-urban linkages: The PARUL Program in Indonesia. InNew Regions: Concepts, Issues, and Practices; vol. 3, GreenwoodPress.REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES;INDONESIA

051Greenstein, Rosalind and Wiewel, Wim (eds.)(2000).Urban-Suburban Interdependencies. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Instituteof Land Policy. URBAN AREAS; SUBURBS; RURAL-URBANLINKAGES; REGIONAL PLANNING; SOCIO-ECONOMICDEVELOPMENTSuburban sprawl has become a nationwide phenomenon and anincreasingly visible political issue, while inner-cityneighborhoods and inner-ring suburbs continue to suffer from

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familiar urban problems, including housing abandonment, highunemployment, dismal education performance, and increasingly highconcentrations of poverty. In spite of an unprecedented period ofeconomic growth for the nation as a whole, central cities seem unable toaddress these long-standing issues. Their property tax bases show littleor no growth, and states and the federal government are unable orunwilling to fill the gap. Moreover, municipalities in the samemetropolitan area may differ by as much as a factor of 10 in their percapita fiscal capacity. Central cities and inner-ring suburbs share manysocial and economic problems, yet political and social forces suggest aserious divide between them. Residents in different parts of ametropolitan area lack awareness about their common fate, creatingobstacles to crafting political solutions that require metropolitan-levelcooperation. Furthermore, the precise nature of the relations betweenand among central cities, inner-ring suburbs and outer-ring suburbs isnot fully understood. Some research suggests a strong correlationbetween the economic performance of the city and that of its suburbs,an argument that has been used to seek greater support for central cities.Others have argued that this correlation does not imply causation.Empirical evidence is needed to shed light on this politically chargedquestion. The conference brought together more than 100 academics,public officials and urban practitioners to bridge the gap between policyresearchers’ work and policymakers’ concerns about metropolitandynamics. This follow-up volume is intended to further challengeacademics to frame policy research questions that will inform thethoughts and actions of policymakers, while also challengingpolicymakers to explain and clarify their needs for data, informationand analysis. Through such collaboration, the efforts of policy researcherscan be better applied to the practical questions of the intended andunintended consequences of public policy. Toward that end, Urban-Suburban Interdependencies presents the following papers from theconference

052Grimm, Joseph (1999).Local economic development in regionalplanning.Full text: http://www.worldbank.org/urban/urbanruralseminar/papers/josef-grimm.pdfREGIONAL PLANNING; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT

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The goal of this document is to compile conceptual elements fora strategy that aims to support the establishment of enterprisesin the rural areas. Whilst the conditions in different countries /continents may vary considerably it is important to identify theparameters and conditions together with adequate interventionmeasures that can meaningfully contribute to the establishmentof a viable and sustainable rural enterprises.

053Hidding, Marjan C. and Teunissen, André T. J.(2002).Beyond fragmentation: new concepts for urban–ruraldevelopment. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, vol 58(2-4),pp. 297-308.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; FRAGMENTATION;SPATIAL PLANNINGDutch spatial policy has typically been characterised by strivingfor developing town and country as separate spatial entities.Spatial fragmentation has always been an anathema for planners.Leading plan concepts like the compact city and the Green Heartreflect the idea of separate cities surrounded by green, open space.However, there is a widening gap between these spatial conceptsand spatial reality. The current policy has not effectively addressedthe dynamics of the network society and what occurs is differentfrom the policy itself. Therefore, another type of process-orientedconcept is needed. In this paper we discuss a set of process-orientedconcepts, defined as network concepts. These concepts give rise toa much more complex spatial organisation. That does not implythat there is no longer any well-organised space. The networkapproach has well defined principles for spatial organisation. Thispaper thus makes the argument for the reconsideration of the ideaof fragmentation.

054Kamal, Ashrat and Ayman El-Hefnawi (2001). Infrastructureled development and its impact on peri-urban areas: the caseof Giza City, Egypt. In: International Conference: Rural-UrbanEncounters: Managing the Environment of the Peri-UrbanInterface, London 9-10 November 2001 UTI (Urban Trainingand Studies Institute)RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AREAS; EGYPT

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This paper outlines the Egyptian perspective of peri-urban (PU)areas. It analyses the experience in constructing hugeinfrastructure projects that passes in the PU areas without enoughstudy of the peculiarities of these areas with special reference toits fragile socio-economic structure. It also overviews an existingcase study that was developed in the urban training institute ayear ago, where the main objective was to study these areasthoroughly, especially in case where there are huge nationalinfrastructure projects. The study’s outcomes was used as a meansto increase the awareness of the decision makers in the ministry ofhousing about the possible negative impacts that might occur ifsuch project has been implemented without enough socio-economic considerations. And also the study was used as trainingmaterials for the trainees of the urban management and theenvironmental management programs implemented in the urbantraining and studies institute. The paper is documenting a studythat took place in Giza city, where this city is well known of itsdrastic containment of informal settlements build overagricultural land, which forms a huge number of peri-urban areas,contained within the urban fabric. Moreover, the city is known,among practitioners and researchers in Egypt, because 75% of theurbanisation in the city is informal and most of these informalsettlements were built over the most fertile agricultural land inEgypt. The paper testifies; through using the environmental profileapproach, the severity of the environmental problems in the PUareas of Giza and shows the impact of the ring road on theseproblems. Moreover, it analyses changing livelihood strategies ofits occupants from being rural-based into urban-based identifiedthrough demographic and employment pattern changes thathappened before and after the construction of the ring road.

055Kelly P. F.(1998). The politics of urban-rural relations: landuse conversion in the Philippines. In: Environment andUrbanization. April 1998, vol. 10 (1), pp. 35-54. RURAL-URBANLINKAGES; LAND USE; REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT;PHILIPPINESBy examining the process of land use conversion in Manila’sextended metropolitan region, this paper suggests that rural-

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urban relations must be seen as intensely political. Theconversion of rice land into industrial, residential and recreationaluses represents a political process in two senses: first, policychoices are made relating to the use of land that reflect aparticular set of developmental priorities; and second, thefacilitation of conversion involves the use of political powerrelations to circumvent certain regulations. These points aremade at three different, but interconnected, levels: at the nationallevel of policy formulation; at the local level of policyimplementation and regulation; and at the personal level ofeveryday power relations in rural areas. The paper draws uponfieldwork in the rapidly urbanizing province of Cavite to thesouth of Metropolitan Manila.

056Kumssa, Asfaw (2000).Regional development planning andmanagement.” In: Project Planning, Implementation andEvaluation: A Training Manual, pp.6-17. UNCRD TextbookSeries, No. 8. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Centre forRegional Development Africa Office.REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; REGIONAL PLANNING; TRAINING

057Macoloo, G. Chris (1998).The Role of partnership in regionaldevelopment planning: The process approach. In: RegionalDevelopment Policy in Africa: Problems and Prospects towardthe 21st Century. Proceedings of the Africa RegionalDevelopment Policy Forum, 10-11 June 1998, Nairobi,Kenya, pp. 119-129. UNCRD Proceedings Series, No.29.United Nations Centre for Regional Development.REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES;AFRICA

058Maleche, Zacharia (1998).Kenya’s experience with regionaldevelopment policies. In: Regional Development Policy inAfrica: Problems and Prospects toward the 21st Century.Proceedings of the Africa Regional Development Policy

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Forum, 10-11 June 1998, Nairobi, Kenya, pp.275-286. UNCRDProceedings Series, No. 29.United Nations Centre for RegionalDevelopment. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; URBAN-RURALLINKAGES; GOVERNANCE; KENYA

059Mosha, Aloysius C. (1998).New challenges for regionalpolicy and regional development planning. In: RegionalDevelopment Policy in Africa: Problems and Prospects Towardthe 21st Century. Proceedings of the Africa RegionalDevelopment Policy Forum, 10-11 June 1998, Nairobi,Kenya, pp. 249-254. UNCRD Proceedings Series, No. 29.United Nations Centre for Regional Development.REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; URBAN GOVERNANCE; POLICY;PLANNING; AFRICA

060Municipal Development Programme Regional Office forEastern and Southern Africa (MDP) (2001). Peri-urbanland tenure planning and regularisation in Eastern andSouthern Africa: case studies from Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania& Uganda; a Research report. Studies Commissioned by theFood and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Regional Officefor Southern Africa (FAO-SAFR)RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; KENYA; MALAWI; TANZANIA;UGANDA; FAO; LAND TENURE; SOUTHERN AFRICA

061Nyassogbo, G. (1997). Développement local, villes secondaireset décentralisation au Togo. In:Petites et moyennes villes d’AfriqueNoire, Karthala, pp. 89-110.REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; PERI-URBAN AREAS;DECENTRALISATION; TOGO

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062Pedersen, P.O. (1997). Small African towns: between ruralnetworks and urban Hierarchies, Avebury, Aldershot.REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT; PERI-URBAN AREAS; RURALAREAS; AFRICA

063Razin, Eran and Hasson, Shlomo (1994).Urban-ruralboundary conflicts: the reshaping of Israel’s rural map. In:Journal of Rural Studies, Volume 10(1). pp. 47-59.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; REGIONAL PLANNING; ISRAEL;PALESTINIAN TERRITORIES

064Rotgé, Vincent (ed.) (1995).Rural-urban integration in Java:consequences for regional development and employment:the case of five hinterland communities of Yogyakarta SpecialRegion. In: UNCRD Research Report Series, No. 6.UnitedNations Centre for Regional DevelopmentRURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; REGIONAL PLANNING;EMPLOYMENT; INDONESIA

065Satterthwaite, David and Tacoli, Cecilia (2003). The urbanpart of rural development: the role of small and intermediateurban centers in rural and regional development and povertyreduction.Full text:http://www.worldbank.org/urban urban ruralseminar/papers/urban-rural-dev-satt-tacoli.pdf POEVERTY;SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; PERI-URBAN AREAS;REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

066Stöhr, Walter B., Josefa S. Edralin, and Devyani. Mani,(eds) (2001).Decentralization, governance, and the newplanning for local-level development. In: New RegionalDevelopment Paradigms; vol. 3. Westport, CT: Greenwood

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Press, 2001.URBAN GOVERNANCE; DECENTRALISATION;REGIONAL PLANNING

067United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat)(1997).Report of the Expert Group Meeting on AssessingRegional Development Planning in the Management ofUrbanization. HS Number: HS/458/97EREGIONAL PLANNING; URBAN GOVERNANCE

068UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat) (1995).Rural-urban linkages:policy guidelines for rural development. In: 23rd Meeting ofthe ACC Sub-committee on Rural Development, UNESCOHeadquarters, Paris, 31 May-2 June, 1995.REGIONAL PLANNING; URBAN GOVERNANCE; RURAL-LINKAGES; RURAL DEVELOPMENT

069Ziavoula, R.E. (1996).Villes secondaires et pouvoirs locaux enAfrique sub-saharienne: le Congo (French) In: Document deRecherche - Nordiska Afrikainstitutet (Sweden), no.1 / NordiskaAfrikainst., Uppsala (Sweden),143p. ISBN 91 7106-398-6,ISSN.1401-8926. LOCAL GOVERNMENT; RURAL COMMUNITIES;RURAL URBAN RELATIONS; POPULATION DISTRIBUTION; DRC

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070Ayubur Rahman Bhuyan; Harun-ar-Rashid Khan andSultan U. Ahmed (2001).Rural urban migration and poverty: the case for reversemigration in Bangladesh. Dhaka : Centre on Integrated RuralDevelopment for Asia and the Pacific. RURAL-URBANMIGRATIONS; POVERTY; BANGLADESH

