Urban Planning and Management

Institute for Graduate Studies and Research

Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname

Student: Celestine Weidum

Student number: 09UP1001

Promoters: Prof. M. Schalkwijk

Prof. G. de Bruijne

October 2014

Urban Sprawl in Paramaribo

The neglected opportunity to sustain communities in the fringe

Case study: Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg

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Urban Planning and Management

Institute for Graduate Studies and Research

Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname

URBAN SPRAWL IN PARAMARIBO THE NEGLETED OPPORTUNITY TO SUSTAIN COMMUNITIES IN THE FRINGE

CASE STUDY: KWATTA REGION BETWEEN THE DERDE AND VIERDE RIJWEG

Student: Celestine Weidum Student number: 09UP1001 Promoters: Pof. M. Schalkwijk Prof. G. de Bruijne October 2014

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We all want economic prosperity and a high quality of

life for our families, regardless of where we live or what

we do for work. People want neighbourhoods with safe

streets and good schools, jobs that are not hours away

from home, housing they can afford and neighbourhood parks

where children can play, get to work without spending hours

in traffic, clean air to breathe and clean water to drink,

live in a place that feels like a community

(Al Gore, 2000)

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Table of contens

Summary 8

1. Introduction 9 1.1 Background 9 1.2 Problem statement 10 1.3 Research question 10 1.4 Relevance of research 10 1.5 Conceptual framework 11 1.6 Research design 12 1.7 Research methods 13

2. Description of the research area 13 2.1 Physical-geographical aspects 13 2.2 Social-geographical aspects 14

3. Literature overview 17 3.1 Introduction 17 3.2 Urban Sprawl 17 3.3 Urban Form 19 3.4 Land Use 20 3.5 Community Wellbeing 21 3.5.1 Planning schemes and their impact on community development 22 3.6 Urban Ecology 23 3.7 Smart Growth 24 3.8 Assessment 25

4. The role of government in planning and implementing housing scheme projects 26 4.1 Assessment 29

5. Results of field research 31 5.1 Characteristics of the Kwatta neighbourhood 31 5.1.1 Introduction 31 5.1.2 Objectives 33 5.2 Population 34 5.2.1 Assessment 38 5.3 Accessibility 38 5.3.1 Assessment 42 5.4 Living conditions 43 5.4.1 Housing characteristics 43 5.4.1.1 Assessment 45 5.4.2 Neighbourhood characteristics 45 5.4.2.1 Assessment 51

6. Conclusion: Advantages and disadvantages of Sprawl in particular the Kwatta region in Greater Paramaribo

52

6.1 Introduction 52 6.2 Discussion on the theme of Sprawl 56 6.2.1 Reflection on community development and wellbeing 59 6.3 Conclusion on the research question 61

7. General conclusions: Strategies for development of sustainable living communities in Greater Paramaribo

63

7.1 The KAR- strategy 63 7.2 Values and elements to design sustainable neighbourhoods 65

8. Recommendations 67 Literature Interviews Annexes

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List of tables

Table Page Title 1 23 Issues and related valuable features for achieving the wellbeing of a community 2 33 Total of projected households 3 33 Total of projected housing 4 35 Housing surface and household size related to per person living space 5 36 Housing size according to district 6 36 Place of origin of households 7 38 Working members according to households 8 41 Types of vehicles on the T-junction of the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the Tweede

Rijweg 9 42 Transport mode and total of cars according to households

10 46 Ownership according to parcel size, price in relation to quality of neighbourhood and appreciation of neighborhood lay-out

11 47 Title on the house related to the choice to live in the Kwatta neighbourhood 12 50 Former residence qualified as low-income for migrated households 13 51 Priorities to sustain community wellbeing 14 53 Paramaribo: Resorts according to Area, Population density and Population 15 63 UN Habitat features for sustainable communities

List of figures

Figure Page Title 1a 13 Location of study area; geomorphology elements 1b 14 Location of study area; dense occupation along the main road 2 15 Rijweg naar Kwatta as part of East-West Connection 3 15 Rijweg naar Kwatta with abandoned agriculture land 4 15 Dead ending arterial road 5 16 House built on land filled plateau 6 16 Small street without side walk 7 17 Relation scheme of internal and external features related to community wellbeing 8a 19 Influence of transport on urban form 8b 19 Influence of transport infrastructure on spatial structure 8c-d 19 Concentric City (Burgess) and Radial City (Hoyt) 9 20 Spatial interaction related to transport system and land use 10 21 Satellite image of main network in Greater Paramaribo 11 22 Relation scheme of Community Wellbeing and Community Development 12a 24 Urban Ecology Initiative 2000 12b 25 Relation scheme of the impact of Urban Sprawl 12c 26 A possible calculation for Smart Growth 13 31 The Kwatta region at the fringe of the city 14 32 Congestion on the Rijweg naar Kwatta near the Tweede Rijweg 15 32 Cars on the Rijweg naar Kwatta 16 34 Percentage dwelling surface per household in m 17 35 Floor area per person by country ranking and region 18 37 Absolute age composition according to sexes 19 37 Education according to level 20 38 Total of breadwinners according to employment position 21 39 Total of transport mode for students to education institute 22 39 Total of transport mode for breadwinners to work 23 39 Main road to work/school in absolute figures

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List of figures

Figure Page Title 24 40 Two momentums of traffic flow; morning and afternoon peak 25 41 Monthly costs for transportation in Srd per category 26 43 Conveniences in dwelling commodities in absolute figures 27 43 Years of residence in the Kwatta region 28 44 Parcels according to size 29 45 North-eastern part 30 45 South-eastern part 31 45 North-western part 32 45 South-western part 33 46 Appreciation of the lay-out 34 46 Contact with neighbors 35 47 Living advantages in the Kwatta region 36 48 Robberies related to number of times during residence 37 48 Overall satisfaction; price related to quality of parcel 38 49 Flooding of parcels 39 49 Maintenance of open drain 40 49 Investment to improve living quality 41 50 Qualification of former neighbourhood 42 43

53 60

Resorts of the Paramaribo District Community development and community wellbeing in the Kwatta region

44 65 KAR-Strategy 45 46

65-66 68

Values and elements to design sustainable neighbourhoods Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Scheme

List of abbreviations ABS: Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek EBS: Energy Bedrijven Suriname SWM: Suriname Waterleiding Maatschappij GLO: Gewoon Lager Onderwijs VOJ: Voortgezet Onderwijs Junioren VOS: Voortgezet Onderwijs Senioren HBO: Hoger Beroepsgericht Onderwijs PPP: Public Private Partnership SPS: Stichting Planbureau Suriname RGOB: Ruimtelijke Ordening Grond en Bosbeheer OW: Openbare Werken SoZaVo: Sociale Zaken en Volkshuisvesting IOL: Instituut voor de Opleiding van Leraren Srd: Surinaamse dollar Parbo: Paramaribo GB: Governementsblad SB: Staatsblad

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Foreword By 2050, 7 in 10 people will live in urban areas. Every year the world urban population increases by 60 million people and most of this growth is taking place in Low and Middle income countries (UN Habitat, 2013). Many families and individuals prefer to live in or near urban areas, because of the availability of necessary facilities for comfortable living. As such, urban areas will continue to grow, either through guided and regulated control systems or spontaneously, because of weak regulations, thereby resulting in sprawl. Since its establishment in the 17th century the City of Paramaribo has continued to evolve and mutate, in such a manner that was accompanied by unwanted consequences for the spatial organization of the city. This study has been carried out to examine and understand the changing processes in land use in the Kwatta region in relation to planning. Indeed, spatial planning is broader than traditional land use planning, as it integrates policies for the development of urban areas and land use planning, which are both needed to increase liveability in cities. Cities are where the battle for sustainable development will be won or lost. (Christine Platt, CUF Conference Barbados 2014). To win this battle, new approaches for planning sustainable neighbourhoods are needed, whereby collaboration and partnership should be recognized. Planning is not one dimensional, but requires the involvement of all stakeholders, including the people and their livelihoods (housing, economic activities and recreational facilities) to create more liveable and sustainable communities. Spatial planning should strengthen the living advantages of neighbourhoods and minimize the negative impact on natural ecosystems. Future cities should combine optimal use of available natural resources and the location of necessary economic activities and services in order to achieve higher density, proximity and accessibility, which in turn should increase the attractiveness and liveability of the city. Paramaribo, September 2014 Celestine Weidum

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Summary

Within urban and rural communities, geography plays a critical role in the development of the built environment. Planning has to rely on knowledge of geographic space when deciding how best to manage the growth of cities. The physical expansion of an urban area, caused by uncontrolled and uncoordinated urban planning and management, is typified as urban sprawl. Because of the lack of adequate urban planning in Greater Paramaribo, where more than 50% of the Surinamese population is living (ABS, 2013), the growing need for housing, jobs and services has often caused the development of more or less isolated neighbourhoods. Two contrasting types of urban sprawl along main roads, the so called fish-bone pattern, can be distinguished in the fringe of the city.

