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U.S. Department of Energy, Vehicle Technologies Program, Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity (AVTA) British Columbia PHEV Demonstration Workshop – AVTA’s PHEV Testing and Demonstration Activities Jim Francfort BC Hydro and Powertech Labs Vancouver, British Columbia. October 2008 This presentation does not contain any proprietary or sensitive information

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U.S. Department of Energy,Vehicle Technologies Program, Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity (AVTA)

British Columbia PHEV Demonstration Workshop – AVTA’s PHEV Testing and Demonstration Activities

Jim FrancfortBC Hydro and Powertech LabsVancouver, British Columbia. October 2008

This presentation does not contain any proprietary or sensitive information

2

AVTA Background and Goals• The Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity (AVTA) is part of

DOE’s Vehicle Technologies Program. The AVTA mission is to support DOE’s strategic goal to reduce the nation’s dependence on foreign oil

• The Idaho National Laboratory (INL) and Electric Transportation Engineering Corporation (ETEC) conduct the AVTA. Argonne National Laboratory performs dynamometer testing

• INL is a 890 square mile eastern Idaho based DOE multi-program laboratory with 3,600 staff

• The AVTA goals: – Provide benchmark data to technology modelers,

research and development programs, vehicle manufacturers (via VSATT), and target and goal setters

– Assist fleet managers in making informed vehicle purchase, deployment and operating decisions

3

AVTA Testing History• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV)

– 9 models, ~75 vehicles• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)

– 14 models, 4 million test miles• Hydrogen ICE (internal combustion engine) vehicles

– 7 models, 400,000 test miles• Full-size electric vehicles

– 40 EV models, 5+ million test miles• Neighborhood electric vehicles

– 16 models, 200,000 test miles• Urban electric vehicles

– 3 models, 1 million test miles

4

PHEV Questions • Are PHEVs technically and economically feasible as a

transportation option?• What are the petroleum savings and electricity demands?• Will fleets and the public adapt to plugging in (charging)

PHEVs to maximize mpg?• Is a two-fuel scenario a difficult transition?• What are the charging infrastructure needs, including

110V versus 220V? Fast charging?• V2Grid – economic benefit or liability to the vehicle

operator?

• To answer these questions, the AVTA is testing and field demonstrating nine different PHEV models and charging infrastructure

5

9 PHEVs Models in Testing/Demonstrations • Hymotion Prius • Hymotion Escape• EnergyCS Prius• Electrovaya Escape• Hybrids Plus Escape• Hybrids Plus Prius• Manzanita Prius (lead acid)• Ford Escape• Renault Kangoo (NiCad)• (Vehicles equipped with

lithium traction batteries unless noted)

6

PHEV Testing Objectives• Perform independent testing of PHEVs, using:

– Baseline performance testing – closed test tracks and dynamometers

– Accelerated testing – dedicated drivers operating on defined onroad loops

– Fleet testing – everyday unstructured use, with onboard data loggers

• Document battery life, charging patterns and demand profiles

• Document vehicle operations, fuel use (both gasoline and electricity) and infrastructure requirements (110 versus 220, offpeak and V2Grid charging)

• Document driver influences on fuel use• Document PHEV life-cycle costs

7

PHEV Baseline Performance Testing• ETEC conducts initial track testing near Phoenix, AZ

– Includes coastdown (determination of dynamometer coefficients), acceleration, top speed, braking, charging, and durability testing

• Argonne 5-day dynamometer testing regime includes: – Charge depleting and sustaining test cycles, as well

as hot and cold starts– At least 26 UDDS (Urban Dynamometer Driving

Schedule) and HWFEDS (Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule) dynamometer test cycles

8

• 5 kWh A123Systems (Li) V1 and Prius packs (AC kWh)Hymotion Prius – UDDS Fuel Use