071Baker, J. and Aina, T.A. (ed.)(1995). The migration experiencein Africa / Nordiska Afrikainst., Uppsala (Sweden), 353p. ISBN91-7106-366-8.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; SOCIO-ECONOMICENVIRONMENT; WOMEN; CASE STUDIES; AFRICA

072Becker, C.M. and Morrison, A. R. (1996).Public policy andrural-urban migration. In: Cities in the Developing World: Issues,Theory and Policy, Oxford University Press, pp. 88-107.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; GOVERNANCE; POLICYIMPLEMENTATION

073Beauchemin, C. (2001).L’émergence de l’émigration urbaineen Côte d’Ivoire; Radioscopie d’une enquête démographique(1988-1993) (French) In: Etudes du CEPED (France), no. 19 /Centre français sur la population et le développement, Paris(France), 310 p. ISBN 2-87762-138-3.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; DEMOGRAPHY; IVORY COAST

074Bryceson, D.F. (1996).Disappearing peasantries? Rural labourredundancy in the neo-liberal era and beyondRURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; EMPLOYMENT; LATINAMERICA; ASIA ; AFRICATracing patterns of peasant formation and dissolution over time,the book explores whether today’s rural producers in Africa, Asia

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and Latin, the rich case study material illustrates pressures andopportunities that have befallen peasants leading them to‘diversify’ into a number of occupations and non-agriculturalincome-earning avenues. Peasants’ relationship to the land hasaltered under the influences of changing rural terms of trade,multi-occupational livelihoods, intensified labour mobility,straddled urban and rural residence and flooding urban labourmarkets. Rapid transformation of state and market contexts hasimpacted on peasant families and villages, to the point thatcoherent peasant communities are now more difficult to discern.This book comes at a time when the peasant transition processhas reached a critical juncture. Through its global examinationof the political, social and economic facts of peasant existence, itpoints to how peasant labour redundancy can undermine ruralwelfare and political stability and why academics and policy-makers of the twenty-fist century cannot ignore the world’sdisappearing peasantries without jeopardizing local ruralsustainability and, more broadly, international security.

075Bryceson, D.F. and Jamal, Vali (1997).Farewell to farms: de-agrarianisation and Employment in Africa. In: ASC ResearchSeries no. 10.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; EMPLOYMENT; AFRICAIs Africa’s future necessarily rooted in peasant agriculture? Thetitle of this book, Farewell to Farms, is deliberately intended tochallenge the widely held view that Africa is the world’s reservefor peasant farming. African rural populations are themselvesmoving away from a reliance on agriculture. ‘De-agrarianisation’takes the form of urban migration as well as the expansion of non-agricultural activities in rural areas providing new incomesources, occupations and social identities for rural dwellers.Usingrecent continent-wide case study evidence, the authors assess theimpact of de-agrarianisation on household welfare, businessperformance and national development. Their findings reveal neweconomic trajectories and social patterns emerging from a periodof accelerated change and call into question assumptions aboutAfrica’s future place in the world division of labour.

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076Chant, S. (1998).Households, gender and rural-urbanmigration: reflections on linkages and considerations for policy.In Environment and Urbanization Vol.10 (1).RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; GENDER; GOVERNANCE;DEVELOPING COUNTRIESThis paper highlights the interrelatedness of gender and householdorganization in a central aspect of developmental change: rural-urban migration. It demonstrates the significance of intra-household dynamics for understanding the gender selectivity ofpopulation movement and shows in turn how this contributes tohousehold diversity among low-income groups in both rural andurban areas. It also shows that although most women have littlechoice in determining decisions over their own or others”migration (or household arrangements), the “feminization” ofhousehold headship which so often results from demographicmobility is not necessarily negative for women. The paperconcludes that governments and agencies could do more for genderequality by acknowledging the potentially transformative role ofinterventions aimed not only at, but inside, households, and byadopting more flexible positions towards household diversity.

077Carter, Thomas J. (1998).Urban productivity, urbanunemployment, and labor market policies. In: Regional Scienceand Urban Economics, Volume 28 (3), pp 329-344.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; MIGRATION; UNEMPLOYMENT;LABOUR MARKETSSome important effects of government policies on urban laborproductivity are absent from Harris and Todaro’s popular two-region development model. Revising their model using efficiencywages allows for these effects and for endogenous urban wages,employment, and unemployment. It also reverses many standardHarris–Todaro welfare and policy conclusions. For example, anurban wage increase raises welfare and income in both the urbanand rural regions, even though the wage already exceeds the urbanmarket-clearing rate and exceeds the rural wage. Income andwelfare also rise with migration into the urban region, eventhough there are already unemployed workers there.

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078Cortes, Geneviève. (2000).Partir pour rester : survie etmutations de sociétés paysannes andines (Bolivie).Paris :Editions de l’IRD. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; POVERTY;AGRICULTURE; BOLIVIA

079David, R and Yabre, P. (1995).Changing places? Women,resource management and migration in the Sahel; Case studiesfrom Senegal, Burkina Faso, Mali and Sudan/ London (Unitedkingdom),SOS Sahel,169p. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS;RESOURCE MANAGEMENT; WOMEN; SOCIAL CHANGE;HOUSEHOLDS; FEMALE LABOUR; FARMS; ROLE OF WOMEN;CASE STUDIES; BURKINA FASO; SENEGAL; MALI; SUDAN

080Dengu, Ebbie and Mugova, Alex (1996).Urbanisation andland policy in Zimbabwe. In: Appropriate Technology vol.23 no. 1 p. 5-8. Intermediate Technology Zimbabwe, PO Box1744, Harare, Zimbabwe. LAND USE PLANNING RURAL-URBAN LINKAGE; HOUSING; URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE;LAND TENURE; TENURE RIGHTS; ZIMBABWEThis article gives important background information on landdivision dating back to the land Apportionment Act of 1930, hasled to deterioration of agricultural productivity of the Tribal Trustlands and, hence, to urban migration. The article describes howHarare’s infrastructure, especially, has been unable to cope withthis influx of people.

081Driss, Ben Ali; Di Giulio, Antonio; Lasram, Mustapha andLavergne, Marc (1996). Urbanisation et agriculture enMéditerranée: conflits et complémentarités. EditionsL‘Hamattan, Paris (Histoire et perspectives Méditerranéennes).LAND USE PLANNING; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; FOODSECURITY ; NUTRITION; LAND USE; POLICY; URBANISATION;PLANNING; ENVIRONMENT; MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES

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This publication is a collection of articles on urbanization andagriculture in the Mediterranean. Most of the articles are in French,some in English. Maps, pictures, and tables enrich the book a lot. Inthe first part the book deals with problems of urban planningmainly from experience of Magreb countries. The multifunctionalcharacter of urban agriculture is pointed out by one article. Thispaper proposes a systematic mode of representing agriculturethrough a set of indicators, meant as a tool for choosingappropriate planning strategies. In the second part the book dealswith specific problems caused by the conflict betweenurbanization and agriculture, like e.g. water problems and otherenvironmental problems. In the last part the book mainly dealswith rural urban linkages.

082Du Guerny, J (1998).Some considerations on specific aspectsof migration. In: Land Reform, Land Settlement andCooperatives(FAO),(no.2)p. 56-72. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS;RURAL AREAS; URBANISATION; SOCIAL INDICATORS; ECONOMICINDICATORS; ASIASeveral international organizations are increasingly interestedin the urban-rural dichotomy (the “peri-urban” dimension). TheEditorial Board of Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperativesconsiders the analysis carried out in this article, originallypublished 20 years ago in Migration and rural development -selected topics for teaching and research (FAO Economic andSocial Development Paper No. 3, Rome, 1978) extremely relevantto this “new” emerging issue. The discussion about what makesthe difference between two points (distance) is presented withsome concrete proposals deserving consideration by thosedecision-makers in rural development genuinely interested inavoiding negative migration effects. The work was carried out inrelation to the Population and Rural Development Programmeorganized by the author for FAO with the Association ofSoutheast-Asian Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN then comprised fivecountries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore andThailand), and each country took the lead in one area. One ofthese focused on the interrelations between migration and ruraldevelopment. The objective of these considerations is to point

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out that the interrelations between migration and ruraldevelopment can be seen from very different perspectives withequal justification and that even the aspects that seem the mostclear-cut (such as the distance between two points) are complexand depend on the attitudes and objectives of those examiningthe question

083El Bashir, Ibrahim H. (1997).Coping with famine and poverty:the dynamics of non-agricultural rural employment in Darfur,Sudan. In: Farewell to farms: de-agrarianisation and employmentin Africa, Africa Studies Centre (Leiden), Research Series 1997/10, Ashgate, Aldershot, pages 23-40. POVERTY; RURAL-URBANMIGRATIONS; AGRICULTURE; SUDAN

084Frayne, Bruce (2004).Migration and urban survival strategies inWindhoek, Namibia. In: Geoforum, Volume 35(4), pp. 489-505.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; FOOD SECURITY; VULNERABILITY;POVERTY; RURAL–URBAN LINKAGES; NAMIBIA.Based on recent research in Windhoek, this paperdemonstrates that it is the well established and widespreadsocial linkages that persist between rural and urbanhouseholds that are central to the ability of poor urbanhouseholds to survive. Whereas informal coping mechanismsthat include borrowing, piecework and credit are pervasive inrural areas of Namibia, intra-urban sources of food are poorlydeveloped, and outside of kinship circles, social networkswithin Windhoek are used sparingly, even in times of greatestneed. In addition, urban agriculture plays a very limited role atpresent in urban food supply. The research demonstrates thaturban households that are most vulnerable to hunger are thosethat have limited social connections to the rural areas, andmust rely on intra-urban opportunities to get food (includingborrowing, begging, piecework and crime). The mostvulnerable are female- and male-headed households with noaccess to farm income and limited/irregular urban incomes. Incontrast, those with active rural–urban linkages enjoysignificant transfers of food from rural areas that offset hunger

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and vulnerability in the urban context. Urban–rural reciprocityis therefore not only a one-way movement of people andresources from the urban to the rural areas, but also a transferof food from rural to urban households.

085Gadio, C.M. and Rakowski, C.A. (1995).Survival orempowerment? Crisis and temporary migration among theSerer millet pounders of Senegal. In: Womens StudiesInternational Forum Vol.18(4), pp 431-443.POVERTY; GENDER; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT;RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; AGRICULTURE; SENEGALCollective organizing has been identified in many settings as amechanism for empowering women. Although the impetus toorganize may come through women’s efforts to meet survival(practical) needs, the act of organizing provides opportunitiesto become more aware of strategic needs (those related topower and choice). However, the potential for meeting strategicneeds through women’s organizations may not bestraightforward and may be conditioned by other factors suchas the links between women’s organizations and features oflocal culture. This paper assesses the extent to which a milletpounders’ collective in Dakar does or does not link survivalstrategies to empowerment for the rural migrants who are itsmembers.

086Potts, D. (1995).Shall we go home? Increasing urban povertyin African cities and migration processes. In The GeographicJournal Vol.161 (3), pp. 245-264. URBAN POVERY; URBANGROWTH; URBAN-RURAL MIGRATIONS; SOCIO-ECONOMICENVIRONMENT; AFRICA

087Geyer, H.S. (2002).International handbook of urban systems:studies of urbanization and migration in advanced anddeveloping countries. Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA,USA : E. Elgar Pub.

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URBAN AREAS; URBAN-RURAL MIGRATIONS; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; DEVELOPING COUNTRIESThis authoritative handbook provides a comprehensive accountof migration and economic development throughout the world,in both developed and developing countries. Some of the world’smost experienced researchers in this field look at how populationredistribution patterns have impacted on urban development ina wide selection of advanced and developing countries in all themajor regions of the world over the past half century. The studyresults show that, despite local differences there are signs ofremarkable similarities in the underlying forces that drive themigration process and urban development across thedevelopment spectrum.