1. Informal patterns of land use in peri-urban areas, where especially poor migrants from rural areas and the hinterland have occupied available land in mainly exit roads such as Rahimal Project and Devisbuiten to live with their families in a situation where basic services such as water and electricity are not in place. The living conditions are characterized by uncertainty and hopelessness, as well as by huge dependence on public transportation.

2. Formal patterns of land use in sub-urban areas, mostly initiated by private investors, where people from the middle and high income classes have settled to meet their desired living environment, but became car captives. The Kwatta region and Leidingen as well can be mentioned as two well visible examples.

According to UN-Habitat State of the World Cities (2010/2011), urban sprawl increases an urban divide when social segregation along economic lines results in spatial differences in wealth and quality of life. Moreover, the not flexible nor pro-active organization of housing schemes to meet the growing need for housing has resulted in the explosive outward expansion of Greater Paramaribo over a large geographical area, which consecutively increased the pressure on the natural resources. As sprawl advances, over the years the new urban areas will become part of the major metropolitan area, which in comparison to better organized urban expansion will increase the demand for transportation, water and energy supply and other essential services. Impropriate spatial information and measurement indicators limit a broader vision to support sustainable urban planning. People searching for a shelter have deliberately chosen to settle down on abandoned agricultural land in the Kwatta region, which is under private ownership and for a significant part developed for housing purposes by private investors. Due to its fish-bone structure the sprawled area between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg of the Kwatta region was chosen to explore to what extent this sprawl development has influenced the living satisfaction and living quality of the people. The research comes to the conclusion that optimal land use planning, combined with active and proper development management is the key instrument for effectively dealing with urban sprawl in Greater Paramaribo. The involvement of all stakeholders, combined with adequate regulation and monitoring, providing necessary feedback and data, should result in efficiency of the development process for the benefit of all. Thus, in the present context of the visible problem of urban sprawl, the challenges for future planning of the city of Paramaribo are to arrive at an integrated spatial planning support system to effectively plan, review and evaluate policy options. Correct implementation of master and/or development plans is a critical aspect to regulate the development of urban areas. The findings of this study can be a support for inter-department coordination, policy development and action at a national and local level, as well as a starting point for further research on the physical expansion of Paramaribo.

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1. Introduction

The topic of this research is to investigate, from a comprehensive perspective, the urban expansion of Paramaribo, in particular the Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg. Within this research several critical issues will be explored that are relevant for regulations on urban planning and which hopefully should create awareness among stakeholders of how living conditions in neighborhoods in the sprawled areas of Greater Paramaribo can be sustained. The main objective is to learn more about the phenomenon of urban sprawl and to examine whether existing government spatial planning strategies satisfy basic living needs and how the living conditions in the different communities can be improved.

Supported by a survey of the residing communities in the Kwatta Region about their living conditions and current needs, new forms of spatial planning and land use can be identified for moving towards more coordinated procedures. The importance is to bring relevant stakeholders together and to create awareness of how living communities in urban Paramaribo can be improved to guarantee a healthy living environment by adapting some international standards. The research concludes with a number of strategic proposals for guiding a master plan for environmental and urban planning in Greater Paramaribo.

1.1 Background Since centuries Paramaribo has a crucial role in the national organization of Suriname. Due to political and economic developments as well as natural population growth the city has expanded substantially, in particular during the last decades. Governments, national organizations as well as scientists/researchers have to be aware of this continuing development, which also leads to important geomorphologic changes. At present, urban expansion is evident in Paramaribo, being a very important force in the transformation of natural ecosystems towards a built social environment. This development can also be characterized as sprawl, a concept that refers to a certain kind of leapfrog development in the urban fringe, which causes a disproportioned growth of the urban area (EEA;2006). Sprawl refers to the functioning of the city as a whole (natural ecosystem, buildings, traffic, water and energy) related to the possibilities and desires of people in the fringe, as well as to the related costs. The proper functioning of small communities at the fringe not only refers to the required level of daily goods and services, but should also guarantee an easy movement of people.

Since its founding, the lay-out of Paramaribo has been wide and spacious; an attractive place for residential housing of all ethnic origins and economic classes. Remarkable is that during the midst of the last century the spatial attractiveness of living in the city center of Paramaribo has changed. On the one hand there is a desire of living in a more quiet part of the city, in suburbs, somewhat closer to a nature-like environment. On the other hand, the extremely low price for former agriculture land, compared to already urbanized land, is also an important factor underlying the sprawl of Paramaribo. Also can be mentioned the depreciated living conditions in poor urban neighborhoods for example Frimangron and the deplorable houses in the backyards of mansions in the inner city. Migration of these people to areas outside the urban area, where more space per person was available was an option to improve their living conditions. These observations call for the development of urban planning strategies for housing schemes to maintain and advance the quality of the neighborhoods. In addition, this should strengthen a mixed

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land use that can attract small-sized enterprises and bring about a change in transport possibilities as well. The political and socio-economic predominance of Paramaribo within the country is the main force that will continue to contribute to the growth and expansion of the city over the coming decades. This growth will have important and significant implications with regard to:

the development of sustainable livelihoods for the population

the land needed for housing, enterprises and public services

the development of economic, social as well as transport infrastructure

the preservation of agriculture land to ensure food production for the growing population

1.2 Problem statement In the urban fringe of Paramaribo land use with regard to housing is extensive and not always organized in a professional way. Without well-considered planning allotment, housing projects are developed, in which houses, built on parcels that should be at least 350 m, and stand apart from each other. Adequate services and infrastructure are often absent, while the needs of the population are hardly taken into account. In practice, urban development and planning is mainly effectuated by private project developers and the existing legal framework is insufficient to support adequate urban development. Therefore the urban expansion is an urban sprawl, not organized, visible along dead ending arterial roads, often of bad quality and which does not generate adequate connection with the older built up areas. An important problem with regard to actual spatial planning policy in Suriname is the lack of constructive dialogue between policy makers, scholars/scientists and other parties opting for new houses. These stakeholders should be much more involved in translating research results in feasible policy goals. Intensified dialogue between policy makers and researchers on policy issues, to sharpen and underline priorities, is needed. 1.3 Research question Which are the advantages and disadvantages of the urban sprawl that have manifested itself in Greater Paramaribo in the Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg and how can lessons learned in that area be used to formulate strategies for developing sustainable living communities in Paramaribo as a whole? Sub-questions

What are the characteristics of the phenomenon of urban sprawl?

What are the driving forces that have determined the urban pattern of Paramaribo?

What effects do the relatively small housing scheme projects, organized by private project developers, have on the fulfillment of people in need for a better quality of live?

To what extent have communities been developed in those small neighborhoods?

To what extent are decision makers, private and public, aware of their role in the development of sustainable communities?

How can relevant research data be used to promote sustainable neighborhoods at the fringe of Paramaribo?