Hymotion PHEV Prius MPG & kWh - UDDS Testing

01020

30405060

708090

100110

120130140150

160170180

7 15 22 30 37 45 52 60 67 75 82 90 97 105 112 119 127 134 142

MPG

0.00.51.0

1.52.02.53.0

3.54.04.55.05.5

6.06.57.07.5

8.08.59.0

Each Bar - 1 UDDS Test Cycle, Labeled by Cumulative Miles

kWh

MPG per UDDS Test Cumulative AC kWh Cumulative MPG

9

Hymotion Prius – HWFETS Fuel Use• 5 kWh A123Systems (Li) V1 and Prius packs (AC kWh)

Hymotion PHEV Prius MPG & kWh - HWFET Testing

0102030405060708090

100110120130140150160170180

10 21 31 41 51 62 72 82 92 103 113 123 133 144 154

MPG

0.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.55.05.56.06.57.07.58.08.59.0

Each Bar - 1 HWFET Test Cycle, Labeled by Cumulative Miles

kWh

MPG per FWHET Test Cumulative MPG Cumulative AC kWh

10

• 9 kWh Valence (Li) pack only (AC kWh)EnergyCS Prius – UDDS Fuel Use

EnergyCS PHEV Prius MPG & kWh - UDDS Testing

0

1020

30

4050

60

7080

90

100110

120

130140

150

160170

180

7 15 22 30 37 45 52 60 67 75 82 90 97 105 112 120 127 135 142 150

Each Bar = 1 UDDS Test Cycle. Labeled by Cumulative Miles

MP

G

0

0.51

1.5

22.5

3

3.54

4.5

55.5

6

6.57

7.5

88.5

9

kWh

Drive Cycle MPG Cumulative AC kWh Cumulative MPG

11

• 9 kWh Valence (Li) pack only (AC kWh)EnergyCS Prius – HWFETS Fuel Use

EnergyCS PHEV Prius MPG & kWh - HWFET Testing

0

1020

3040

50

6070

8090

100

110120

130

140150

160170

180

10 21 31 41 51 62 72 82 92 103 113 123 133 144 154

Each Bar = 1 HWFET Test Cycle. Labeled by Cumulative Miles

MPG

0

0.51

1.52

2.5

33.5

44.5

5

5.56

6.5

77.5

88.5

9

kWh

Drive Cycle MPG Cumulative AC kWh Cumulative MPG

12

Hymotion Escape – UDDS Fuel Use• 8.5 kWh A123Systems (Li) and Escape packs (AC kWh)

Hymotion PHEV Escape MPG & kWh - UDDS Testing

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

7 15 22 30 37 45 52 60 67 75 82 90 97 105 112 120 127 135 142

Each Bar = 1 UDDS Test Cycle. Labeled by Cumulative Miles

MP

G

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

kWh

Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Cumulative AC kWhrs Cumulative Fuel Economy

13

Hymotion Escape – HWFETS Fuel Use• 8.5 kWh A123Systems (Li) and Escape packs (AC kWh)

Hymotion PHEV Escape MPG & kWh - HWFET Testing

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

10 21 31 41 51 62 72 82 92 103 113 123 133 144 154

Each Bar = 1 HWFET Test Cycle. Labeled by Cumulative Miles

MPG

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

kWh

Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Cumulative AC kWhrs Cumulative Fuel Economy

14

• 12 kWh Electrovaya (Li) and Escape packs (AC kWh)Electrovaya Escape – UDDS Fuel Use

Electrovaya PHEV Escape MPG & kWh - UDDS Testing

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

7 15 22 30 37 45 52 60 67 75 82 90 97 105 112 120 127 135 142

Each Bar = 1 UDDS Test Cycle. Labeled by Cumulative Miles

MPG

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

kWh

MPG per UDDS Test Cumulative AC kWh Cumulative UDDS MPG

15

• 12 kWh Electrovaya (Li) and Escape packs – (AC kWh)Electrovaya Escape – HWFETS Fuel Use