088Gubry, P.; Vu Thi Hong and Le Van Thanh (2002). Leschemins vers la ville: la migration vers Ho Chi Minh Ville àpartir d’une zone du delta du Mekong. Centre Français surla population et le développement, Paris (France), 343 p.ISBN 2-84586-286-X. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS;POPULATION DYNAMICS; URBANISATION; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT; EMPLOYMENT; STATISTICALDATA; VIETNAM

089Hemmasi, Mohammad and Prorok, Carolyn V.(2002).Women’s migration and quality of life in Turkey. In:Geoforum, Volume 33 (3), pp. 399-411 GENDER; RURAL-URBANMIGRATIONS; QUALITY OF LIFE; TURKEYTurkey’s urban growth has been unprecedented for the last twodecades with women playing an increasingly substantial role inits development. In this context, we examine determinants ofwomen’s migration and quality of life in cities in 1990 (the mostrecent published census of Turkey) and onwards. Factor analysisof provincial data identified three quality of life dimensions:affluence, deprivation, and housing. Substantial disparities inquality of life indices exist between men and women, urban andrural milieu, and geographic regions. Migrants, especially women,still tend to move with their families but they prefer provinces

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with high scores on (relative) urban affluence and avoid deprived,rural provinces. Thus Istanbul, Ankara, and southern coastalprovinces are preferred destinations. Policy implications forurban growth, regional development, and gender equality relativeto migration are discussed.

090Huang Ping (et al.)(1994).Rural migration in ruraldevelopment in the evolving market economy, China: microand macro studies. In: Rural Migration in Rural Developmentin the Evolving Market Economy, China, CPR/94/02T, ReportNo: FAO-TCO—CPR/94/02T. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS;RURAL DEVELOPMENT; ECONOMIC ANALYSIS; VILLAGES;POPULATION DENSITY; LABOUR; INDUSTRY; LIVINGSTANDARDS; CONSUMER EXPENDITURE; INCOME; SOCIO-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT; MARKET ECONOMIES

091Johannsen, Lars (2003).The foundations of the state: emerging urban–rural cleavages in transitions countries. In: Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 36(3), pp.291-309. POLITICAL CLEAVAGES;STATE AUTONOMY; URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES; CULTURALVALUES; POST-COMMUNISMUsing secondary data from 21 post-communist countries, a mapof urban–rural cleavages is produced. The findings are that whilepersistent cleavages exist with respect to attitudes toward thestate, the market and traditional institutions, these cleavages haveyet to be institutionalized within the political system. Deviationsfrom the generalized pattern can typically be explained by theintrusion of the state-building process into the urban–ruralcleavage structure. Furthermore, it is argued that the lack ofinstitutionalization has led to a situation in which state andpolitical elites have gained increased autonomy.

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092Johnson, D. Gale.(2003).Provincial migration in China in the1990s. In: China Economic Review, Volume 14(1), 2003, pp 2231.URBAN–RURAL MIGRATIONS; POPULATION CENSUS;POPULATION DYNAMICS; CHINAEstimates of migration among the provinces of China were madeby comparison of the provincial populations from the 1990 and 2000censuses. The estimates were made by comparing the 2000 populationof each province with what it would have been if population hadincreased solely due to natural growth—the excess of births overdeaths. Unfortunately, the estimate of the increase in provincialpopulations due to migration was much greater than the estimate ofthe loss of population by migration. The estimate of the increase inpopulation by in-migration was 39.7 million while the estimatedout-migration was only 16.3 million. Possible reasons for the differencein the estimates are presented. Comparison was made between the1999 population estimate and the 2000 estimate. Migration rates inthe United States and China are compared

093Kim, Doo-Chul. (1997).Economic Growth, Migration, and RuralDepopulation in the Republic of Korea: Comparison with Japan’sExperience. In: Regional Development Studies 3, pp.239-259. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT;KOREA; JAPANThis article examines the depopulation phenomenon in rural Republicof Korea (hereinafter, Korea) in relation to the regional characteristics ofthe depopulated areas as well as its causes and consequences. The resultsare compared to Japan’s experiences in this regard. For the analysis, theauthor selected seriously depopulated areas at the myun level, the lowestadministrative unit of rural Korea, using three indicators: depopulationrate, ratio of aged population, and population density. As a result, twoclusters of seriously depopulated areas were noticeable in 1980, and anadditional two clusters were identified in 1990. The main impetus ofregional characteristics of seriously depopulated areas in Korea wasexplained as the regional differences of migration patterns. Comparingthis feature with Japan’s situation, it was found that national policiesand the time dimension played a more important role in Korea thanmarket forces and the spatial dimension.

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094Kouame, Aka (2000). L’insertion des migrants sur le marchédu travail : une revue de la littérature. Union pour l’étude dela population africaine, Dakar (Senegal).RURAL-URBANMIGRATIONS; EMPLOYMENT ; INCOME GENERATION ;SENEGAL

095Lattes, Alfredo E.; Rodríguez, Jorge and Villa, Miguel(2002). Population dynamics and urbanization in LatinAmerica: concepts and data limitationsIn: Seminar on New Forms of urbanization: Conceptualisingand Measuring Human Settlement in the 21st Century. Bellagio,Italy, March 11-15, 2002.POPULATION DYNAMICS;URBANISATION; SHELTER; LATIN AMERICAThis paper analyses and discusses the urbanization system inLatin America and Caribbean countries within the frame ofpopulation dynamics and development. It points to a number ofdeficiencies in our current knowledge of evolving settlementsystems there. It goes on to suggest that this situation is highlyrelated to the use of inadequate concepts and to limitations inthe available population data collection systems. The paper isorganized in three parts. Firstly, it discusses the academic andpolicy importance to study the interrelations of humandevelopment and demographic dynamics in the Latin Americancontext through the lens of the settlement system. The secondpart comprises a historical overview of population dynamics andurbanization trends in Latin America as a whole, with selectedexamples from national case studies. This includes two sections:i. contemporary dynamics of the settlement system, as far as canbe seen from available statistics, and ii. a review and critique ofcurrent rural-urban classification schemes. Finally, the paperreviews suggestions for new types of settlement classification,including examples used in the region, and some recentapplications of new technology applications.

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096Liviga, Athumani J. and Mekacha, Rugatiri D.K.(1998).Youthmigration and poverty alleviation: a case study of petty traders(Wamachinga) in Dar-es-Salaam. Research Programme onPoverty Alleviation. (Dar-es-Salaam).RURAL-URBANMIGRATIONS; POVERTY; YOUTH; EMPLOYMENT; TANZANIATheories about migration often stress push and pull factors; i.e.people are pushed out of rural areas for lack of economicopportunities, or pulled towards town for expectations of a betterlife. Economists often use the model of a dual economy, wherebythe modern (urban) sector attracts surplus labour from thetraditional (rural) one. Dependency theories emphasize a complexweb of relations between centre (urban) and periphery (rural) toexplain rural-urban migration, such as exploitation of rural areas,overpopulation and environmental degradation. This study looksat economic factors, but also at social relations within groups andfamilies, to explain rural-urban migration. Youth migration,poverty and the whole issue of restructuring social relations arethus linked.

097Mundle, S. and Van Arkadie, B. (1997).The rural-urban transitionin Vietnam: some selected issues. In: Occasional Papers - AsianDevelopment Bank, Economics and Development Resource Center(Philippines), no.15 / Asian Development Bank, Manila (Philippines).Economics and Development Resource Center, 1997, 32 p. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; POPULATION DYNAMICS; RURALDEVELOPMENT; INVESTMENT POLICIES; VIETNAMThe paper analyses the process of urban-rural transition under way inVietnam in the context of its transition to a market economy. In managingthis process of change, the government will face important choices onthe patterns of urban and rural development and the linkages betweenthe two. Based on how the choices are made, the impact on well-beingcould be quite different. A negative scenario could include an over-concentration of resources in one or two metropolitan centers, with poorlinkages to rural development, and the increasing gap between urbanand rural areas having negative social consequences on the citiesand the countryside.

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098Noriega, M. (1994).Supporting development of ruralsettlements as a means for controlling the growth of largecities: three case studies in Colombia. In: RegionalDevelopment Dialogue (UNCRD) v. 15(2) p. 65-84.RURAL SETTLEMENTS; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; URBANISATION; TOWNS; REGIONALDEVELOPMENT;RURAL- URBAN MIGRATIONS;DECENTRALISATION; CASE STUDIES; COLOMBIA

099Paquette, Sylvain and Domon, Gérald (2003).Changingruralities, changing landscapes: exploring socialrecomposition using a multi-scale approach. In:Journal of Rural Studies, Volume 19(4), pp. 425-444.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; LANDSCAPE DYNAMIC;RESIDENTIAL SETTLEMENTS; RURAL DEVELOPMENT;LANDSCAPE PLANNING; QUÉBECChanges in agricultural practices have led to declines in the farmingpopulation and significant changes within the landscape.Paradoxically, many rural areas are recording significantdemographic growth. Given the extent of rural areas experiencingthese changes, little attention has been devoted to the relationshipbetween rural migration processes and landscape developments.Therefore, the various rural dynamics resulting from thesephenomena merit closer investigation. Moreover, we should explorethese complex processes at scales where they are most evident.Through the multi-scale research approach used in this study,these processes are investigated in their regional, local, anddomestic contexts. As shown by regional typological outlines, thegreat diversity of the rural areas indicates an increasingdissociation between the agricultural and socio-demographictrajectories. From our local-scale study, changes in lot occupationrevealed new residential settlement patterns induced by an influxof in-migrants. Specific landscape characteristics seem to be adetermining force shaping these population flows. At the sametime, these population movements have dissimilar influences onevolving landscape dynamics. With the exception of isolatedagricultural abandonment trajectories, migrant relocation does

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not seem to affect specific local-scale land use development.However, it is significantly associated with individual domesticpractices. These practices are indicative of the migrant’s identityin the rural landscape; further, they suggest specific values for thelandscape’s qualitative dimensions. These emerging urban andnon-farming interests in rural landscapes challenge planningpolicies to guide the landscape’s evolution for the benefit of its“producers” and “consumers”.

100Ravallion, M. (2001).On the urbanisation of poverty. In:Policy Research Working Papers (IBRD), no. 2586 / WorldBank, Washington, DC (USA). Development ResearchGroup, 2001, 10 p. Full text: http://econ.worldbank.org/files/1695_wps2586.pdf. URBANISATION; POVERTY; DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES; URBAN-RURAL MIGRATIONSConditions are identified under which the urban sector’s shareof the total number of poor in a developing country will be anincreasing convex function of the urban share of the totalpopulation. This is confirmed by cross-sectional data for 39countries and time series data for India. The empirical results implythat the poor urbanize faster than the population as a whole. Theexperience across developing countries suggests that a majorityof the poor will still live in rural areas well after most people inthe developing world live in urban areas.