1.4 Relevance of research

The Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg is one of the most remarkable examples of the recent physical expansion of Paramaribo. Former agricultural land and natural landscapes are transformed, slowly but certainly, into residential areas located in connection with exit roads of the Rijweg naar Kwatta. Land use here is one-sided, while the lack of adequate basic population facilities

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and services, as well as employment opportunities and cause an ever-increasing relative distance to the urban core, because people have to spend more time in the traffic to bridge distances.

Summarized, it can be stated that the answers to the research question and sub questions should give a clear impression of what effects urban sprawl has on the quality of living in the small communities in the Kwatta region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg.

Different actors and institutes are involved in the urban development of Paramaribo. In order to come to an adequate analysis, answers to the several other questions derived from the main question and sub questions will need to be found, such as: Who controls and monitors the urban planning of Paramaribo? How is the licensing for developing housing projects organized? What role do private developers have in urban development? What is the role of the residents in urban development?

Those answers should give a picture of how the reality of the urban sprawl of Paramaribo manifests itself in the region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg and which relevant starting points for urban planners and managers are needed to make strategic choices for the allocation and design of new urban residential areas.

The research results intend to provide some useful ideas for a future master plan for Paramaribo that should deliver potentials for guiding the allocation and design of housing schemes in the growing urban region in a way that will generate balanced and healthy communities. Regulating the use of private and public land for housing projects should intend to ensure the following:

Community wellbeing

Environmental protection and preservation

Economic development

Transportation infrastructure

Recreational and green spaces 1.5 Conceptual framework

resultimpact researchpoint of

view

urban ecology

urban sprawl

smart growth

human preferences and

opportunities

quality of living

residential locationland use

government policy

urban form

Useful

potentials for

Master Plan

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The point of view of this research is Urban Sprawl in the fringe of Greater Paramaribo where land use patterns are dominated and/or characterized by low density and single family housing. The Urban Ecology Approach and Smart Growth Approaches have been used to understand the impact of human activities on natural ecological systems, on the one hand, and to explore possibilities to achieve a higher variety in land use and sustainable communities, on the other hand. This research focuses on the extent to which human preferences and opportunities have determined land use in the fringe of Greater Paramaribo. Human preferences and opportunities, which are influenced by own socio-cultural and socio-economic factors, as well as by government spatial policy, are inextricably bound up with (urban) land use, and combined ultimately result in a certain urban form e.g. urban sprawl. The ultimate choice people have made to settle down in a certain neighbourhood is reflected both in the residential location as well as the quality of living. Finally, the research should result in some useful potentials to design a Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Schemes.

1.6 Research design

Design and Development of Survey instruments Data collection Data processing Analysis Results Internet source: Adapted from L. Siragusa [Curtin University of Technology] The primary data source is based on questionnaires (see Annex3) and interviews (survey instruments). In addition, relevant literature, articles and reports will provide adequate data to allow a qualitative as well as a quantitative initial analysis. Finally, the initial analysis will form the basis for the assessment/discussion of a selection of relevant topics in order to deliver potentials for planning sustainable communities.

Questionnaire

development

Survey

design

Data analysis

Quantitative Qualitative

Schedule for

interviews

Initial

analysis

Random selection

of 100 households

Discussion and potentials

for planning sustainable

communities

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1.7 Research methods

This study is empirical and based upon qualitative and quantitative research methods. In Greater Paramaribo West, as a result of sprawl, a more or less contiguous territory with specific characteristics has developed. Based on a holistic approach, studies done on human preferences combined with opportunities that households can afford to meet a certain quality of living in a specific residential area have been explored. Also land use models have been studied to understand the dynamic and scattered character of the Kwatta region, which in turn has affected the urban form and its strong connection to the city core. The Urban Ecology and Smart Growth concepts will support this holistic approach to result in useful elements for designing sustainable neighbourhoods as is detailed in Figure 44. The research makes use of interviews of a random selection of one hundred households living in 16 exit roads in the southern as well as the northern part of the Rijweg naar Kwatta. Selected stakeholders involved in the development and functioning of the different communities have also been included. The households were randomly selected on the basis of the following criteria: (i) at least one year constantly living in that area, (ii) must be the owner/renter of the house and (iii) having a main job outside the living area. Individual households have been informed about the purpose of the study and asked to participate in the questionnaire. Almost every one of the selected respondents was willing to participate. Those willing to join the research have completed the questionnaire in a face to face meeting. Interviews have also been held with key persons in the different communities of the Kwatta Region, with representatives of different organizations related to urban issues, including key persons of ministries involved in housing projects, and with project developers and firms/people involved in the construction. The results are presented in tables and graphs and where possible correlations between the variables have been made. These data should contribute to formulation of a feasible strategic plan for housing schemes and project development.

2. Description of the research area

2.1 Physical-geographical aspects

Figure 1a: Location of study area; geomorphology elements (Noordam D.)

The Kwatta Region between the 3rd and 4th Rijweg is located westward from the city centre. The Garnizoenspad also known as Rijweg naar Kwatta, is the main road and part of the East-West Connection (see Figure 1a and 1b). This road was built on the highest points of ridges, which are part of the Commowine sediments in the coastal zone. Those ridges have an east-west direction, are well drained and often vary in width between 10 and 400 meters, while the length ranges from less than a hundred to several ten kilometres. The District of Coronie can be mentioned as an example where some ridges have a length for about 40 kilometres. (Noordam D. 2013)

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Geology Physiography Elevation (m+NSP)

Unit soil map

Soil

Moleson Phase

Clay flats and inter-ridge depressions

1-2m 11 Poorly and very poorly drained Nearly riped clay

Moleson Phase

Ridges 2-3m 2 Well drained Medium and fine sand to sandy loam Locally shells and shell grit

Wanica Phase Ridges 2m 8 Moderately well drained Medium and fine sand

Wanica Phase Abandoned rice fields

1-2m 18 Imperfectly to poorly drained Nearly riped clay

Legend Figure 1a Regarding the sedimentation pattern, the Kwatta Region shows a large diversity. Van der Eijk (1957) describes the Kwatta landscape soils, as part of the Young Coastal Plain with many ridges. The landscape evolution show a more or less uniform pattern. Also the ridges exhibit a significant diversity due to differences in their relief. The high ridges are dryer, while on the lower parts wetlands are developed. The Kwatta landscape has, with regard to the natural ecosystem, a typical biodiversity that can be characterized as not homogeneous in view of the many detailed differences.

2.2 Social-geographical aspects Especially the longer ridges have been important for opening up the coastal plain of Suriname. Already pre- Columbian indigenous people had made use of the ridges to cross large areas and to build their settlements. The nature of the ridge sediments (shells, coarse sand, fine sand) and the structure of the ridges (height, width, single, compiled, bundled), together with the width of the tide ways, should allow some form of development. The upper parts are mainly used for habitation and initially for agriculture/livestock. Further, expansion took place from the ridges by reclamation/rising of the tide ways. Figure 1a and 1b show clearly that especially the ridge numbered by 2 (see Legend figure 1 and 1a) is densely populated.

Figure 1b: Location of study area; dense occupation along the main road

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The mangrove zone is located about 6 kilometres north of the study area and is already seriously affected by human activities. As figure 1a and 1b show, the study area is located in a fresh water area, outside the influence of the sea. The vegetation that is still present is mainly swamp vegetation, which because of the poor drainage has not been favourable for the effort of human activities. Still, it is locally visible that people have entered the swamp from the Roadway to Kwatta to develop agriculture and residential activities.

Figure 2: Rijweg naar Kwatta as part of the East-West Connection In the past the Kwatta Region could be characterized as a highly productive agriculture area with many small fields for rice and vegetable harvesting. Nowadays, large parts in the study area are fallow lands and more or less abandoned as agricultural area, and it is hard to predict how the future use will be. Great parts have been re-organised and parcelled out for residential purposes. Also extensive cattle breeding farms are utilizing abandoned agriculture land. Only on some small sand ridges some vegetables are harvested, especially for the local market. The 70s and 80s show a visible expansion of the urban space towards the Kwatta Region where land was relatively less expensive. This made it profitable for residential developments with single dwellings. The overall price for a parcel to build a house about ten to fifteen years ago was 10-20 euro /m (Intervast, 2013), which was significantly lower compared to many sub-division housing schemes in Paramaribo North.

