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ARMENIAN MIGRATION, SETTLEMENT AND

ADJUSTMENT IN AUSTRALIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE ·

TO THE ARMENIANS IN SYDNEY

by

James Ray Kirkland

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in the Research School of Social Sciences of the·

Australian National University

March 1980

ii

This thesis is the original work of the author whilst a Research Scholar in the Department of Demography of the Research School of Social Sciences at the Australian National University from May 1976 to March 1980.

iii

Dedicated to my wife

KATIE

and my son

HAMISH

iv

ABSTRACT

Immigration to Australia has been very substantial since World War

II. Some of the more recent arrivals have come from the Middle East. The

Armenians are one such group, nine-tenths of whom have settled in Australia

since 1962. This thesis has been a study of this Armenian migration and

settlement in Australia with particular reference to their residential,

occupational, social and psychological adjustment since arrival.

Because the Armenians are a rare population on which very little

information - including any official statistics - was available, it was

necessary to undertake a social survey for the collection of data. The

Sydney Armenians, the largest population group in Australia, was selected

for this Survey to make it as representative as possible of the overall

Australian Armenian population.

Data collection was conducted in two stages - a postal questionnaire

"census" of all known Sydney Armenian households and a follow-up fieldwork

period of six months during which intensive interviews were conducted. In

all, a study population of 890 respondents was obtained, of whom 97 were

interviewed. The Armenian population of Sydney at the time of the Survey

was estimated at no more than 7,000 individuals, while a generous estimate of

the Australian Armenian population would have been no more than 10,000.

Although quite diverse and having originated in 43 different countries

at arrival in Australia they were for the most part urban dwellers of skilled

and white-collar occupations and with a fair amount of formal schooling

(considering their countries of origin). Moreover, most had acquired some

facility with the English language before arrival. These characteristics,

combined with the fact that most of the Armenian migration was of the nature

of family reunion or chain movement, have resulted in a very rapid adjustment

to life in Australia. Becoming satisfactorily adjusted in the various

spheres of life, however, does not mean these first generation immigrants

v

have tended to assimilate into Australian society. In fact, just the

opposite appears to have occurred. Rapid and successful adjustment,

characterized by the reestablishment to the greatest extent possible of

their overseas existence, has tended to serve as a barrier to assimilation

by not requiring them to change to become more like Australians. It is

unlikely therefore that the Sydney Armenians, as a group, will undergo

substantial assimilation until the second or subsequent generations.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish first to express my gratitude to my supervisors Dr. Charles

A. Price and Professor W.D. Borrie for their help and guidance during the

research and preparation of this thesis. I am also very grateful to

Dr. Lincoln Day of the Demography Department, the Australian National

University, for reading a number of my chapters and making many helpful

suggestions. Special thanks also go to Pat Mooney for turning my "ugly

. duckling" of a first draft into a "swan" - a monumental feat. Thanks also

go to Barbara Addison for helping with the first draft.

I also owe thanks to Dr. Anny Stuer who kindly helped proofread

my drafts and to my two office-mates Mr. J. Richard and Mr. G.L. Dasvarma

who managed to endure my presence through many trials and tr~bulations. I

would also like to thartk Mrs. Daphne Boucher for typing the final draft.

I owe my greatest debt to my wife Katie whose help and support

was unending.

Lastly, I want to express my gratitude to those Armenians in Sydney

who gave of their time and made this study possible.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT ii

DEDICATION iii

ABSTRACT iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS AND DIAGRAMS xviii

CHAPTER I:

CHAPTER II:

INTRODUCTION

THE STUDY DESIGN

DATA COLLECTION

Other Data Collected

DATA ANALYSIS

ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

ARMENIAN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

INTRODUCTION

ANCIENT HISTORY: THE PRE-OTTOMAN PERIOD

The Moulding of a Distinct Armenian National

1

1

5

18

19

20

21

21

22

Identity 23

Religious Nationhood and Linguistic Identity 24

Armenian Movements During the Byzantine Period 26

MODERN HISTORY: THE OTTOMAN PERIOD 27

Historical Development of the Eastern Armenians 28

Historical Development of the Western Armenians 30

The Condition of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 33

The Armenian "Awakening" 38

The "Armenian Question" and the Armenian Revolutionary Movement 40

Armenian Movements During the Ottoman Period 43

CHAPTER I II:

viii

RECENT HISTORY: THE POST-OTTOMAN PERIOD 45

The Pre-World War I Period (1909-1914) 45

Deportation and Massacre of the Turkish Armenians 47

The Turkish Armenian Population 50

Armenian Dispersions and Settlement 51

The Armenian Middle Eastern Diaspora and the Rise of Arab Nationalism: An Overview 54