Electrovaya PHEV Escape MPG & kWh - HWFET Testing

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

37 42 41 35 33 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

Each Bar = 1 HWFET Test Cycle. Labeled by Cumulative Miles

MPG

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

kWh

MPG per HWFET Cumulative AC kWh Cumulative HWFET MPG

16

Renault Kangoo Test Results• First OEM series PHEV with 9.6 kWh (usable) Saft NiCad

pack and 650cc gasoline engine

40.90.042Battery and Gas Hot HWFETS

0.271Battery Only @ Constant 45 mpg

0.110

0.144

0.155

0.268

AC kWh per Mile

39.4Battery and Gas Hot UDDS

42.3Battery and Gas Cold UDDS

Battery Only - HWFETS

Battery Only – UDDS

Miles per GallonTest Cycle

17

PHEV Accelerated Testing• Accelerated testing in Phoenix over 5,440 miles• GPS units track distance, average and maximum speeds

188.357%43%Average5,4401621,3443,1002,340Total

11%2%60031218220011%4%6006128210012%5%640812628011%6%6001012426011%9%6001512404011%9%6001512224011%9%6001512044011%19%600308112011%37%6006040110(%)(%)(mi)(N)(hr)(10 mi)(10 mi)(mi)

MilesRepsTotalRepsChargeHighwayUrbanCycle

18

Hymotion Prius – Accelerated Testing

101.1 6.0584.1060015120440

127.24.81

79.5 Weighted Average5,440167140431002540Total54.811.0215.060031218220073.28.4335.986006128210058.311.3643.99640812628068.98.9855.336001012426073.18.5479.8260015124040

106.95.7887.2260015122240

115.9 5.37122.026003081120136.336006040110

MPGGalsAC kWh(mi)(N)(hr)(10 mi)(10 mi)(mi)GasolineElectricityTotalRepsChargeHighwayUrbanCycle

Each total distance slightly greater than 600 and 640 miles. HEV version = 44 mpg

19

EnergyCS Prius – Accelerated Testing

42.714.2925.00600*15120440

128.14.78115.586006040110

Weighted Average484014798425002340Total57.810.4612.9860031218220070.88.8122.676006128210065.810.0939.046408126280

103.75.9065.006001012426055.511.3632.44600*5124040

Testing600*5122240

77.9 7.95 86.216003081120

MPGGalskWh(mi)(N)(hr)(10 mi)(10 mi)(mi)

GasolineElectricityTotalRepsChargeHighwayUrbanCycle

*Software updated and cells replaced. Rerun. Each total distance slightly greater than 600 miles. HEV version = 44 mpg

20

* Testing ended when gasoline engine and inverter failed. Each total distance slightly greater than 600 miles.

Renault Kangoo – Accelerated Testing

Deleted*Deleted*

44.6257.9628.6033.2235.18

131.96

359.60

AC kWh

Electricity

05.62005120440

0

3,04012387614801560Total60031218220060061282100

38.616.614.4640812628045.113.310.460010124260

07.0200512404006.02005122240

04.66003081120

1.76006040110

MPGGalsMi/kWh(mi)(N)(hr)(10 mi)(10 mi)(mi)

GasolineTotalRepsChargeHighwayUrbanCycle

21

Hymotion Escape – Accelerated Testing

38.715.99

45.3

41.114.9157.5160015120440

Weighted Average5440162134431002340Total33.517.7226.0960031218220039.815.6958.646006128210041.316.0577.696408126280

13.7097.186001012426051.511.92114.1460015124040

76.2960015122240

45.713.51163.296003081120Testing6006040110

MPGGalsAC kWh(mi)(N)(hr)(10 mi)(10 mi)(mi)GasolineElectricityTotalRepsChargeHighwayUrbanCycle

Each total distance slightly greater than 600 miles. HEV version = 27 mpg

22

Electrovaya Escape – Accelerated Testing

43.137.316.4271.360015120440

Weighted Average5440162134431002340Total600312182200

29.221.1720.856006128210040.816.3042.72640812628037.316.6444.796001012426029.820.7355.8460015124040

14.3469.860015122240

60030811206006040110

MPGGalsAC kWh(mi)(N)(hr)(10 mi)(10 mi)(mi)GasolineElectricityTotalRepsChargeHighwayUrbanCycle