Figure 3: Rijweg naar Kwatta with Figure 4: Dead ending arterial road abandoned agriculture land

The Roadway to Kwatta is built on small ridges, which have poorly drained clay flats or inter-ridge depressions on both sides. The outstanding structure of the ridges makes them favourable for different kinds of construction. On the flanks of the ridges buildings and facilities for water and electricity are raised close to this narrow two direction-road. Space for widening is therefore limited.

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Many dead ending arterial roads have been constructed along the main road (see Annex 1 and 2), where available land was parcelled out in lots with sizes varying from 180 to 1400 m (see Figure 3 and 4). The parcels are located on the flanks and on the inter-ridge depressions and thereby highly vulnerable to flooding in the rainy seasons. Substantial landfill and good drainage are needed before building activities can be started. First of all, often a small plateau is built to create a stable foundation on which the building can be constructed. (see Figure 5). Most of the trenches in front of the parcels along the road are not well functioning, as they are not maintained in a proper manner. The connection with the main drainage system, which is most of the time in a deplorable state and even missing in some neighbourhoods. Some owners have replaced the open drainage by pipes, but have not always taken into account the standards of the Ministry of Public Works. The roads have no sidewalks and are also not well linked to each other, which constrains an easy movement of people between the different neighbourhoods. (see Figure 6).

Figure 5: House built on a land filled plateau Figure 6: Small street without sidewalk

The unrestricted ability to move to this new sub-urban landscape has led to a situation in which the parcel price became more important than the characteristics of the location. Commuting became the new lifestyle and people have become car captured. Due to this scattered residential design with single family houses, the installation of potable water and electricity became very expensive, because of the significantly increased distance to the main feeder. The infrastructure network has been extended over the years and power houses of different capacities and transformers were built to support the head production station in the centre of Paramaribo to guarantee a continuous current power. Finally, the lay-out of these residential areas has become much disintegrated, which in turn was strengthened by the policies of the different developers, who are not communicating with each other, because they follow their own agenda.

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3. Literature overview

3.1 Introduction Urban and regional planning should always focus on community wellbeing issues. Social engagement and bottom up methods can result in a successful integration of community wellbeing issues in planning housing schemes. However, in general, housing schemes are poorly supported by social needs.

According to UN-Habitat (2009), the future planning of cities should focus on those factors that are the driving force and give shape to cities of the 21st century. The surface of all the cities of the world is 2.8% of the total world's surface and is home to approximately 50% of the world population. This situation differs by some means from Paramaribo, where about 50% of the national population lives on merely 0.1 % of the land surface (ABS; 2013). With an area of 182 km Paramaribo is, compared with other (large) cities of the world, very spacious with mainly horizontal built areas.

Urban developments are currently being tested on how to improve and preserve the social and natural quality of the residential areas. As portrayed in Figure 7, I have constructed a relation scheme, to show that both external factors (urban sprawl, urban form, urban population and urban land use) as well as internal factors (lifestyle, social bounds, participation and awareness) are involved in the wellbeing of a community. The internal or local factors have to do with the characteristics of households living in the different communities of the Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg, while the external or national factors are influenced by urban planning.

Figure 7: Relation scheme of internal and external features related to community wellbeing

3.2 Urban Sprawl Urban sprawl, the often hardly controlled fragmented urban expansion, is characteristic of specific urban forms, which are often developed at the outskirts of a city. Frelich (2003) is very critical about urban sprawl. He typifies urban sprawl as a bad performance of urban planning with regard to the peripheral areas of a city. It creates residential areas of poor natural and social quality, disintegration with the existing cultivated area, a low residential density as a result of the high land

urban population

urban land use

urban form urban sprawl

lifestyle social bounds

participationawareness

Community

wellbeing

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consumption per person and a great dependence on the car. Callies (1999) speaks of the lack of a clear continuum, which has implications for mobility and accessibility, the sprinkle and viability of the residential area, and the supply of public services and landscaping.

Holcombe (1999) is more nuanced. He has identified three kinds of urban sprawl. The first one is a leapfrog development where the newly developed residential areas are located outside the urban city. Project developers choose for arable land that is relatively cheap which should make housing therefore affordable. The disadvantage is that the per person travel time is longer and the costs for road infrastructure, water and electricity are high. However, there is still one main advantage: the jumped-over areas are the potential land for future development of economic activities. Secondly, the strip or ribbon development is characterized by an enormous development of commercial activities in a linear pattern along main roads with a disadvantage of traffic congestion, but with the concentration of commercial activities and residential streets with less traffic as advantages. The third one is a low density single dimensional development that has pros and contras in the development of human activities. Houses are built on a relatively large parcel that causes high land consumption and the need for car use. On the other hand there is more green and therefore a healthier living area. An analysis of the urban form gives insight into the spatial pattern of an urban area as a result of land use with respect to the historic center, the street pattern and the residential and commercial locations. In view of the future it is about how an urban zoning plan can be designed to exploit the current and future land use more efficiently. This certainly applies to urban transport i.e. transfer stations for public transportation, bus lanes, walking streets, public spaces and parking can play a more active role in reshaping the streets during many hours of the day. In turn this would increase the potential of the current usage and also could be an incentive for more mixed land use and a denser built up area that contributes to the wellbeing of the community. Song and Knaap (1998), in their study in Metropolitan Portland (USA), have used different measuring indicators of an attractive urban form that seem relevant to this research, in particular points 2, 3 and 5. 1. Street design and circulation systems

Indicators used to measure accessibility within and between residential areas, the distance between access points in the residential area as well as the number and length of the residential blocks.

2. Density Urban development is dominated by single family dwellings, which has caused a low building density and high car dependency, absorb much agricultural land and have increased the costs of public utilities. Three measurement indicators have been used: lot size, population density and the built up area.

3. Land use mix A larger variation in usage facilities promotes walking and cycling , resulting in less travel time per person, which combined appear to guarantee the air quality and the aesthetic appearance of the city.

4. Accessibility Urban development is generally characterized by inefficient land use patterns. For this they have adopted three measurement indicators: the distance to the commercial services, the bus stops and public parks. Footpaths would encourage walking, thereby reducing the usage of cars and consequently would have a positive impact on peoples health.

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5. Mixed land use Land use is a mixture of physical and biological systems and processes on the one hand and human behaviour on the other. Mixed land use commonly refers to the characteristics of the built environment. Well planned neighbourhoods with a balanced mix of land uses (e.g. residential and commercial uses, schools, recreation, offices) give people the option to walk, bike or take public transportation to the nearby destination. Low density and segregated land use combined with disconnected streets have a negative correlation with private and public transport. According to Inbakaran/Howes (2011), the mixed-use-factor looks at the number of different uses within the specified sizes of residential and non-residential zoning as well as to their relative sizes.

3.3 Urban Form The structure of the city includes the built environment and its influence on the natural environment(Velibeyoglu, 1999). Urban Form is primarily affected by land use and transport policy, whereby planners and architects play an important role. Their direct involvement in the spatial organization of the city also makes them responsible for the quality of the built and natural environment.

Figure 8a: Influence of transportation on urban form Figure 8b: Influence of transportation infrastructure on the spatial structure (Source: Geography of Transport Systems, 2013)

Figure 8c-d: Concentric City (Burgess) and Radial City (Hoyt)

Urban form may be defined as the spatial configuration of fixed elements within a metropolitan region

(Urban Studies Journal, 1966 33:7). This description also refers to the spatial pattern of land uses and

their densities as well as the spatial design of transport and communication infrastructure.