101Rempel, Henry(1996).Rural-to-urban migration and urbaninformal activities. In: Regional Development Dialogue 17, no.1 (1996): 37-51.INFORMAL ECONOMY; RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

102Simelane, H.S. (1995).Labour migration and rural transformationin post-colonial Swaziland. In: Journal of Contemporary African StudiesVol.13 (2), pp. 207-26. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; RURAL AREAS;AGRICULTURE; HISTORY; SWAZILAND

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103Taylor, J.E. (2001).Migration: new dimensions and characteristics,causes, consequences and implications for rural poverty In: Food,agriculture and rural development: Current and emerging issues foreconomic analysis and policy research / FAO, Rome (Italy). Agricultureand Economic Development Analysis Div., 2001, p. 167-201. ISBN92-5-104566-6. POVERTY; MIGRATION; MIGRANT LABOUR;INCOME; RURAL AREAS; RURAL URBAN MIGRATIONInteractions between migration and poverty-both at migrantorigins and destinations-are among the least researched andunderstood topics in economics. This is surprising, because thevast majority of the world’s migrations originate in rural areas,where most of the world’s poverty is also concentrated. How themigration of humans out of rural areas affects those left behind isnot only important from a social welfare point of view. In light ofthe increasing integration of markets, it also may haveramifications for economic growth outside of rural areas (e.g., byaffecting food production, agricultural exports, the rural demandfor manufactured goods, and future economic surplus inagriculture available for investment anywhere in the economy).And the economic welfare of non-migrants certainly influencesfuture migration pressures. At migrant destinations, immigrantlabour enters into local production activities, complementingsome factors while possibly competing with others (includingsome types of non-immigrant labour). It influences both the leveland distribution of income in migrant-host economies.

104Ultramari, Clovis (2001). Urban initiatives to solve rural problemsor rural initiatives to face urban dilemmas? In: Conference Rural-Urban Encounters: Managing the Environment of the peri-urbaninterface, London 9-10 November 2001.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; URBAN GOVERNANCE;COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT; LAND USE; BRAZILThis paper discusses the feasibility of governmental initiativesaiming at reduction of rural migration, reduction of impacts causedby this process in public urban infrastructures and services and atkeeping rural production in areas under pressure for urbanisation.

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To introduce these questions, this paper analyses two programmes,implemented in two different times. The first, called RurbanCommunities Programme, carried out by a local government (City ofCuritiba, Brazil), designed to minimise rural-urban migrationimpacts on the metropolis. The second described programme is theRural Villages Programme, implemented almost 20 years later, basedon the same principles and practices adopted before. Rurban Villagescomprehends the implementation of a rural settlement in the outskirtsof Curitiba, in the early 80’s, after a decade characterised byastonishing migration rates. It is presented in terms of land useproposals, its appropriation by migrants and the continuation of theresults expected to happen. In certain aspects the second programmecan be considered an expansion of the first, comprehending othermunicipalities of the State of Paraná. The second Programme ispresented in terms of its virtual impact on the rural urban migrationrate and also in terms of its integration with urban areas (despitebeing considered a rural intervention, Rural Villages Programmemay present high impacts on its neighbouring urban areas).

105Zhu, Nong (2002).The impacts of income gaps on migration decisionsin China In: China Economic Review, Volume 13(2-3), pp. 213-230.RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; INCOME GAP; SOCIO-ECONOMICCONDITIONS; CHINAUsing survey data from China, this article examines the effects of incomegaps on migration decisions and the sources of these gaps. Theeconometric results support the hypothesis that income gapssignificantly influence migration decisions. When income gap reachesa certain level, the reaction of the migration probability to income gap isweaker for men than for women. The relative income of women is lesssensitive to an increase in rural income but more sensitive to a decreasein urban income than that of men. Moreover, we find that the urban torural income gap is larger for women than for men, which suggests thatwomen receive larger monetary return from migration than men do. Indecomposing income gaps, we find that the gap for men is largelydetermined by differences in the attributes of migrants and non-migrants, whereas for women, the gap is mainly determined bydifferences in returns to attributes.

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URBAN-RURAL LINKAGESAND

THE ENVIRONMENT

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106Allen, A. (2001).Environmental planning and managementof the peri-urban interface. In: Conference Rural-UrbanEncounters: Managing the Environment of the peri-urbaninterface, London 9-10 November 2001.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES, ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING;PERI-URBAN AREASAlthough there is no consensus on the conceptual definition ofthe peri-urban interface (PUI), there is an increasing recognitionamong development professionals and institutions of the fact thatrural and urban features tend to increasingly coexist within citiesand beyond their limits, and that the traditional urban-ruraldichotomy deeply ingrained in our planning systems isinadequate to deal with processes of environmental anddevelopment change in the PUI. This paper argues thatenvironmental planning and management of the PUI cannotsimply be based on the extrapolation of the planning approachesand tools applied in rural and urban areas but on the constructionof a methodological approach centred on the specific aspects ofthe PUI (in environmental, social, economic and institutionalterms) and its differential processes of occupation andtransformation with regard to the natural resource base, theactivities taking place and the ways in which heterogeneous socialgroups live and work in the PUI. The aim of this paper is tocontribute to the understanding of what environmental planningand management of the PUI might entail, examining its specificityboth in terms of the challenges faced and the possible approachesand methods for implementation.

107Allison, M (et al.) (1998).A review of the urban waste in peri-urban interface production systems. 2 p. Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID), Natural Resources Systems Programme, 94Victoria Street, London, SW1E 5JL, UK. WASTE RECYCLING;WASTEWATER REUSE; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; R&DMETHODOLOGY, URBAN WASTES; ORGANIC WASTESProvides a dense overview of uses of urban waste and wastewaterand examines factors affecting the use of wastes in agriculture.

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Attention is drawn to the fact that there are important gaps inour knowledge about the quantitative need for organic wastes inurban and peri-urban agricultural systems and about thepotential to satisfy these needs.

108Antrop, Marc (2004). Landscape change and the urbanisationprocess in Europe. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume67 (1-4), pp. 9-26. URBANISATION; LANDSCAPE CHANGE;RURAL AREAS; ENVIRONMENT; EUROPEUrbanization is one of the fundamental characteristics of theEuropean civilization. It gradually spread from Southeast Europearound 700 BC across the whole continent. Cities and the urbannetworks they formed were always an important factor in thedevelopment and shaping of their surrounding regions.Polarization of territory between urban and rural and accessibilityare still important aspects in landscape dynamics. Urbanizationand its associated transportation infrastructure define therelationship between city and countryside. Urbanization,expressed as the proportion of people living in urban places showsa recent but explosive growth reaching values around 80% in mostEuropean countries. Simultaneously the countryside becomesabandoned. Thinking, valuing and planning the countryside isdone mainly by urbanites and future rural development is mainlyfocused upon the urban needs. Thinking of urban places withtheir associated rural hinterland and spheres of influence hasbecome complex. Clusters of urban places, their situation in aglobalising world and changing accessibility for fasttransportation modes are some new factors that affect the changeof traditional European cultural landscapes. Urbanizationprocesses show cycles of evolution that spread in different waysthrough space. Urbanization phases developed at differentspeeds and time between Northern and Southern Europe. Maincities are affected first, but gradually urbanization processesaffect smaller settlements and even remote rural villages.Functional urban regions (FURs) are a new concept, which is alsosignificant for landscape ecologists. Local landscape change canonly be comprehended when situated in its general geographicalcontext and with all its related dynamics. Patterns of change are

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different for the countryside near major cities, for metropolitanvillages and for remote rural villages. Planning and designinglandscapes for the future requires that this is understood.Urbanized landscapes are highly dynamic, complex andmultifunctional. Therefore, detailed inventories of landscapeconditions and monitoring of change are urgently needed in orderto obtain reliable data for good decision-making.

109Atkinson, A. (2001). The Juggernaut and peri-urbanisation.In: Managing the Environment of the peri-urban interface.London, 9-10 November 2001. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES;ENVIRONMENT; PERI-URBAN AREASThis paper takes a strategic look at the problems emerging in theperi-urban interface around the cities of the South. It asserts thatthese are the result of the ideology of development and the ways inwhich this emerged and has evolved out of 18th century EuropeanEnlightenment. The last 200 years has seen a struggle spread acrossthe globe between two visions concerning the ultimate ends of‘development’. Neo-liberalism today represents the triumph ofthe pessimistic view that sees poverty and human degradation asacceptable in spite of spectacular life transformations for some.Paradoxically, in this context the development ideology is‘succeeding’, where in more optimistic times it failed. The massof southern peasants are being both pressured and lured toparticipate in the global commercial economy even with little orno hope of moving beyond the impoverished margins. Meanwhilethe unconsidered activity of both rich and poor in spatialredistribution, including the peri-urban interface, and evolvinglifestyles represent the ultimate in profligate misuse of resourcespresaging an environmental disaster of unimaginable proportionsin the years ahead. The essay ends with a brief look at the currentpotential social, ideological and political forces for positive changeand provides a sketch of directions that could head off thedénouement and create a sustainable world where all can livewell.

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110Dahiya, Bharat (2001).Hard struggle and soft gains: environment,voluntarism and governance in Pammal, South India. In: DPUInternationalConference: Rural-Urban Encounters: Managing theEnvironment of the Peri-Urban Interface, London 9-10 November2001 Cambridge University. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AREAS; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT;COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT; INDIAIn the developing country peri-urban context, environmentalmanagement suffers from poor provision of urban services. Theurban local governments are unable to provide these servicesadequately owing to their poor financial situation andadministrative capacities. In some areas, this has resulted in theformation of civil society organisations that provide self-helpurban services. Although it has contributed to environmentalmanagement in peri-urban settlements, the civil societyorganisations have faced challenges from two sides: the urbanresidents who are reluctant to pay for the self-help services andthe urban local governments that stop providing secondary-levelurban services. Thus, the civil society organisations are left inconflicting situations from both sides. The approaches taken forthe resolution of such conflicts by civil society organisations havebeen two-fold: commitment in the provision of self-help urbanservices in face of degrading living conditions, and buildingnetworks with those in power and having influence on the peri-urban local governments. The paper presents a case study ofconflicts in environmental management and their resolutionthrough strategic networking by a civil society organisation inPammal, a small town in South India.

111Dávila, Julio (2001).Guidelines for strategic environmentalplanning and management of the peri-urban interface. In:Appropriate Methodologies for Urban Agriculture, October 2001,Nairobi, Kenya. Full text: http://www.ruaf.org

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RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES, URBAN PLANNING;ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; PERI-URBAN INTERFACE;URBAN AGRICULTURE; GUIDELINES; R&D METHODOLOGYThe traditional separation between urban and rural authoritiesmakes intervention’s, aimed at supporting peri-urban farming,difficult. The aim of this paper is to present the principles andcomponents of a strategic environmental planning andmanagement of the peri-urban interface and, by extension, of urbanand peri-urban agriculture as salient activities in it in a developingcountry context. The work presented here is the result of a researchproject aiming to produce a set of guidelines to be used as thebasis for action at the local and peri-urban levels.

112Díaz, D.B., López Follegatti, J.L. and Hordijk, M.(1996).Innovative urban environmental management in Ilo,Peru. In Environment and Urbanization Vol.8, No.1.R&D METHODOLOGY; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; URBANPLANNING; ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; PERUThis paper describes how the local authorities and population of asmall city in Peru addressed the environmental problems theyfaced from a large copper mine, the fish meal industry and a lack ofbasic investment in infrastructure. It shows how an innovativeand committed local council was able to work with the industrialconcerns and the inhabitants in developing a long-range plan toreduce industrial pollution and to improve housing conditionsand the living environment through support for communityorganization and self-help in both new and established low-income settlements. Strong local democracy proved to be a keyfactor in this success.

113Dwyer, John F. and Childs, Gina M. (2004).Movement ofpeople across the landscape: a blurring of distinctions betweenareas, interests, and issues affecting natural resourcemanagement. In: Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 69(2-3), pp. 153-164.