Each total distance slightly greater than 600 miles. HEV version = 27 mpg

23

Hymotion Prius – Fuel Costs

Hymotion PHEV Prius UDDS & HWFEDS Fuel Cost per Mile

$0.000

$0.005$0.010

$0.015

$0.020$0.025

$0.030$0.035

$0.040

$0.045$0.050

$0.055

$0.060$0.065

$0.070

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Each data point labeled by HWFEDS and UDDS tests, uneven miles. Gas $4.00 gallon & kWh $0.10

Fuel

Cos

t per

Mile

HYM UDDS $ per Mile Gas

HYM UDDS $ per Mile kWh

HYM HWY $ per Mile Gas

HYM HWY $ per Mile kWh

HYM Prius UDDS Combined $$ PER MILE

HYM Prius HWY Combined $$ PER MILE

24

PHEV Vs. HEV and ICE Fuel Costs per MilePHEVs, HEV & ICEs - Fuel Costs per Mile

$0.03$0.04$0.05$0.06$0.07$0.08$0.09$0.10$0.11$0.12$0.13$0.14$0.15$0.16$0.17$0.18$0.19$0.20$0.21

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20Each data point labeled by HWFEDS and UDDS Tests, Uneven Miles. Gas $4.00 gallon & kWh $0.10

Fuel

Cos

t per

Mile

ECS UDDS Combined $$ PER MILEECS HWY Combined $$ PER MILEHYM Prius UDDS Combined $$ PER MILEHYM Prius HWY Combined $$ PER MILEHEV Prius 45 MPGICE Gas 30 MPGICE Gas 20 MPGECS Prius Accelerated TestingHYM Escape UDDS Combined $$ PER MILEHYM Escape HWY Combined $$ PER MILEHYM Prius Accelerated TestingEltro UDDS Combined $$ PER MILEEltro HWY Combined $$ PER MILE

25

Onroad Demonstration and Data Collection Partners• ~75 Testing partners in the U.S. and Canada, including:

– 36 Electric utilities (some via NRECA)– 6 City governments– 2 County governments– 2 State governments– 8 Universities and colleges– 2 Clean air agencies– 7 Private companies and advocacy organizations– 3 Governments of Canadian provinces– 2 Sea ports and U.S. military organizations– 2 PHEV conversion companies

26

14+13? - Canada

2

16+211

11

6

11+2

2

6

1+3

37

3

2 5+20?

195 w/data loggers32 adding CY0833? In discussion127 Total end of CY08

PHEVs and Demonstration Locations

1

1

27

Hymotion Joint Data Collection• Kvaser data loggers installed 50 PHEVs North America• Onboard data includes vehicle performance, fuel use,

and charging and driving profiles• Participants include electric utilities, water agencies,

universities, county and provincial governments:– Northeast: Vermont, New Hampshire, New York – East / South East: Toronto, Virginia, South Carolina,

North Carolina, Kentucky, Florida – North / Central: Wisconsin, North Dakota, Indiana,

Manitoba– Southwest: Arizona, Texas– West Coast: California, Oregon

• Started 2007

28

Single Hymotion Prius Charging Profiles• 3 months, 2212 miles, 35 charges

Time at start of charging

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 - <

2

2 - <

4

4 - <

6

6 - <

8

8 - <

10

10 -

<12

12 -

<14

14 -

<16

16 -

<18

18 -

<20

20 -

<22

22 -

<24

Time

# of

cha

rgin

g ev

ents

AC energy in per charging event (kWh)

0123456789

0.5 1

1.5 2

2.5 3

3.5 4

4.5 5

Mor

e

Kilowatt Hours

# of

cha

rgin

g ev

ents

Length of charging time per charging event

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 MoreHours

# of

cha

rgin

g ev

ents

29

Single Hymotion Prius Charging Profiles

Plug-in battery SOC after charging

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100SOC%

# of

cha

rgin

g ev

ents

Number of trips since last charging event

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 MoreTrips since last charging event

Freq

uenc

y

Plug-in battery SOC prior to charging

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100SOC %

# of

cha

rgin

g ev

ents

Total distance since last charging event (mi)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120MoreMiles