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During the 20th century the form of cities has rapidly changed as a result of changes in human settlement patterns. The Concentric City of Burgess (1926) is a zoning theory (urban land use model) that simply indicates the transformation from an agrarian to an urban economy in which people and their activities are spatially more clustered (see Figure 8c-d). The implication on Paramaribo is that the outward growth of the city is at the expense of the adjacent zone. Former residential and agriculture land has given way, in particular, to commercial activities. On the other hand the Radial City of Hoyt (1939) adopted the Central Business District of Burgess, but advocated that the outward expansion of the city centre was along railroads, highways and other transportation lines. This theory commonly refers to a certain grade of Urban Sprawl that is characterized by an outward expansion of the urban body to rural land. Segregation in land use was typical and visible in the fringe. In contrast to the Central Business District a general decline in land use in relation with population density took place, while the existing transport network connects the peripheral points to the city centre. This theory underlies the way the expansion of Paramaribo has taken place in the past decades. The Rijweg naar Kwatta is not only the main transportation line that connects the Kwatta Region to the city centre, but has contributed to the expansion of the city in westward direction as well. 3.4 Land Use

Figure 9: Spatial interaction related to transport system and land use

Source: Geography of Transport Systems, 2013

Spatial interaction is the inter-link between land use and transportation systems as well as with the different elements that underline the coherence of their spatial manifestation. To a large extent land use and transport systems define peoples mobility and accessibility. Mobility can be described as the capability of people to move from one to another destination, based on the transportation mode, including their walkability, while accessibility depends on the technological condition of the available transport infrastructure, which result in a certain urban dynamic system (Lauwers in UPM 512; 2012). Mobility and accessibility influence peoples (daily) activity patterns. Within the hierarchy of Central Places transportation is the main source for their connection (Christaller, 1933). Streets are the connections between people and places, besides being spaces by themselves. Many researchers have the same opinion about upgrading the walkability, while minimizing the dominance of the private automobile, when it comes to improving the functioning of a city. Transport systems, which connect the different parts of cities, enable peoples movement throughout the city. A network of roads, bicycle and pedestrian lanes together forms the total movement system of a city.

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Figure 10: Satellite image of main road network in Greater Paramaribo 3.5 Community Wellbeing A community has different backgrounds, but summarized, it is the neighbourhood where people live with their families, make friendship, do their daily shopping, can recreate and often go to school and sometimes also to work. Knowing people to develop and maintain connections is important to create a healthy community. One of the most fundamental aspects to reach the level of community wellbeing is community engagement. The wellbeing of people is a vital component of developing a liveable community. A liveable community is more than knowing your neighbours in the direct surrounding, but a place with a balance in land use for housing, green spaces, services and commercial activities. A mix of age, incomes and ethnicity are also indispensable ingredients, which help foster a broader spirit of community (Community Services, 2007).

The layout of the Inner City of Paramaribo consists of two main axes stretching east-west and north-south with streets crossing at right angles. This radial pattern of the street network is part of the city that makes it unique. The streets can be ranged from a high interconnectivity such as the Indira Ghandhiweg and Rijweg naar Kwatta to small unpaved dead ending roads. The balance of these various transport infrastructure systems helps to define the quality and character of Paramaribo, i.e. to what extent they are either friendly or unsympathetic to pedestrians.

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Figure 11: Relation scheme of Community Wellbeing and Community Development

I have constructed Figure 11 to show the different components of community well-being and their interactions, and how this whole process should lead to community development in a broader perspective. Although this is an optimistic approach, it may unfortunately also be in conflict with the creation of a pleasant surrounding where people feel safe and enjoy the benefits of prosperity. 3.5.1 Planning schemes and their impact on community development

Many studies have been done on community wellbeing on different scale levels. According to the Royal Australian Planning Institute, RAPI (2001) planning schemes influence communities by:

- guiding the use of community sources (land, people, infrastructure, natural environment, public investments)

- guiding the effects of development on peoples way of life, their culture and their community - providing opportunities for communities to participate and be represented in planning

processes

Depending on the scale, housing planning schemes should also be supported by a wide variety of issues needed to achieve the well-being of a community. Table 1 shows a selection of some valuable social features and their related issues, adjusted and expanded to support community development, when planning housing schemes in the Kwatta region.

Urban Sprawl

Quality of living

Income

Household structure

Infrastructure

Housing

Services

Recreation facilities

Community wellbeing

Residents satisfaction

Location influences

Accessibility

Security

Community relations

Healthy environment

Neighbourhood

perception

Ethnicity

Awareness

Involvement

Participa tion

Life style

Behavior

Protection

Preservation

COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT

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Table 1: Issues and related valuable features for achieving the wellbeing of a community (Adapted from RAPI, 2001)

Issues Valuable features

Economic development employment and income home based business skilled laborers

Housing cost and affordability household size government and private housing provision housing accessibility

Health medical services recreation facilities life styles

Built environment mixed land use traffic infrastructure public transportation and hub stations building density

Natural environment biodiversity and conservation waste management energy use potable water air quality

Safety perception of feeling safe traffic safety crime level

Social connectedness diversity and identity community strength

3.6 Urban Ecology First applied in sociology and planning, urban ecology is a constantly evolving discipline that integrates diverse professions concerned with the urban phenomenon and its social and ecological dynamics (Vega, 2011). Presently, urban ecology is a sub discipline of ecology, emerged in the 1970s, in response to growing awareness of human impact on the natural environment and the role of cities in this regard (Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online). Different scholars do agree that urban ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecological systems that aims to understand how human activities coexist with ecological processes, which in turn should help societies to become sustainable.

Urban ecological systems are positioned in the functioning of society with respect to the significance of people both as ecosystem drivers as well as integral parts of ecological systems (Marzluff et al, 2008 in Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online). Cities are the result of human activities over many years in a heterogeneous landscape and spatial diversity. In the urban ecology approach there is a growing awareness that the qualities of human practices and cultures are fundamental for sustainable management of ecosystems. Moreover, in urban planning it is becoming an essential

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need for managing at an ecosystem scale that is beyond traditional boundaries of a city, both with respect to biophysical and social aspects (Elmqvist et al, 2008, Rees 1997 in Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online). According to Niemal, maintenance of the biodiversity is an inherent property of well-functioning ecological systems at various spatial and temporal scales. The importance is protecting green areas as a vital part of nature conservation. Maintenance of diverse green environments is essential for the well-being of humans as well. (Vandruff et al, 1995 in Biodiversity and Conservation 8: 119-131, 1999. Evans (in Transaction of the Institute of British Geographers, Vol. 36, Issue 2, 2011) even suggested that solutions for current city problems are linked to the high diversity and density of the population living in the city with its unique ecological environment. Therefore, the city can function as practical knowledge center and as such hand decision makers and other integrated disciplines in urban planning new concepts, tools and institutions, which should help to establish a sustainable environment at the core of public interest.

Figure 12a: Urban Ecology Initiative 2000, Fact Sheet #12 3.7 Smart Growth In 1977, Governor Glendening of the State of Maryland (USA), launched the Smart Growth and Neighborhood Conservation Initiative; a progressive land use program built on the pillars of economic growth, resource protection and the Planning Act (NCSG University of Maryland, 2013). The primary goal was to limit the sprawling patterns of low density residential development and ribbon commercial development along main roads at the fringe of the city. A smart growth improvement would create efficient and high density mixed land-use patterns (Maryland Department of Planning, 1977).

Segregated land use as a result of urban sprawl has increased distances between destinations, which has led to car dependent communities that affect traffic safety, the quality of the air and the physical well-being of people. Currently public health and public safety have become important issues in urban planning. The smart growth approach emphasizes the concentration of people in

Socio economic drivers

(demographics, political institutions,

technology, and organizations) and

human preferences affect urban

patterns, which in turn are in charge

of ecological processes, which cause

ecological change that could

influence our social goals. New

research should address ecological

and social knowledge, which is

relevant to urban planners to make

strategic choices and address

priorities as well as their location.

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manageable bounded areas with mixed land use development and a wide range of public transit links and options. Within these areas zoning and civic engagement are the basis for developing healthy and livable communities in the cities.