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS;POPULATION DYNAMICSThe spread of development from cities into surrounding forestsand farms continues to receive a great deal of attention from themedia and resource managers in the US and other countries.However, suburban sprawl is just one of many inter-linkedcomponents of the movement of people across the landscape thatinfluence resource management. Substantial changes are takingplace in urban areas, fringe areas, and rural recreation/amenityareas. In this paper, we describe these changes, explore theircommonalities and interconnectedness, and discuss theimplications that they may have for natural resourcemanagement. What emerges is a blurring of the distinctionsbetween what have traditionally been considered “urban” or“rural” problems with respect to natural resource issues, interestgroup concerns, and resource management strategies. Ourfindings suggest prospects for substantial changes in resourcemanagement and the public and private programs designed tosupport it. Among the emphasis areas for natural resourcemanagement that emerge with the changing distribution of peopleover the landscape are changes in management situations,management processes, and research needs. The changingmanagement situations include increased emphasis on interfaceand intermix areas, restoring human-impacted natural areas, andaddressing complex ecosystem problems. Changing managementprocesses include adaptive forest management, workingcollaboratively with diverse landowners and other partners,interacting with citizens on a regular basis, and taking a landscapeperspective on natural resources and their management.Questions for policy and program development and for researchfocus on a better understanding of linkages among managementactivities across the urban to rural landscape.

114Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2001).Treesoutside forests: towards rural and urban integrated resourcesmanagement; Contribution to the Forest Resources Assessment2000 report.FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept., 47 p.

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TREES; FOREST RESOURCES; RESOURCE MANAGEMENT;ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTTrees outside forests, together with forests and other woodlands,play an essential role in solving important problems of rural andurban populations. They contribute to the structure of the landscape,generate numerous environmental and social services, and yieldimportant food products for the people and for meeting otherdomestic needs. People, however, are not fully benefiting from theseimportant roles, because trees outside forests are neither wellperceived nor well documented, and receive little attention in theformulation of national forestry policy and planning. This documentis a product of important synthesis work and collaboration, and anattempt to fill in the gaps. It presents the concept and role of treesoutside forests, analyses the problems and challenges, and outlinethe path of thinking and action towards a better and more completeconsideration of the resources and their integration in territorialmanagement policies.

115Katzir, Raanan (2000).Agro-ecological aspects of the peri-urban process. Urban agriculture notes. Full text: http://www.cityfarm.org/israel.html. CITY ECOLOGY; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE; ISRAELLooks at the consequences of urbanisation from an agroecologicalpoint of view, covering aspects like water, soil, city waste, andindustrial residues. In addition, the paper looks at implications ofperi-urban farming, such as production of special crops,exporting, agro-tourism and handicraft work.

116Mbiba, Beacon M. (2001).Peri-urban transformations andlivelihoods in East and Southern Africa: the Peri-NETexperience. In: Rural-Urban Encounters: Managing theEnvironment of the Peri-urban interface, London 9-10 November2001. POVERTY; INCOME GENERATION; RURAL-URBANLINKAGES; R&D METHODOLOGY; RESEARCH; SOUTHERNAFRICA; EASTERN AFRICAThe past ten years have witnessed a rejuvenation and ascent of‘peri-urban interface’ as a concept in African development studies

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and international development interventions. These interventionshave focused on environmental management and povertyalleviation particularly the themes of peri-urban environmentmanagement, urban and peri-urban agriculture, rural and urbanlinkages. Unlike most studies and interventions, the Peri-NET hasmade a conscious effort to interrogate the concept of peri-urban.The outcome illustrates how important it is to understand localconceptions and their implications for development interventions.In most studies, although there are acknowledgements that theperi-urban is a zone of conflict, little effort has been invested tounderstand the nature and dynamics of these conflicts and tofacilitate conflict resolution interventions. The bulk of theseconflicts relate to access and use of land based resources thatunderpin livelihoods of both urban and rural households. The Peri-NET research confirms that unless attention is paid to conflictresolution in the urban and peri-urban interface, current debatesand interventions will remain peripheral to core concerns andpriorities of local people and local institutions especially those oflocal government and planning. For the latter, this implies interalia generating a ‘peri-urban’ concept that has a spatial referenceand administrative relevance and to adapt such a concept to localconditions. The presentation will outline variations in theconception of ‘peri-urban’ in East and Southern Africa, keycomponents of the diversity of peri-urban dynamics in severalmajor cities plus the challenges and opportunities these dynamicspresent for development interventions.

117Nunan, Fiona; Bird, K.; Bishop, J. ;Edmundson, A. andNidagundi, S.R. (2000).Valuing peri-urban natural resources: Aguide for natural resource managers. School of Public Policy,University of Birmingham (UK). RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES;R&D METHODOLOGY; LAND USE PLANNING;URBANISATION;WASTEWATER; WASTE RECYCLING; CONCEPTS; POLICY;DECISION SUPPORT; NATURAL RESOURCES; COST BENEFITS;INDIA; GHANAThis booklet describes a decision framework to facilitate naturalresource decision-making and management, particularly in areaswhere there are competing demands from urban development and

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“rural” uses of resources. It has been written for SouthernCountries and is aimed principally at a range of public sectordecision-makers. In part 1 the decision framework is describedwhile part 2 gives experiences with applications in two cities;Hubli-Dharwad in India and Kumasi in Ghana.

118Parkinson, J. and Tayler, K. (2001).Sanitation and wastewatermanagement in peri-urban areas: opportunities and constraintsin developing countries. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; WASTERECYCLING; WASTEWATER REUSE; WASTE RECYCLING;IRRIGATION; DECENTRALISATION; GHANAThe paper is concerned with the options for improved sanitationand wastewater management in peri-urban areas in developingcountries, bearing in mind the fact that much of the wastewaterproduced in urban and peri-urban areas is already used, directlyor indirectly, for irrigation, almost always without treatment.Options for reducing the strength of wastewater by eitherseparating excreta from sullage water or treating wastewater toreduce its strength are explored. The focus is on the potentialadvantages of decentralised management, including compatibilitywith decentralised approaches to urban management and reuseneeds, particularly those of the peri-urban poor, reduced costsand increased agricultural productivity. It appears that suitabletechnologies for decentralised treatment are available but thatother barriers to the wider adoption of decentralised approachesexist. These include lack of finance, and suitable land, deficienciesin knowledge and skills and the inflexibility of official designstandards. A key constraint is the limited demand for improvedwastewater management. The challenge for activists andplanners is to create informed demand for improved systems,focusing not only on health but also on the improvements in thelocal environment and household finances that may be achievedthrough improved wastewater management.

119Rabinovitch, J. (2001).Challenges and opportunities for rural-urban interface approaches; an overview from the UnitedNations. In: Rural-Urban Encounters: Managing the

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Environment of the peri-urban interface, London 9-10 November2001. ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; URBAN AREAS; RURALAREAS; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGE; UNITED NATIONSDevelopment policy and systems of governance continue to treatrural and urban development as independent, largely unconnectedsectors. Governments divide planning into separate rural andurban bureaux, and once settlements reach the status ofmunicipality they are administratively separated from their ruralhinterlands. In a globalizing world that is rapidly urbanizing, theneed to overcome these dichotomies by including rural-urbanlinkages into policy and planning is becoming increasingly self-evident. Among the key rural-urban relationships that underliethis need are: economic interdependence between rural and urbanareas; national economic resilience; environmental sustainability;governance and citizen participation, poverty alleviation andeconomic opportunity. Therefore, in order to contemplatesustainability, interventions on the environmental interface alsoneed to take into consideration social and economic variables. Thispaper has a specific concern with the poor as the main potentialbeneficiaries of policies adopting an integrated rural-urbanperspective approach. Poverty in towns and cities mirrors that ofrural areas. Urbanisation in developing countries has beenaccelerated by migration of people into urban centres in search ofjobs. The pace of migration outstrips the growth in employmentwith incomes above poverty levels, the provision of low-costhousing, and the ability of urban municipalities to provide socialand environmental infrastructure and services. While naturalurban population increase has overtaken migration incontributing to urban growth in many countries, as much as 40percent or more of the urban population increase continues to bedue to migrants arriving from rural areas and small towns in mostdeveloping regions of the world. Between 1950 and 1995 theproportion of the global population living in urban areas increasedfrom 29 percent to 43 percent, by 2005 more than half of the world’spopulation will be living in urban areas. The sheer numbers ofpeople that arrive every year to some cities – hundreds ofthousands, approaching one million per year in some Asian cities— signify the massive rural-urban changes that are underway indeveloping countries. Accompanying these problems is also in

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question the future sufficiency of world food production. Since,urban dwellers are captive to rising prices, because they do notgrow their own food, the problems of poverty, social discontent,and political instability will become pronounced. This has ledpolicy makers to concur that urbanisation is a complex phenomenathat cannot be simply curbed by policy-making. The rural-urbaninterface is characterized by a series of flows in all regions:demographic flows/migration, flow of consumer goods and rawmaterials, flows of capital, natural resources and environment-related flows including waste, information flows. Each one ofthese flows requires specific attention in policy-making.

120Showers, Kate B. (2002).Water Scarcity and Urban Africa:An Overview of Urban–Rural Water Linkages. In: WorldDevelopment, Volume 30 (4), pp. 621-648.URBAN WATER;POLLUTION; ELECTRICITY; PLANNING; AFRICAA first review of urban Africa’s dependence on larger landscapesfor water is presented. Tables document: changing water sourcesbetween 1970s and 1990s; industrial and domestic wastewatertreatment and disposal; electricity generation’s dependence onwater. Nearby groundwater and rivers were used in the 1970s;increasingly distant sources supplied the 1990s. Domestic andindustrial wastes pollute groundwater and rivers. Africa’selectricity depends upon large amounts of water, as dammed riversor for power plant operation. Preserving urban Africa’s scarcewater supplies requires recognition of urban–rural water cyclelinkages and holistic, coordinated, and equitable regional policiesand practices that support ecosystem function.

121Tveitdal, Svein (2003).Urban-rural interrelationship: conditionfor sustainable development. In: 2nd FIG Regional Conferencefor Africa and the ArabCountries: Urban-Rural Interrelationshipfor Sustainable Environment. Marrakech, Morocco, December2-5, 2003. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; ENVIRONMENTALPLANNING; ECOLOGY; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGE; UNEP

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URBAN RURAL LINKAGESAND FOOD

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Argenti, O. and Dia, I. (2000). African urban consumers andfood supply and distribution systems. In: Food into cities.Selected papers; FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin (FAO), no.143 / FAO, Rome (Italy). Agricultural Support Systems Div. ,2000, 14 p. ISBN 92-5-104478-3URBAN POPULATION; CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR; FOODCONSUMPTION; FOOD SUPPLY; CONSUMER EDUCATION;FOOD SECURITYThis study is an overview intended to help develop an approachto food supply and distribution systems (FSDSs) focusing on theconsumer as autonomous actor. Following a brief discussion ofthe lack of attention to African urban consumers in policies,programmes and research on African FSDSs, Chapter 1 offersan analytical framework that takes into account the variety ofcultural, sociological and economic affecting the urban consumerin French-speaking West Africa. In Chapter 2, the consumer isconsidered in relation to some features of households andconsumption models. Factors governing the shopping behaviourof the various urban social categories are then reviewed in Chapter3: on the one hand, factors related to physical availability andfinancial accessibility of food and, on the other, those bound upwith relations between consumers and traders.