# of

cha

rgin

g ev

ents

• 3 months, 2212 miles, 35 charges

30

26 Hymotion Prius - January thru May 2008• Below averages do NOT tell the whole PHEV energy-

use potential – see following slides

48

40

49

59

Miles per Gallon

42,000

16,059

11,121

14,820

Distance Traveled (Miles)

1,358Charge Sustaining (CS)

4,835

404

3,073

Number of Trips

All trips combined

Mixed CD / CS

Charge Depleting (CD)

Charge / Operating Mode

31

13 Hymotion Prius in May 2008 - MPG• Below averages do NOT tell the whole PHEV energy

use potential – see following slides

55.9

40.2

52.1

72.0

MPG

8.1

7.0

0.9

10.6

27.5

5.3

Average Trip Distance (miles)

6,291

6,417

127

1,411

1,840

3,040

Total Distance (Miles)

775CD, CS, CD/CS results (excludes EV results)

133Charge Sustaining (CS)

912

137

67

575

Number of Trips

Total

0.236Electric vehicle only (EV)

0.050Mixed CD / CS

0.138Charge Depleting (CD)

DC kWh per MileCharge / Operating Mode

32

13 Hymotion Prius MPG Vs. Speed

Trip Fuel Economy vs. Trip Average Speed - May 2008

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Trip Average Speed (mph)

Trip

Fue

l Eco

nom

y (m

pg)

CD tripsCD/CS tripsCS trips

33

13 Hymotion Prius MPG Vs. Distance

Trip Fuel Economy vs. Trip Distance

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Trip Distance (mi)

Trip

Fue

l Eco

nom

y (m

pg)

CD tripsCD/CS tripsCS trips

34

13 Hymotion Prius and Aggressive DrivingMPG vs. Trip Aggressiveness (Percent of time above the 40% accelerator pedal position)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300

Trip Fuel Economy (mpg)

Agg

ress

iven

ess

Fact

or

CD tripsCD/CS tripsCS tripsLog. (CD trips)Log. (CD/CS trips)

35

NYSERDA Testing Partnership

OngoingOngoingHybridsPlus Escape

OngoingOngoingElectovaya Escape

OngoingCompletedHymotion Escape

CompletedCompletedHymotion Prius

Near completion, restartedCompletedEnergyCS Prius

Accelerated TestingBaseline TestingModel

• AVTA is testing New York State Energy Research and Development Agency’s PHEV conversions, stated 2007

• Fleet testing of ~20 PHEVs later CY08

36

EnergyCS Prius Data Collection• Provided AVTA onboard data for 12 vehicles operating

in fleets in the U.S. and Canada • Going forward, EnergyCS is using lithium batteries from

various manufacturers• ~ 30 vehicles deployed (~15 North America and ~15

Europe)

37

Seattle Area Demonstration • 13 Hymotion Prius operations in partnership with:

– City of Seattle (4)– King County (4)– Port of Seattle (2)– Puget Sound Clean Air Agency (3)– Started 4/2008, nine vehicles converted to date,

remainder October 2008• City of Seattle lead time-of-day charging demonstration

on above 13 Seattle area PHEVs. Includes INL battery impact analysis. Uses V2Green wireless charging control

• These and all future demonstrations are using V2Green onboard data loggers with cellular data transfer and GPS

38

Tacoma Power Demonstration • Vehicle demonstration using

– 2 Manzanita lead acid Prius, 1st quarter 2008– 2 Hymotion Prius adding late 2008

• Charging infrastructure study – After 4 PHEVs in operation, collect data on one

section of administration building (800 amp, 480 volt, 3 phase load) and PHEV charging infrastructure

– Document demand and energy profiles of PHEV charging as portion of facility profiles

– WiFi local energy meter (LEM) data collection system

39

Fleet Demonstration Partners – cont’d• Washington State-wide, Port of Chelan leading, with 14

Hymotion Prius with:– Benton County PUD, Chelan County Public Works,

City of Wenatchee, Douglas County PUD, Energy Northwest, Green IT Alliance, McKinstry, Port of Chelan, University of Washington, Walla Walla Community College and Wenatchee Valley College