The promotion of Smart Growth is a public-private approach to accommodate a variety of income groups in compact mixed-use settlements in such a manner that people can profit from economic growth, environmental protection, a healthy physical condition and public transportation (Daniels,2001). These principles contribute directly to the development of sustainable communities, which are good places to live, to do business, to work and to raise a family (Harris, 2013). According to Reeds (2013) urban areas work best when they are compact, with higher densities, lay-outs that prioritizes walking, cycling and public transport so that they become the norm to improve deplorable communities.

3.8 Assessment

Figure 12b: Relation scheme of the impact of Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl is a phenomenon that is visually present in the landscape of the Kwatta region. Low building density and monotonous residential development - compared with the urban core is manifested especially along the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the exit roads. The exit roads are separated by open spaces that vary in size. This so called leapfrog development has created an urban form that can be typified as a fishbone structure. According to Holcombes classification of sprawl, the Kwatta region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg can be classified both as a leapfrog and strip or ribbon development. Yet it can be stated that the degree of sprawl in the Kwatta region appears to be different in a linear pattern when calculating all buildings (not their size and quality) within equal surfaces in the total size of the research area. Although the mechanisms that cause the sprawl of Paramaribo are not yet well understood, it can be stated that land use patterns are not comprehensively. There is little variation in land use patterns that also underlies the concentration of a large service employment sector in the core of the city of Paramaribo.

urban sprawl

community wellbeing

urban ecology

land use

urban form

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I have constructed Figure 12b to demonstrate the impact of urban sprawl, which is commonly related to an uncoordinated urban growth with a number of adverse effects on the wellbeing of a community. Poor quality of public facilities and services are very often offered to people on parceled out natural land or land that was formally used for agricultural purposes. Expanding human requirements and economic activities over the years put an ever increasing pressure on the carrying capacity of the natural landscape, which in return create an unsustainable urban form. Land use change is the major drive behind the loss of urban ecological systems, which consequently impacts human health and the quality of living in a community.

Figure 12c: A possible calculation for Smart Growth

The development of human preferences and needs has created an urban lifestyle that asks for more space to accommodate human activities, and as such has an impact on the natural ecological processes of the urban environment. I have constructed Figure 12c in order to show how a smart growth effect can be achieved. Proper urban planning and management is needed to limit sprawl through higher building density, and simultaneously boost economic growth, while seriously taking into account the protection of the natural environment.

4. The role of government in planning and implementing housing scheme projects

The current Government role with respect to the location for the development of housing projects is very important, because the Government acts on different scales and in different ways, which ultimately influence locations for housing projects. There are several theories with respect to the location of settlements, in particular in predicting and understanding their development.

The location theory addresses the questions which economic activities are located where and why. The location of economic activities can be determined on different levels. In a broader approach such as a region or metropolitan area or on a narrow one such as a zone, neighborhood, city block, or an individual site (Encyclopedia Britannica).

Walter Christaller, a German geographer, has developed the Central Place Theory in 1933, based on studies in South Germany. His central question was: 'are there rules that determine the size, number and distributions of settlements? A Central Place is a settlement or a node that serves the area around it with goods and services of different orders (Center for Spatially Integrated Services). Christaller's model is a hierarchical organization of settlements, where the population size is not

Limitted sprawl creates

Higher building density

Economic growth and protection of

ecological systems

Smart Growth

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the determining factor for the economic power of the settlement, but the location of the settlement. The market principle of Christaller assumes that a minimum market is needed to accommodate new businesses and services, whereby people can make a median minimum distance to meet their needs. In his transportation model, he supposes that transport costs can be minimized when maximizing the connectivity of centers to be served. This theory is also relevant for sub urban housing and neighborhood development.

Many factors in housing development, such as the accessibility, the design, the location of the site in relation to the built-up core are directly related to public authorities. In Suriname, the Government has, in particular, influence on the site(s) through its regional planning policy.

In the State Decree of 10 October 1991 on the establishment and terms of reference of Departments and General Board (SB 1991 No. 58), modified in September 2005 (SB 2005 No. 94), the tasks of the Ministry of Public Works are described. For this research the following points are relevant: a. policy, planning and development of general structural engineering, civil engineering and

other infrastructure facilities in the public interest f. water management and drainage g. urban planning and urban development, some in collaboration with the relevant ministries i. the provision of research for the building industry and the monitoring of compliance with

the building Law j. technical reserves relating to the traffic on land and for public transport, as well as

supervision l. the garbage disposal and processing in Paramaribo

The Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest Management, mentioned in SB 2005 no 91 Article 7, paragraph 1, is responsible for the following: Sub l. Conservation of a balanced relationship between man and the surrounding nature and

achieving and protecting a durable, optimal living environment Sub m. Setting up and maintaining the necessary structures and organisations, in order to give

substance to the policy objectives for optimal living and work environment Sub n. Construction of parks and gardens Some special tasks of the Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest Management (ROGB), regarding this research, are selected for better understanding of the subject: a. a sound regional planning, in consultation with the ministries of Regional Development,

Planning and Development Cooperation 1, Public Works and Trade and Industry c. land use, where necessary interdepartmental f. control of legitimate and effective use of assigned land, where necessary

interdepartmental i. responsible nature management and nature protection The Ministry of Public Works has the most direct contact with the project developers, while the housing market is currently supervised by the Directorate of Construction Works and Services of this ministry. The latter also has the task to monitor compliance with the rules as laid down in the Building Law April 6th 1956 (GB 1956 No. 30), amended and supplemented by GB 1957 No. 30 and GB 1972 No. 96. Article 1a clearly indicates that building is only allowed if there is a permit issued

1 The Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation does not exist anymore, but the Planning Division is nowadays accommodated at the Ministry of Trade and Industry

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by the Director of the Ministry of Public Works. Article 3.1 states that a petition shall be filed in the request for development consent. According to article 4, a construction plan and building design are required when submitting the application. Finally, article 8 concludes that a penalty or a fine should be implemented when the conditions are not fulfilled.

The Ministry of Public Works coordinates building procedures for Suriname. At the moment authorization of allotment is required for Greater Paramaribo till the boundary with the district of Saramacca, measured up to 500 meters from the axis of the road on either side of the road. However, the Planning Division has limited competences and is not fully equipped for future sight oriented spatial planning. The consequence is that project developers and investment groups very often cause an inefficient land use. In addition, their projects not only lack information, but also the availability of needed energy and water resources, alternative housing concepts as well as measures to be taken to strengthen and expand existing infrastructure. Increasing demand of land for housing projects and the service sector has made the Kwatta region one of the most attractive areas to be developed. The existing pattern of the housing development in the Kwatta region has not only seriously reduced the available land for agriculture, but has weakened the living quality as well. Energy related problems and environmental degradation are already visible. Furthermore, as new settlements are not planned in a sustainable way, they put a huge stress on fuel consumption, traffic flow, maintenance costs for infrastructure and construction costs for water, electricity and communication. The physical-geographical structure of the inter-ridge depressions is seriously disturbed, whereby the natural drainage hardly functions, which in turn leads to flooding in the rainy season. In February 2012 the Ministry of Public Works started a pilot project for project developers. An investigation of the Planning Department showed that more than 90 % of the projects of project developers do not comply with the required conditions. The new authorization conditions are identical to the previous ones, but have an important clause that transfer in the name of the buyer is only possible if all the conditions, as set out in the permit, have been met. According to the acting under Director of the Planning Department of the Ministry of Public Works, the Urban Planning Law (1972) is clear on which measurements have to be taken when planning new housing projects. The problem, however, is that there are too few trained staff to monitor the implementation of projects. Often, monitoring is carried out by staff without any civilian technical background. There are two control moments:

1. Road profiles: a minimum of 15 meters road width is required, of which 5.5 meter

for the road, 2 x 2.5 meters for drainage on both sides of the road and 4.5 meters

for sidewalks on both sides of the road. Actually these figures can differ, depending

on the character and location of the housing project.