123Argenti, O. (2000). Food for the cities: food supply anddistribution policies to reduce urban food insecurity. A briefingguide for mayors, city executives and urban planners indeveloping countries and countries in transition; In: Food intoCities Collection, DT/43-00E / FAO, Rome (Italy). AgriculturalSupport Systems Div., 2000, 34 p.FOOD SECURITY; FOOD SUPPLY; FOOD POLICIES; URBANAREAS; LOCAL AUTHORITIESFeeding cities plus the rising total of poor urban households indeveloping countries and countries in transition is the challengefacing City and Local Authorities. This guide intends to brief theMayors, City Executives and Urban Planners, including specialistsin food production, market development, public health,

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environment, forestry and agroforestry, on the compelling needfor food supply and distribution policies and programmes. Thesewould lower the cost of accessing food by low-income householdsin their cities and stimulate private investment. It reviews therole of City and Local Authorities in food supply and distributionat regional, metropolitan, urban and local level along with thekey steps for the formulation, implementation and monitoring ofrequired interventions. This guide stresses the necessity for aproper understanding of local conditions, an interdisciplinary,inter-sectoral and participatory approach to finding sustainablesolutions, a forecast of urban food security and collaborationbetween institutions and organizations. The direct involvementof the private sector is essential for sustainable planningdecisions

124Cofie, O.O (et al.)(2001). Improving rural-urban nutrient flowsthrough urban and peri-urban agriculture.University CollegeLondon, (UK). RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; WASTEWATERREUSE; PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE, NUTRIENT TRANSPORT;AFRICARapid urban growth in several parts of Africa poses challenges tourban food security and municipal waste management. Urbancenters can be considered as vast food and nutrient sinks, becauseunlike in rural areas, urban household waste and market refuse isnot returned into food production but rather contributes to urbanpollution and health risks. On the other hand, there is an increasednutrient need, for example, in urban and peri-urban productionareas specialized on urban food supply. Increased understandingof rural-urban nutrient flows could reveal the potential fornutrient recycling to agriculture. Concomitantly, recycling canreduce nutrient mining as well as health and environmentalproblems caused by accumulated organic waste. The paperdiscusses strategies to study nutrient flows within the rural-urbaninterface based on an ongoing project conducted in three differentagro-ecological zones in Ghana. Flow data show the contributionof rural, peri-urban and urban farming to urban food security.Waste analyses suggest that the organic waste productsgenerated and de facto available could be recommended for crop

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production. The study also reveals that there is enough waste(solid and liquid) currently dumped as refuse, which could berecycled for agricultural use. A pilot station for co-composting iscurrently under construction in Kumasi.

125Community Nutrition Institute (CNI) (1995). Communitiesexperiment to address food security. In: Nutrition Week.Vol. 25No. 36, pp. 4-6. September 22, 1995.FOOD SECURITY;NUTRITION; COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

126Cullinan, C. (1997).Legal aspects of urban food supply anddistribution. In: Food Into Cities Collection (FAO), no. DT/14-97 / FAO, Rome (Italy). Agricultural Support Sys. Div.TOWNS; FOOD SUPPLY; URBAN AREAS; FOOD SUPPLY; FOODLEGISLATION; FOOD SECURITYLaw provides the foundations for the existence of food marketingsystems and is essential for their continued development.Furthermore, legislation is probably the most important toolavailable to states for regulating a marketing system and changinghow it functions in order to achieve socially desirable goals.

127Egziabher, A.G (et al.)(1994).Cities feeding people: anexamination of urban agriculture in East Africa.Ottawa, Ontario(Canada), International Development Research Centre, 146p.ISBN 0-88936-706-X. AGRICULTURE; FOOD PRODUCTION;URBAN AREAS; FARMERS; WOMEN; COOPERATIVE FARMING;FOOD SECURITY; POVERTY; TOWNS; CASE STUDIES;TANZANIA; UGANDA; KENYA; ETHIOPIAUrban agriculture is gaining importance in order to reducedeveloping countries’ dependency on food imports in order to feedrapidly growing urban populations. The underlying book studiesurban agriculture in four East African countries: Tanzania,Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia. In thesecountries, IDRC began examining impact and feasibility of urbanagriculture a number of years ago. Urban agriculture has long

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been neglected by researchers as a marginal, unproductiveactivity undertaken by the urban poor. However, under thepressure of falling per-capita food production in Africa south ofthe Sahara, and subsequent migration to urban areas resultingin high unemployment, urban agriculture can no longer beignored as an important part of the urban informal sector,providing income or income-substituting food. An importantaspect of the study of urban agriculture is that the approach thatlooks at rural and urban economies as completely separateentities is seriously questioned. In reality, these economies havemany links, although they do not necessarily appear in officialstatistics. Better land use agreements are needed for urban foodproduction to flourish. More government involvement and interestin urban agriculture will be necessary to achieve this.

128Ellis, Frank and Sumberg, James (1998). Food production, urbanareas and policy responses. In: World Development vol. 26(2), pp.213-225.RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; FOOD SECURITY;NUTRITION; CITY ECOLOGY; FOOD POLICY; AFRICAA literature review focusing especially on food production in andaround sub-Saharan cities and towns. The authors emphasise theimportance of rural-urban interactions in resource managementand output markets. At the same time, they warn against too highexpectations about the role of urban agriculture for food securityof urban dwellers.

129Foeken, Dick and Mwangi, Alice Mboganie (1998).Doesaccess to land has a positive impact on the food situation ofthe urban poor? A case study in Nairobi. In: East African SocialScience Research Review vol. 14 no. 1, pp. 1-15.LAND USE PLANNING; FOOD SECURITY; NUTRITION; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; URBAN POOR; FOOD SECURITY; LANDRIGHTS; KENYAExamines the vital issue of whether and how access to farm landinfluences the household’s food and income situation. There is ageneral introduction into coping strategies of the urban poor as

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well as an interesting review of existing access rights to urbanland in Nairobi. Interestingly, for this aspect hardly receives anyattention at all, the authors also investigate the phenomenon ofurban households realising part of their livelihood from ruralsources, through access to rural land, in particular. Previoussurveys had revealed that this was the case for Kenyan middleincome groups, in particular. The land is not necessarily farmedby the urban dweller himself /herself: often, it is a member of thefamily. The authors conclude that having access to a rural plotseems to have a positive effect on income and that in addition,they seemed to be better off than those with access to an urbanplot. Mechanisms involved are not entirely clear, however.

130Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)(1995).The impactof population growth and urbanisation on food consumptionpatterns in Jordan. FAO, Cairo (Egypt). Regional Office for theNear East; Amman (Jordan) , 1995 , 26 p.FOOD CONSUMPTION; POPULATION GROWTH;URBANISATION; RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS; FOOD SUPPLY;FOOD POLICIES; CONTROLLED PRICES; SUBSIDIES; QUALITY OFLIFE; JORDAN; EGYPT

131Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2001). Proceedings ofthe FAO-CityNet-AFMA Subregional Seminar “Feeding Asian Cities”Bangkok, Thailand November 27-30 2000FOODS; FOOD SUPPLY; FOOD SECURITY; URBANENVIRONMENT; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTThese proceedings consist primarily of a narrative summary of theseminar papers and workshop reports presented in Bangkok. TheBangkok declaration by mayors, city executives, planners andmunicipal officers and the related agenda for action are the concreteoutcomes of the seminar and represent a successful galvanizing ofleadership by the participants from CLAs. The technical overviewthat follows is based on the seminar papers listed in the annexes.

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132Hugon, P. (2000).Multi-channel food supply systems tofrancophone African cities. In: Food into cities. Selected papers;FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin (FAO), no. 143/ FAO,Rome (Italy). Agricultural Support Systems Div., 2000, 26p. ISBN 92-5-104478-3.FOOD SUPPLY; URBANISATION;URBAN POPULATION; POPULATION GROWTH; ECONOMICDISTRIBUTION; IMPORTS; EXPORTS; VALUE ADDED; FOODCONSUMPTION; AFRICA

133Immink, M.D.C. (1994).The urban poor and household foodsecurity; policy and project lessons of how governments andthe urban poor attempt to deal with household foodinsecurity, poor health and malnutrition: concepts, evidenceand case studies. In: Urban Examples (UNICEF), no. 19 /UNICEF, New York (USA), 47 p. FOOD SECURITY;HOUSEHOLDS; POVERTY; URBAN AREAS; FOOD POLICIES;STATE INTERVENTION; SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT;NUTRITION POLICIES; CASE STUDIES; DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

134Koc, Mustafa (et al.) (1999).For hunger-proof cities: sustainable foodsystems. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada,1999. 240p.FOOD SYSTEMS; URBAN AREAS; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTFor Hunger-proof Cities is the first book to fully examine foodsecurity from an urban perspective. It examines existing local foodsystems and ways to improve the availability and accessibility offood for city dwellers. It looks at methods to improve community-supported agriculture and cooperation between urban and ruralpopulations. It explores what existing marketing and distributionstructures can do to improve accessibility and what the emergingforms of food-distribution systems are, and how they cancontribute to alleviating hunger in the cities. Finally, the bookdiscusses the underlying structures that create poverty andinequality and examines the

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role of emergency food systems, such as food banks. For Hunger-proof Cities includes contributions from farmers and professors,young activists and experienced business leaders, students andpolicymakers, and community organizers and practitioners.

135Padilla, M. (2000).Food security in African cities: the role of foodsupply and distribution systems. In: Food into cities. Selectedpapers; FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin (FAO), no. 143 / FAO,Rome (Italy). Agricultural Support Systems Div., 2000, 30 p.ISBN: 92-5-104478-3.FOOD SECURITY; URBAN AREAS; FOODSUPPLY; ECONOMIC DISTRIBUTION; URBANISATION;STRUCTURAL CHANGE; EMPLOYMENT GENERATION; AFRICAThis paper examines the relationship between food security andthe Food Supply and Distribution Systems (FSDS) in FrancophoneAfrican towns, against the background of a steeply rising urbandemand, in a fluctuating social and economic environment. It alsoprovides input for the preparation of policies to develop urbanFSDS to improve the food security of the people in the countries ofAfrica undergoing economic stabilization programmes.

136Pretty, Jules and Altieri, Miguel (1999).Best practices in landresources management to achieve sustainable food cycles. In:CGIAR CSD 8 Dialogue Paper No. 3.LAND USE PLANNING; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; FOODSECURITY; NUTRITION; SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE;ENVIRONMENT; POLICY; LAND USEThis paper, prepared for the UN Commission on SustainableDevelopment, presents an approach to accelerating the trend tosustainable agriculture. It notes that although there has beenincreasing informal activity in the field only three countries havegiven explicit national support (Austria, Cuba and Switzerland).Sustainable agriculture is presented a multi-functional withinurban and rural landscapes and economies (food and other goods,clean water, carbon sequestering, flood protection, environmentfor living, biodiversity). Four options for change are presented tothe CSD: (i) better use of renewable resources, (ii) intensificationof production, (iii) diversification of the agroecosystem, (iv)better

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use of non-renewable inputs. Institutions are urged to concentrateon process over product and to aim for win, win, win outcomes.

137Ruel, M.T.; Garrett, J.L. and Haddad, L. (ed.) (1998).Urbanchallenges to food and nutrition security in the developingworld. In: World Development v.27(11).URBAN ENVIRONMENT;FOOD SECURITY; POVERTY; URBANISATION; CHILDREN;NUTRITIONAL STATUS; NUTRITION POLICIES; CASE STUDIES;DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

138Terpend, N. and Koyate, K. (2000).The constraints on food supplyand distribution systems to African towns: the viewpoints of FSDSactors. In: Food into cities. Selected papers ; FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletin (FAO) , no. 143/ FAO, Rome (Italy). Agricultural SupportSystems Div., 2000, 16 p. ISBN 92-5-104478-3. URBAN AREAS;FOOD SUPPLY; ECONOMIC DISTRIBUTION; MARKETINGCHANNELS; PRIVATE SECTOR; PUBLIC SECTOR; AFRICA;SENEGAL; BURKINA-FASODespite differences in pace and sequencing of adjustmentprogrammes, economic liberalization has had far-reaching effectson the structure and the relative importance of actors involved inthe supply and distribution of food in most African cities. Marketreforms called for significant changes in the role of public and privatesector agencies in food supply and distribution. Most public tradingand marketing organizations previously responsible for marketinglocal and imported goods have been eliminated or privatized, whilethe private sector have now taken centre stage in food supply systemsin many African cities. In Guinea, for instance, traders no longerneed a licence or permit to import and/or distribute foodstuffs andare only required to submit import applications to banks. In Senegaland Burkina Faso, the role of the Ministry of Trade in food suppliesis limited to drawing up and applying regulations for the whole tradesector.