– Started 4/2008, 1 converted to date, more Oct. 2008• University of California Davis, with 13 Hymotion Prius

– Up to 70 AAA of California public drivers will each operate a vehicle for ~2 months

– First study of public use of PHEVs, charging practices and locations, started April 2008

– 13 vehicles recently completed conversions

40

Fleet Demonstration Partners – cont’d• National Rural Electric Cooperative Association

– Total of ten Prius and Escape PHEVs from Hymotion, EnergyCS, and Hybrids Plus operated by rural electric coop utilities, 6 converted to date, started 2007

– Includes: Jackson Electric Membership Coop (GA), Salem Electric (OR), Four County Electric Membership Corp. (NC), Central Electric Power Coop (SC), Great River Electric (MN), and Buckeye Rural Electric Coop (OH)

• Hawaii, with 6 Hymotion Prius on Maui and Oahu – State of Hawaii, University of Hawaii, Hawaiian

Electric Company, Maui Electric Company, Maui County, U.S. Air Force

– Planned start 11/2008

41

Other PHEV Testing• Hymotion/A123Systems V2 Prius battery hot weather

vehicle/battery testing, summer 2008• PHEV charging studies at three commercial facilities

(Tacoma Power is one). Started 5/2008• Bidirectional vehicle-to-grid (V2G) charging study with

electric utilities participating. Fall 2008– 6 kW and 20 kW levels, using two lithium battery

PHEVs, V2Green cellular charging control, documenting infrastructure requirements and costs

• Conduct vehicle/battery testing on PHEVs when received via DOE’s OEM TADA PHEV solicitation

• Will consider other suitable PHEV conversions for vehicle/battery testing

42

Charging Infrastructure• National Electric Code requires

– Dedicated branch circuit– GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupt)– “EV” extension cord– Unique connector “plug”

• NEC being updated

43

PHEV Market Status - Converters• Hymotion: ~125 Prius ($9995) and 5 Escapes

– Prius only battery production ramp-up now, replacing all 67 Version 1 batteries. Recall most Escapes

– Prius crash-tested and obtaining CARB certification– Conversions and warranty work in Boston, D.C., L.A.,

Minneapolis, San Francisco and Seattle• Hybrids Plus: ~35 Prius and Escapes, ($21,600 to

$36,150). Some operational issues• EnergyCS: ~30 Prius (~$40,000). Some operational

issues with early batteries• Cal Cars: 8 Pius, believed to be all lead acid• Green Car Company: 3(?) Manzanita lead acid Prius

conversions ($12,000). Some operational issues. Doing Hymotion conversions

• Electrovaya: 2(?) Escapes. Some operational issues• Various single conversion “companies”

44

AVTA Webpage Use and Gasoline CostsINL WWW Visitors & Gasoline Costs

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

May

'02

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

'02

Jan

'03

Feb

Mar

chAp

rilM

ay

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

'03

Jan

'04

Feb

Mar

chAp

rilM

ayJu

neJu

lyAu

gSe

ptO

ctN

ovD

ec '0

4Ja

n '0

5Fe

bM

arch

April

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

'05

Jan

'06

Feb

Mar

chAp

rilM

ayJu

neJu

lyAu

gSe

ptO

ctN

ov

Dec

'06

Jan

'07

Feb

Mar

chAp

rilM

ayJu

neJu

lyAu

gSe

ptO

ctN

ovD

ec '0

7Ja

n '0

8Fe

bM

arch

April

May

June

July

Aug

Num

ber o

f Mon

thly

Vis

itors

$1.25

$1.50

$1.75

$2.00

$2.25

$2.50

$2.75

$3.00

$3.25

$3.50

$3.75

$4.00

$4.25

All G

rade

s G

asol

ine

Cos

ts -

End

of M

onth

Visitors (left axis)

Gasoline Cost (right axis)

Linear (Gasoline Cost (right axis) )

Linear (Visitors (left axis))

45

This work is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Vehicle Technologies Program

http://avt.inl.gov or

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/avta/

Additional Information

INL/MIS-08-14927

Acknowledgement