2. It is required that the road surface is hardened, but this does not apply to the

footpaths. Parceling out according to the construction plan, the infrastructure for

water and electricity and drainage

Parcelling out, according to the Urban Planning Law of 1972, is more than just dividing the terrain into sections. A subdivision plan is needed for the transformation of an open or natural land into a residential location: an attractive residential environment with room for different living forms. A subdivision plan should include all technical requirements, which are indicated by the Ministry of Public Works. According to the parcel license Article II. 1 lots also should be reserved for shops

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and social facilities. Basically, a subdivision plan is also a zoning plan, which clearly indicates how the area will be organized. The current regulations insufficiently take into account the creation of an integrated living area, where the future residents are assured of a safe and pleasant home-work area, which is in balance with the ecological carrying capacity of that area. According to modern urban planning views it is recommended to include the following aspects in the authorization documentation:

the condition of the roads and maintenance strips to be transferred to the State the correct ratio of the lots for houses, shops and social security conditions for the ground preparation systems for drainage and sewerage the street naming

4.1 Assessment In general, the project developer does not comply with the submitted plan, but is able to avoid sanctions, because the mechanisms to monitor the implementation of development plans are not working properly. The flaws in the permit condition offer opportunities for speculation, which is not only to the detriment of the buyers, but also obstructs a sustainable developed residential area. Deficits in the development and implementation of spatial development plans and the lack of relevant competences, when it comes to new forms of spatial planning, have led to poorly developed neighbourhoods in the research area. Based on the above discussions and findings, I have constructed a planning framework (see page 25), which can be helpful to set out strategies for land use and housing in Greater Paramaribo. The framework shows the current situation and deficits within the different categories that are related to urban planning. The main objective is to reorganize existing settlement patterns, which should contribute to sustainable neighbourhoods through an integrated spatial planning framework.

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FRAMEWORK FOR LAND USE AND HOUSING IN THE KWATTA REGION

SUBJECT POLICY LAWS PLANS TOOLS AND MECHANISMS STANDARDS URBAN SPRAWL

Urban form and structure Built and natural

environment Leapfrog and

ribbon development

Land-use segregation

Street lay-out

Roadway to Kwatta main transportation line

Exit roads; hardly interconnected

Buildings

Single housing Commercial Services

Morphology

Abandoned and transformed agricultural land

Primary and secondary natural vegetation

Ridges and inter-depressions with swamp vegetation

Mangrove along coast line

Existing Investment in social housing to

address squatting and housing shortage

Allocation of public land for housing schemes

Eased regulations on applying for government land

Attractive bank loans for construction of housing

Financial support for low and middle incomes to build or rehabilitate their house

Upgrading agriculture productivity by stimulating horticulture

Rehabilitation of traffic infrastructure

Existing Urban Planning

Law Planning Law Building Law Monumental Law Expropriation Law Tax Law on

Vehicles

Existing National Development

Program 2012-2016 Housing Plan 2012-2017 Upgrading electricity network

in Greater Paramaribo Expanding local power

stations Expanding power capacity of

Staatsolie n.v. Feasibility study on non-fossil

fuel Local systems for efficient

distribution of potable water Expanding

telecommunication networks Building of VOJ and VOS

education facilities Expanding of existing ring-

road Guide for Subdivision Plans

(OW)

Existing Energy Company Suriname Water Distribution Company Research Department of the

University of Suriname Geographical Land

Information System (GLIS) Department of Spatial

Organization (ROGB) Planning Department (OW) Housing Department

(SoZaVo) Directorship Green Providing Land allocation department

(ROGB) Stichting Plan Bureau Stichting Volkshuisvesting Project developers Building materials

companys Road Authority Organization of Bus Drivers

for Public Transport Community programmers

and organizations

Existing Electricity installation

prescriptions Minimum size of parcels and

roads Distance to the building line Progressive electricity tariff

system for households and commercials

Quality management of potable water

Waste collection system

Not existing

Maintaining and management of urban expansion

Protection of vulnerable land Time framework to manage the

ongoing process and goals PPP- coordination Admittance to develop private

land for public benefits Coordination between private

land developers and government Coordination between key

persons on ministries regarding the urban planning

Classification of roads for mapping interconnections to battle traffic congestion

Adequate financial plan to exploit international funding

Not existing

Zoning Law Law on building

regulations in the coastal zone of Paramaribo

Law on developing residential areas

Law on apartments

Realization and implementation of many of the approved laws on building procedures

Not existing

Multiple level buildings with mixed use in the inner-city to encourage walking and biking

Apartments for housing to accommodate multiple household compositions and to lower infrastructure costs

Green planting in communities to absorb and reflect sunrays

Studies on rehabilitation of abandoned agriculture land

Modern mass public transportation and transits

Community Based Organizations

Not existing

City Management Authority Land use and urban planning

authority Energy and potable water

authority Awareness programs to

reduce energy consumption

Not existing

Prescriptions for the lay-out of residential communities

House rent regulations Advanced standards for road

designing Standards for public space and

recreation Urban grid model to plan energy

and potable water provision and distribution

Separated garbage disposal and waste treatment plant Regulations to protect vulnerable natural land

Standards for mixed land use and compact building

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5. Results of field research 5.1 Characteristics of the Kwatta Neighbourhood 5.1.1 Introduction According to Oudschans Dentz (1944), historically the Kwatta Region was first settled as a plantation in 1770 and takes its name from the Kwatta monkey living in that area. One year after the abolition of slavery, in 1864, this region became a private cacao plantation that belonged to the family Van Emden. In 1919 the Middenpad naar Kwatta was bought by H.J. Fernandes, who also played a major role in the construction of Weg naar Zee. By resolution of December the 1st 1921 no. 4049 the Government obtained the Middenpad, adjacent trenches and construction works from the Tweede Rijweg till the Garnizoenspad. This road was meant to function as a public road (Article in Newspaper after 1960; date unknown). Until the 1920s this region was to some extent isolated from the city center, but during the last century it became one of the most well-known settlements where contract laborers, the Hindustanis, who had left the plantation agriculture, and afterwards their descendants, have worked for more than 100 years in the food supply of a large part of the city population. The Kwatta Region became a food stock of the City of Paramaribo and still plays that important role. Farmers are organized in a cooperation and supported in the use of the horticulture technology and awareness by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery.

Figure 13: The Kwatta Region at the fringe of the city center During the fifties of the last century, the city population of Paramaribo started growing very fast through a natural increase and the in-migration of people from rural areas in search of better work and secondary education. The rural lifestyle at the outskirt of the city, based on agriculture and cattle breeding, came increasingly under pressure over the years. Paramaribo started to expand beyond its borders and this resulted in the shift of agricultural and natural lands into the

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development of urban land. This expansion of Paramaribo started as a ribbon development along roads connected to the city center such as Grote and Kleine Combweg, Anton Dragtenweg, Tourtonnelaan and Anamoestraat (North), van t Hogerhuysstraat and Pad van Wanica (South) and Commissaris Weythingweg and the Rijweg naar Kwatta (West). Since the fifties of the last century, the government took it as its responsibility, at least to some extent, to provide housing for low-income and middle income households. During that time, according to the Planning Law of 1972, the Planning Department of the Ministry of Public Affairs played a great role in the urban development of Paramaribo. However, since the end of the 20th century Paramaribo has been influenced in particular by growth patterns led by private property developers. Their ideas about allotment of wasteland were exclusively focused on single family housing and hardly on a well thought out plan, in which a living-core also provides enough space for accommodation of businesses and services. This outdated way of parceling out land, risen along newly built roads of the Kwattaweg, has significantly increased the traffic pressure on this road. The Kwattaweg nowadays, during many hours of the day, is a congested road, which has radically increased the per person travelling time (see Picture 2 and 3)

Figure 14: Congestion on de Rijweg naar Kwatta Figure 15: Cars on the Rijweg naar Kwatta near the Tweede Rijweg Based on the data of the 7th public and housing census carried out in 2004, the ABS made projections for the number of households and housing in Suriname for the years 2009, 2014, 2019 and 2024 with both a low and high variant. (see Table 2 and 3). The census also investigated the size of the households. In total 123.463 households were counted with a national average size of 4 persons per household. From all the households:

20% consisted of 6 and more persons, and were living in Paramaribo and the Wanica District most of the one-person households lived in Paramaribo 81% were connected to the electricity network of EBS and 56% to the water supply system

of SWM

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Table 2: Total of projected households

Year

Total of projected households

Low High Average

2009 134,284 144,595 139,440

2014 145,301 166,263 155,782

2019 157,016 188,661 172,839

2024 168,900 211,125 190,013

Table 3: Total of projected housing

Year Total of projected housing

Low High Average

2009 130,688 140,723 135,706

2014 141,410 161,811 151,611

2019 152,811 183,610 168,211

2024 164,377 205,472 184,925

Source: ABS 2008/2010 Geographically, the Kwatta Region is a uniformity based on the landscape evolution, sediments and bio-diversity. Like most of the new residential areas of the last decades, the Kwatta Region has been developed in the fringe with a very low building density, a mono-functional housing character, by which the inhabitants of those projects were increasingly dependent on the city centre. The neighbourhoods along the exit roads on the north and south side of the Rijweg naar Kwatta are more or less independent from each other, and also differ in size from each other: the largest neighbourhoods have more than 80 households, while the smallest ones less than 10. In fact, the size and design of the neighbourhoods, consisting of a mix of parcels and building sizes, is determined by the street pattern. The spatial organization does differ from other comparable neighbourhoods, for example compared to the southern part of the city centre, where main services such as water, electricity and front door waste collection are lacking in many small projects and dwellings are often poorly maintained. 5.1.2. Objectives The research area is very spacious. The road length between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg extends for a distance of about 3 km, while the maximum length of an exit road to the North is about 0.8 km and that in the southern direction comes on the Sophias Lustweg with a length of 0.9 km. The surface of the research area brings us to a total of 3 km x (0.8 + 0.9) km = 5.1 km. The research activities, in which two students of the geography department of the Advanced Teachers Training Institute (IOL) have given their unconditional cooperation, has gone smoothly. The purpose of the study was discussed at length with the individual residents, who were all willing to cooperate in the research. In total 100 households have completed the questionnaire in a face to face conversation. In addition extensive discussions were held with six people about their knowledge and findings of their residential area.

The report Housing plan 2012-2017 made an extrapolation of the ABS data and concluded that by the year 2024, an average of 184.925 accommodations will be needed. To meet this need, some 2,200-4,400 houses will need to be built on an annual basis. This figure does not include the overpopulated houses and existing shortage of 2004. The report emphasizes the reduction in demand, although the housing production, due to the low implementation capacity, runs far behind the need. Of the total housing stock 48% is located in Paramaribo and only 17% in the Wanica District. With respect to maintenance, 15-20% of the houses were in poor condition, while 40-50% were well maintained. Overdue maintenance of older homes leads to a steady deterioration and dilapidation, which occurs more frequently in certain older residential areas in Paramaribo, such as Abra Broki, Frimangron and Comb.

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This research has focused on some specific features characterizing the neighbourhoods of the Kwatta Region between the Third and Fourth Roadway, whereby three main subjects: population, accessibility and living conditions have been distinguished. Those three features will be considered only when drawing conclusions at the end of the discussion of the results derived from the survey. 5.2 Population The research findings indicate that people from different incomes, age, ethnic groups, professions and ways of life meet in the different parts of the Kwatta Region, along the exit roads, where open land has been parceled out by different project developers. People who bought a parcel were free to build a house as a safe harbor and to fulfill their family desires. People have made a conscious choice to migrate to the Kwatta region to build a better living. The choice for migration was mainly based on the desire for independent living (37%) and moving from house renting (33%), which underpin the need for having an own house. Other reasons which were mentioned are marriage, family gift and family support, close to work and family relations. As to future living in this area, 25% of the respondents are not convinced that this area is their final destination. This is linked to uncertainty for those who are not the owner of the house and desire to have an own parcel and house. Buildings of different ages, conditions, construction materials and sizes typify the neighborhoods in the Kwatta Region. Based on the differentiation in housing characteristics, it is clear that the Kwatta Region does not show significant signs of decay. Most of the houses are built in concrete and have one floor. It is clear that land use in the exit roads is mainly used for residential purposes as people work and shop in other areas. Living Space

Figure 16: Percentage dwelling surface per household in m It is calculated that the overall total average per dwelling surface is about 103m. However 67% of the houses have a dwelling surface of 100m. This average may be compared with the minimum size of 100m that is standard for the affluent neighborhoods such as de Morgenstond. So, the largest part (67%) of the dwellings has a surface that is less than the minimum that is applied in the

> 80 80- 100 101-150 < 150

32 35

24

9

percentage of dwelling surface in m per

household

150

An analysis of the data of the dwelling surface as presented in figure 16 and table 4 gives a view of the average space that is available for one person to live. The so called living space or floor area per person is defined as the median floor area (in m) of a shelter divided by the household size (UN (1996) Indicators of Sustainable Development: Framework and Mythologies). Hence, the smaller the dwelling combined with a bigger household, the lower the per person living space.

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affluent neighborhoods. With an average household size of 3.7 persons, the average floor area per person is 27.8 m (see Table 4). Table 4: Housing surface and household size related to per person living space In the Kwatta Region the average household size does not differ for the categories 80 m, 81-100 m and 101-150 m, but is higher for the category >150 m, where it is 4.1. Still it can be concluded that these dwellings have by far more living space per person (67.8m). Hence, the smaller the size of the dwelling combined with a large household size, the lower the living space per person. Worldwide, the differences between the More Developed Regions with those of regions in Asia /Oceania and Africa are obviously huge (see Figure 17). The figures of the Kwatta Region indicate that the average living space per person clearly matches with an overall average of the More Developed Regions (see Figure 17).

Figure 17: Floor area per person by country ranking and region Source:UNCHS/World Bank (1996) In an article in the New York Times Living with less (March 2013) Graham Hill has suggested a needed average of 39 m living space per person, based upon his life experience to manage a space in an effective way. The cost for living should be significantly lower and people can be encouraged to live with less to lower their footprint on the available natural resources. According to the view of Graham Hill the average of 27.81 m living space per person in the Kwatta region would be a sign of

Household size 80 m 81-100 m 101-150 m

>150 m

Sum Average

Total of households 41 26 25 8 100

Total of housing surface in m

2605 2463 2984 2236 10288 102.88

Total of household members

150 96 90 33 370 3.70

Living space per person in m

17.37 25.66 33.16 67.76 27.81

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overpopulated houses. For the houses with a dwelling surface of 80 m the situation is clearly worse (see Table 4) Table 5: Household size according to district

District Average household size

Paramaribo 4.01 Wanica 4.08 Nickerie 3.81 Coronie 3.08 Saramacca 3.70 Commewijne 3.84 Marowijne 4.16 Para Brokopondo Sipaliwini Average

4.24 3.79 3.44 3.94

Source: ABS 2013 Table 6: Place of origin of households

Region Total

Parbo Center 21 Parbo North 1 Parbo South 11 Parbo West 3 Kwatta 35 Saramacca 14 Nickerie Wanica

2 4

Commewijne Para Marowijne Permanent Living Foreign country Overall total

2 1 1 1 4 100

People have come from different neighbourhoods to start a living in the Kwatta Region. Most of the households have migrated over a relatively short distance, coming from the Kwatta Region itself. Besides the price in relation to the quality, the choice was also based on the familiarity with the neighbourhood. 32% of the respondents have migrated from Paramaribo Centre and South, which can be considered that people have seized the opportunity for having an own house and living independently. There is also a distinctive rural-urban migration from the adjacent district of Saramacca.

The question is how much living space does a person need? Ideas and guidelines strongly differ from country to country. There are all sorts of reasons for these differences, for example: land access, wealth level and climate. Fact is that modern life styles have significantly increased the needed living space per person over the years, while the average household size is decreasing. This also applies to Suriname where the average household size is 4 persons (see Table 5)

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Age, Education and Occupation

Figure 18: Absolute age composition according