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139Yasmeen, G. (2001).Workers in the urban “informal” food sector:innovative organizing strategies In: Food, Nutrition and Agriculture(FAO), (no.29), p.32-43. WORKERS; URBAN AREAS; FOODSUPPLY; SOCIAL PARTICIPATION; INFORMAL ECONOMY;THAILAND; PHILIPPINES

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140Abdalla, Charles W. and Timothy W. Kelsey (1996).Breakingthe impasse: helping communities cope with change at therural-urban interface. In: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation.Vol. 51 No. 6, pp. 462-466. URBAN AGRICULTURE; URBANAREAS; ECOLOGY; NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENTAs communities and agriculture change, the juxtaposition offarming and other rural activities has become a battle-groundover water an related nutrient management issues, odors, insects,and other community impacts of changing land uses. Theseconflicts can turn neighbor against neighbor, threaten livelihoodsand traditional ways of living, and tear communities apart.Conflicts between just a few neighbors all too often escalate intolarger community, county, or state-wide debates over who is“right” and what should be done. If the situation gets out-of-hand,significant economic and emotional costs may result for all involvedno matter who “wins.”

141Aldington, T.(1997).Urban and peri-urban agriculture: somethoughts on the issue. In: Land Reform, Land Settlement andCooperatives (FAO), (no. 2) pp. 42-44, 1997 URBANAGRICULTURE; SUB-URBAN AGRICULTURE; FOODPRODUCTION; FOOD SUPPLYUrban and peri-urban agriculture are terms that are used withincreasing frequency, but only in a few cases is the proper definitionintended. This contribution attempts to analyse the concept ofurban and peri-urban agriculture within its specific geographicalboundary. It considers the benefits of urban farmers as well as theconstraints they face in their role as food producers in towns andcities of the near future.

142Bakker, N. (et al.) (2000).Growing cities, Growing food: urbanagriculture on the policy agenda: A reader on urban agriculture, 531p. ISBN 3-934068-25-1 Full text: http://www.ruaf.org/reader/growing_cities/growing_cities_toc.html

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URBAN AGRICULTURE; FOOD POLICIES; AGRICULTURALPOLICIES; FOOD SECURITY; URBANISATION; FOODPRODUCTION; FOOD SUPPLY; SUSTAINABILITY;DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

143Bentinck, J. (2000).Delhi’s urban growth and the stray-cattlecontroversy. In: Urban Agriculture Magazine, no 2, urbanlivestock, October 2000, RUAF, Leusden. URBAN LIVESTOCK;RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; URBANISATION; INDIAThe streets of urban India are characterised by the presence ofanimals: cattle, bullocks withcarts, monkeys, dogs, elephants, andoccasionally some scavenging pigs. Cows are certainly the mostvisible fauna. The presence of dairy farming in the city is explainedhere by the way that villages and its people become urbanised. Itmay look that this is an undisputed part of city life, but the case ofDelhi shows that it is surrounded by controversy, which calls forcreative policy action.

144Berg, Leo (van de) (2001).Farming Downstream from Hanoi.Paper for the Conference Rural-urban encounters: Managing theenvironment of the peri-urban interface, London 9-10 November2001. RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; IRRIGATION; URBANISATION;HORTICULTURE; AQUACULTURE; VIETNAMDue to rapid urban growth the farming communities in ThanhTri district on the southern outskirts of Hanoi not only experienceloss of agricultural use rights but also increased seasonal floodingwith contaminated water coming from the city. In a joint researchproject of Hanoi Agricultural University and WageningenUniversity and Research centre the environmental problems areanalysed, which agriculturalproducers in the district are facing and causing. This is placed ina context of economic liberalisation and of a city developmentagency seeking land for new residential, industrial andinfrastructure areas. The paper outlines the nature of the landconversion processes that take place in the area. The responsesof farmers to these challenges include turning to more intensivehorticultural production and fish farming on the one hand and

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demanding higher compensations for lost land on the other. Thereare also incipient mechanisms to use the compensation receivedas a way of establishing more sustainable farms at slightlygreater (‘safe’) distance from the city. As for most cities in theworld, the relationship between the urban planners andconsumers and the rural communities and horticulturalproducers of Thanh Tri district is rather uneasy and generallyunconstructive.

145Drechsel, P; Cofie, O.O; Vázquez, R and Danso, G.P.(2001).Technology development for municipal organic wasterecycling for urban and peri-urban agriculture - A holisticapproach. Paper for the Workshop: Appropriate methodologiesfor urban agriculture, October 2001, Nairobi, Kenya.Full text: http://www.ruaf.org WASTE RECYCLING; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; POULTRY; SANITATION; GHANAOne of the challenges of rapid urbanisation is how to makesufficient food available in a sustainable manner for theincreasing urban population. The increase in urban food demandis giving way to intensive food production systems in and aroundcities often specialised on perishable crops or poultry, and alsoto export-oriented agriculture using the advantage of urbaninfrastructure. These types of agriculture require large amountof inputs, including plant nutrients. Once the food is consumedor processed in the city, related market and household refuse aswell as human excreta contribute to urban pollution due to thecommon lack of adequate sanitation services or end in landfills.In both cases large amounts of nutrients are simply ‘wasted’. Thissituation calls for an analysis of options for municipal organicwaste recycling for the benefit of agricultural and environmentalsustainability in the rural-urban continuum. An internationalworkshop on peri-urban agriculture and nutrient recycling wasorganised for Africa in 1999 by FAO and IBSRAM, whereknowledge gaps in waste recycling were analysed andrecommendations developed. Many scientists, farmers anddecision makers emphasised the need for more information onviable and acceptable options for the recycling of municipal andagro-industrial waste, especially for farmers in urban and peri-

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urban areas. Subsequently, the Canadian donor IDRC agreed toco-sponsor a corresponding project in three agro-ecological zonesof West Africa addressing variations in organic waste generation,quality and availability.The project is an attempt to developrecycling strategies that should result in closing the rural urbannutrient cycle as well as preserving the quality of the urbanenvironment by reducing the (pollution effects of ) wasteaccumulation. The analysis and its different components aredescribed in this paper.

146Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2001).Urban andperi-urban forestry: case studies in developing countries. FAO,Rome (Italy). Forest Resources Div., 203 p.URBAN FORESTRY; URBANISATION; ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT; WEST AFRICA; SOUTH EAST ASIA; SOUTH AMERICA;MIDDLE EAST

147Ghirotti, M. (1999) Making better use of animal resourcesin a rapidly urbanizing world: a professional challenge In:World Animal Review (FAO), (no.92) pp. 2-14.LIVESTOCK; ANIMAL PRODUCTION; URBANISATION;ANIMAL DISEASES; URBAN AREAS; ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT

148Grossman, David (et al.) (1999).Urban and peri-urban agriculturein Africa. xviii, 335 p. ISBN 1-84014-910-8.Ashgate PublishingRURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE;FARMING SYSTEMS; FOOD SECURITY; AFRICAProceedings of a conference examining the state-of-the-art inurban and peri-urban agriculture in Africa. The text highlightsthe differences between these, in terms of availability of land andwater, policies with regard to open public spaces, accessibility ofmarkets, pollution hazards, and use of inputs. There are four parts:the first two contain regional studies, respectively field studiesfrom eastern & southern Africa, and peri-urban studies from theJos Plateau in Nigeria. Part three deals with economic or

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methodological aspects of access to resources and inputs. Partfour is about theoretical and policy issues, notably with regardto development. Many papers insist on the fact that in Africa,farming in urban areas by growing rain-fed crops and raisinganimals in the urban space is more a survival strategies thanmarket gardening: it is primarily an expression of poverty andinadequacy of existing food supply. The book argues that, in theAfrican setting, the role of urban agriculture lies primarily insecuring income and providing food security for the producers:most of the produce comes from outside the city. The role of urbanagriculture, it is argued, in feeding the cities will remain amarginal one. There is a clear split between urban subsistence,thought to have little perspective, and emergent commercialfarmers, mainly in peri-urban areas, believed to be much morepromising. Many authors insist on the importance of promotingself-help and participatory development rather than relying ontop-down projects.

149Knierim, Andrea (1996).Agricultural developmentpotential around Dolisie in the Congo: a case study in thecatchment area of a small town. In: Agriculture + RuralDevelopment vol. 3 no. 2 pp. 51-54. Supplier: Technical Centrefor Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), PO Box 380,6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands; Deutsche Stiftung fuerInternationale Entwicklung / Zentralstelle fuer Ernaehrung undLandwirtschaft (DSE/ZEL)ECONOMIC IMPACT; HORTICULTURE; RURAL-URBANLINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE; SOCIO-ECONOMICASPECTS; DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGOExamines the potential of peri-urban agriculture around the cityof Dolisie in the Congo. Technical issues are addressed, but alsowho are the target groups for agricultural innovations andintensification activities. In this analysis, a distinction is madeinto 3 agricultural circles in and around the town: (1) lots withinthe town and around its fringes; (2) areas within a radius of 10 to15 kilometres; (3) villages in a radius of up to 50 kilometres. All 3different circles are farmed by different groups of producers.

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150Konijnendijk, C.C. (1999).Urban forestry: comparative analysis ofpolicies and concepts in Europe. Contemporary urban forest policy-making in selected cities and countries of Europe; (Urban forestry:overview and analysis of European forest policies - Part 2. In: EFIWorking Paper (Finland), no. 20.1999, 266 p. ISBN 952-9844-64-6URBAN FORESTRY; FORESTRY POLICIES; VEGETATION; TOWNS;PLANNING

151Kuchelmeister, G. (2000).Trees for the urban Millennium: urbanforestry update. In: Unasylva (FAO), v. 51(200) pp. 49-55.URBAN FORESTRY; URBAN AREAS; SOCIAL CONDITIONS;POVERTYUrban dwellers are increasingly recognizing and articulating theimportance of urban forests as a vital component of the urbanlandscape, infrastructure and quality of life. Municipalities togetherwith diverse stakeholders around the world have launched oftenquite ambitious urban forestry programmes. Much progress hasbeen achieved in urban forestry research and development inindustrialized countries. However, multipurpose urban forestryin developing countries is still in its infancy. In addition, forestrywork is conspicuously absent from urban developmentcooperation initiatives, despite the accelerated urbanizationprocess taking place in developing countries. This article highlightsthe importance of urban trees and related vegetation in and arounddensely populated areas in both industrialized and developingcountries. The focus is on implications of urbanization fordevelopment co-operation, benefits of urban forests, povertyalleviation, innovative public-private partnerships and multi-resource management.

152Lazarus, C (2000). Urban agriculture: a revolutionary model foreconomic development. In: New Village Journal. Issue 2. Full text:http://newvillage.net/Journal/Issue2/2urbanagriculture.htmlURBAN AGRICULTURE; R&D METHODOLOGY; UNITED STATESOF AMERICA

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153Lintelo, D.(et al.) (2001).Peri-urban agriculture. Delhi, IndiaIn: Food, Nutrition and Agriculture (FAO), (no.29) pp.4-13.SUB-URBAN AGRICULTURE; LAND USE; FOOD SECURITY;INDIA

154Madaleno, I.M. (2001).Cities of the Future: urban agriculture in thethird Millennium. In: Food, Nutrition and Agriculture (FAO),(no.29) pp.14-21. URBAN AGRICULTURE; URBANENVIRONMENT; SUSTAINABILITY

155Mbiba, B (1995).Urban agriculture in Zimbabwe:implications for urban management and poverty. Aldershot(United Kingdom), 1995, 220 p. ISBN 1-85628-857-9AGRICULTURE; URBAN AREAS; LAND USE; EMPLOYMENT;POVERTY; ROLE OF WOMEN; ZIMBABWE

156Mehdipour, Ataie A. (1999).Urban and peri-urban forestry in theNear East: a case study of Iran and its capital, Tehran. In: Urbanand peri-urban forestry: case studies in developing countries / FAO,Rome (Italy), 1999, pp. 163-191. URBAN FORESTRY; POPULATIONGROWTH; CLIMATE; FOREST MANAGEMENT; URBANISATION;WASTEWATER IRRIGATION; IRANCommunity mobilization in a coalition of governmentdepartments, municipalities, NGOs and community groupsresulted in urban and peri-urban forests in Iran. The forestsperform many different functions like to supply wood and pulpindustry, stabilisation of sand dunes, fuelwood, fodder, wind anddust protection reduction of air pollution. In Tehran planting treesalleviates air pollution while effective waste water and sewagemanagement can provide irrigation water. Among the constraintsin urban forestry Tehran faces are technical knowledge, limitedavailability of suitable spaces, shortage of water and pollutionof plants.

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157Moustier, Paule (1999).Définitions et contours de l’agriculturepériurbaine en Afrique sub-saharienne. In: Agriculturepériurbaine en Afrique subsaharienne, pp.29 - 42RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE;FOOD SECURITY; NUTRITION; LAND USE; AFRICAIn this paper an attempt is made to outline the boundaries of peri-urban agriculture in Africa. The term “Peri-urban agriculture”refers to the influence the town has in terms of demand but also interms of resources for which alternatives between agriculturaland non-agricultural uses generate competition andcomplementarities. Its importance is parallel to the dynamics ofurbanisation in sub-Saharan Africa. The involvement of urbanitesinside and around cities is related to their employment and foodsituation. This involvement is neither marginal nor transitory butrather in constant change. The interface of the urban area andagricultural activities creates changes in resource uses, choice ofmarketed products and marketing strategies. The economic andagronomic sustainability of the industries is in question. Therehave been different foci in the available research: spaces influencedby cities; natural resource management; strategies of urbanresidents; production systems; commodity and food systems. Theanalysis of vegetable commodity systems in different townssuggests ways to improve the comparative advantages of peri-urban agricultural commodities versus rural sources and imports,by supporting marketers in securing their supply in quantitativeand qualitative terms. To ensure the sustainability of peri-urbanindustries it is necessary to cross-cut approaches on managementof space and commodity system approaches which aims atfavouring actors’ consultation on the same commoditycharacteristics.

158Murray, S. (1999).Urban and peri-urban forestry in LatinAmerica: a case study of Quito In: Urban and peri-urbanforestry: case studies in developing countries / FAO, Rome (Italy),1999, p. 75-106.

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URBAN FORESTRY; URBANISATION; ECOSYSTEMS;ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; FOREST MANAGEMENT; URBANAREAS; VEGETATION; ECUADORThis publication is the first of six case studies commissioned todocument work in urban and peri-urban forestry in the differentdeveloping regions of the world. This study on Quito illustrates tothose unfamiliar with the field and to those working on urbanand peri-urban forestry programmes the issues faced by differentcivil groups, NGOs, public and private institutions. It presentsthe approaches these groups adopted to integrate trees and foreststo improve the lives of urban dwellers and enhance the urbanenvironment. Some of the issues presented are landslides andwatershed management, land use changes and markets, and theneeds for green recreational areas, creation of productive activitiesand employment. It is a complex and fascinating subject, an areaof forestry where social and ecological concerns are most closelyintertwined.

159Muwowo, Paul (2001).Political economy of urbanagriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa: the case ofZambia. In: The political economy of urban and peri-urbanagriculture in East and Southern Africa. Conference Harare,Zimbabwe, 28 February to 2 March 2001RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; URBAN AGRICULTURE; PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE; AFRICA (SOUTHERN), AFRICA(EASTERN), ZAMBIAUrban agriculture is as old as the cities themselves. In Zambia,many cities are experiencing a decline in the formal economy fora number of reasons. The low-income groups haven taken upUrban Agriculture in the cities as a survival strategy. Some quotasof the society view Urban Agriculture as a manifestation of ruralhabits and that this activity in the cities a problem rather than asolution. Urban Agriculture has received little or no support fromlocal authorities. Production of the staple food prevails in the rainseason while vegetable production in the dry season. Somehouseholds keep chickens in their backyards, garages andkitchens. Studies have shown that Urban Agriculture contributesto household food security in town directly by providing food and

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indirectly by providing income. Urban Agriculture can alsoprovide a lot of other opportunities such as creation ofemployment, use of solid waste as compost, recycling carbondioxide and recreation. Despite all these facts, the local authoritiesconsider urban agriculture an illegal activity. Inadequate watersupply, lack of micro-lending facilities, land tenure andinadequate extension service have a negative impact on UrbanAgriculture. There is need to analyse the negative impacts indetail and come up with possible solutions. This will benefit thevulnerable groups in society, especially those in the squattersettlements, who partly or wholly depend on Urban Agriculture.

160Okpala, Don. C. I. (2003). Urban agriculture in urbandevelopment: towards UN-HABITAT position.UN-HABITAT, Nairobi (Kenya).URBAN AGRICULTURE;PRODUCTIVITY; FOOD SUPPLY; FOOD SECURITY; LAND USE;POLICIES; UN-HABITAT

161Phillips, R. (1996).Urban agriculture: food, jobs andsustainable cities. In: UNDP Publication Series for Habitat II(UNDP) , v. 1 / UNDP, New York (USA) , 300 p.URBAN AGRICULTURE; SUSTAINABILITY; URBANENVIRONMENT; FOOD PRODUCTION; FARMERS;ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; DEVELOPMENT POLICIESThis document presents the experience of urban farming incountries across Asia, Africa and Latin America. The book is basedon exploratory trips made to more than 20 countries commissionedby the Urban Agriculture Initiative of the UNDP.

162Schiere, H. and Van der Hoek, R. (2001).Livestock keepingin urban areas. A review of traditional technologies based onliterature and field experiences. In: FAO Animal Productionand Health Paper (FAO), no. 151 / FAO, Rome (Italy), 58 p.

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URBAN AREAS; TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGY; LIVESTOCK;ANIMAL PRODUCTION; LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT;ANIMAL HUSBANDRYLivestock play an important but variable role in both rural andurban societies. At the request and with the support of theJapanese Government, FAO has compiled experiences of livestockkeeping from different parts of the world, categorized byproduction systems, to make it easier for interested people toselect ideas for their own conditions. This document presents asample of such technologies intended for livestock keeping inurban and peri-urban areas. It describes the livestock productionsystem in traditional sectors and identifies constraints.Suggestions for improving production in the livestock sector aregiven and a literature list is included for further reference

163Silva, B (1999).Urban farming: making metropolitan marketrevenue. In: AgVentures.Vol. 2, Issue 6, pp. 40-45.URBAN AGRICULTURE; PRODUCTIVITY; ECONOMY; FARMS

164Tempesta, T and Thiene, M (1997). Agricultural land value andurban growth. In: Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperatives(FAO), (no. 2) pp. 21-31. FARMLAND; ECONOMIC VALUE;URBANISATION; LAND MARKETS; MARKET RESEARCHThe study of the dynamics of land markets has shown for some timethat the value of land is related to a number of different economic andnon-economic factors and that many people involved in land sales areunconnected with the primary sector. The present article is aimed atverifying which factors determine land values in the metropolitan areaof Padua, Italy, a territorial context that is deeply permeated by the urbaneffect. It can be hypothesized that, in such a setting, typically agriculturalfactors such as soil fertility, the presence of crops and the availability ofwater for irrigation are now of secondary importance in determiningthe value of land. On the other hand, variables such as an urbandestination of land use, accessibility to various types of urban areas andvicinity to important communication routes could assume apredominant role.

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165Tricaud, P.-M. (1996).Ville et nature dans les agglomérationsd’Afrique et d’Asie. In: Collection Etudes et Travaux, Paris(France), GRET, 103 p. ISBN 2-86844-082-7URBAN AGRICULTURE; NATURE CONSERVATION; RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES; LAND USE; BIODIVERSITY; SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; CASE STUDIES; ASIA; AFRICA

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AUTHORS INDEX

Abdalla 140Abramovay 044Adarkwa 045Aina 071Aldington 141Allen 106Allison 107Antrop 108Argenti 122, 123Atkinson 001, 109Ayele 002Ayubur Rahman Bhuyan 070Baker 003, 071Bakker 142Beauchemin 073Becker 072Bentinck 143Berg 144Bertrand 046Bhargava 047Bird 117Bishop 117Brandolini 004Bryceson 005, 006, 074, 075Carter 077Champion 007Chant 076Chen 008Childs 113Cipollone 004CNI 125Cofie 124, 145Cohen 009Cortes 078

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Dahiya 110Datt 028David 079Dávila 111Davis 010Dayaratne 011Debertin 012Dengu 080Devyani 066Di Giulio 081Diaz 112Douglass 048Drechsel 145Driss 081Du Guerny 082Dubresson 046Dwyer 113Eastwood 013Edge 016Edgington 049Egziabher 126El Bashir, 083Ellis 127Evans 050FAO 114, 130, 131, 146Fernandez 049Fleisher 014Foeker 128Frayne 084Gadio 085Geyer 087Ghirotti 147Gordon 010Greenstein 051Grimm 052Grossman 148Gubry 015, 088Hason 063Hemmasi 089Hidding 053

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Hope 016Hordijk 112Huang Ping 090Hugo 007, 017Hugon 132ILO 018Immink 133Jamal 075Johannsen 091Johnson 092Josefa 066Kamal 054Katzir 115Kelly 055Kim 093Knierim 149Koc 134Konijnendijk 150Kouame 094Koyate 138Kuchelmeister 151Kumssa 056Laquinta 020Lasram 081Lattes 095Lavergne 081Lazarus 152Lintelo 153Lipton 013Liviga 096Locher 019Long 010López 112Lu 021Lynch 022Macoloo 057Madaleno 154Maleche 058Mbara 005

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Mbiba 116, 155MDP 060Meadow 010Mehdipour 155Mekacha 096Morrison 072Mosha 059Moustier 156Mundle 097Murray 158Muwowo 159Mwangi 128Ngwe 015Noriega 098Nunan 023, 117Nyassogbo 061OECD 025Okpala 024, 160Padilla 135Paquette 099Parish 08Parkinson 118Pedersen 026, 062Phillips 161Potter 027Potts 086Pretty 136Prorok 089Rabinovitch 119Ravallion 028, 100Razin 063Rempel 101Rice 043Robredo 029Rodrigues 095Rotgé 064Ruel 137Sachs 044Sahn 030

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Samarawickrama 011Sangwan 031Sato 032Satterthwaite 033, 034, 065Schiere 162Seeth 035Shepherd 023Showers 120Silva 163Simelane 102Smit 036Stifel 030Stöhr 066Tacoli 034, 037, 065Tayler 118Taylor 103Tchegho 015Tempesta 164Terpend 138Teunissen 053Tiene 164Timnou 015Tingbé-Azalou 038Trager 039Tricaud 165Tveitdal 121Ultramari 104UNCHS(Habitat) 041, 067, 068Unwin 027Van Arkadie 097Van der Hoek 162Vennetier 040Villa 095Vu Thi Hong 088Wang 014Wiewel 051Wilhelm 042Xiaokai 043Yabre 079

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Yasmeen 139Zhu 105Ziavoula 069

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