ARMENIAN POPULATION ESTIMATES 57

ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA 61

INTRODUCTION 61

ORIGINS OF THE ARMENIAN IMMIGRANTS 62

ESTIMATE OF AUSTRALIA'S ARMENIAN POPULATION IN 1976 62

THE FIRST MIGRATION PHASE: MIGRATION PRIOR TO WORLD WAR II 67

"The Pioneers": Migration Prior to World War I 67

The Inter-war Period

THE SECOND MIGRATION PHASE: POST-WORLD WAR II MIGRATION

General

THE EARLY POST-WAR PERIOD: 1945-1962

Migration from Southeast Asia: General

Migration from Indonesia

Migration from Other Southeast Asia Countries

Migration from China

Migration from the Middle East

Migration from Europe

POPULATION ESTIMATE OF ARMENIANS IN AUSTRALIA IN 1962

THE LATER PERIOD: 1963-1976

General

Migration from India

Migration from the Middle East: The Socio­Cultural Context

69

72

72

74

74

74

76

78

79

82

83

84

84

84

86

Migration from Egypt 88

Migration from the Levant Countries: General 96

CHAPTER IV:

ix

Migration from Syria

Migration from Lebanon

Migration from Jordan and Israel

Migration from Iraq

Migration from Other Arab Countries

Migration from the Non-Arab Middle East: General

Migration from Iran

Migration from Turkey

·Migration from Soviet Armenia

Migration from Other Regions

Migration from Europe and North America

Migration from Other Countries

OVERVIEW OF ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA

Introduction

Motivation for Migration to Australia

Characteristics of the Migration and the Migrants

Migration Finance

Structure of the Migrating Unit

Permanent Settlement in Australia

Education and Occupations of the Migrants

Religion

Languages

THE NATURE OF ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA: VOLUNTARY MIGRATION OR A REFUGEE MOVEMENT?

FUTURE ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA

SETTLEMENT AND RESIDENTIAL ADJUSTMENT IN SYDNEY

INTRODUCTION

SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY: GENERAL

SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY PRIOR TO 1963

SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY: 1963-1976

96

100

103

105

107

109

109

112

114

117

117

. 118

118

118

119

131

131

133

133

135

137

137

138

139

141

141

148

150

151

ARMENIAN RESIDENTIAL CONCENTRATION AND SEGREGATION 161

RESETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY 170

Why Armenians Have Changed Residences 171

CHAPTER V:

CHAPTER VI:

The Selection of New Residences

FUTURE SETTLEMENT TRENDS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

OCCUPATIONAL ADJUSTMENT

INTRODUCTION.AND DEFINITIONS

PRE-MIGRATION OCCUPATIONAL SITUATION

POST-MIGRATION OCCUPATIONAL SITUATION·.

Search for and Acquisition of Employment in Australia

Factors Affecting Occupations Entered in Australia

OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN AUSTRALIA

OCCUPATIONAL STATUS CHANGE AND JOB SA!ISFACTION

WIVES' WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION

OCCUPATIONAL ADJUSTMENT: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Armenian Economic Assimilation in Sydney

MAINTENANCt: OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND Ji;THNICITY ·IN AUSTRALIA

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS

THE BASIS FOR A UNIQUE ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND ITS PRESERVATION

FACTORS RELATING TO DIFFERENCES IN THE ETHNICITY OF SYDNEY ARMENIANS

MAINTENANCE OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND ETHNICITY IN AUSTRALIA: GENERAL

LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND LANGUAGE SHIFT AMONG THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS: GENERAL

Patterns of Language Use

Armenian Language Maintenance and Shift in Australia

Armenian Language Maintenance Outside the Family

INTERMARRIAGE: GENERAL

Background and Trends of Armenian Intermarriage

Characteristic of Those Who Intermarried

Patterns of Endogamous Marriages

Attitudes Towards Intermarriage

CHAPTER VII :

xi

THE MAINTENANCE OF ARMENIAN HISTORICAL AND ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS IN SYDNEY: THE POLITICAL CONTROVERSY AND THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL RELATIONS 292

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS 303.

SOCIAL PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 306

INTRODUCTION 306

BACKGROUND FACTORS AFFECTING ARMENIAN SOCIAL PARTICIPATION IN AUSTRALIA 308

FRIENDSHIP PATTERNS IN AUSTRALIA 310

Selection of Intimate Friends in Sydney 310

The Nature of Intimate Friendships 312

Factors Affecting the Formation of Friendships with Australians 317

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION: GENERAL 321

Community Participation of the Sydney Armenians 325

Armenian Membership in Formal Organizations in Sydney 330

Range and Frequency of Armenian Community Participation 336

The Non-Participators 342

CONCLUSIONS 344

CHAPTER VIII: PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT: SATISFACTION, IDENTIFICATION

CHAPTER IX:

AND ACCULTURATION 346

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS

SATISFACTION: GENERAL

SATISFACTION OF THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS WITH LIFE IN

346

349

AUSTRALIA 350

IDENTIFICATION WITH AUSTRALIA 361

ACCULTURATION 373

The Armenian Family in Sydney 375

Measurement of Armenian Acculturation to Australia 384

PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT: CONCLUSIONS

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Factors Affecting Armenian Migration, Settlement and Adjustment in Australia

388

391

393

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I:

APPENDIX II:

xii

Theoretical and Met;hodological Implications of the Study 395

What the Future Holds 397

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS AND RELATED MATERIALS

A.l. Letter of Introduction from Demography Department Head to Leaders of Armenian

400

Organizations in Sydney 401

A.2. Letter of Introduction from Academic Registrar, Australian National University, to Members of Sydney Armenian Community 402

B.l. Cover Letter in English for Postal Questionnaires 403

B.2. Cover Letter in Armenian for Postal Questionnaires 404

B.3. Armenian Survey Postal Questionnaire 405

B.4, Follow-up Letter in Both English and Armenian to Postal Questionnaire. 412

C.l. Armenian Survey Interview Schedule 413

D.l. Armenian Associations/Organizations Questionnaire 454

E.l. Random Check on Non-Respondents 457

AUSTRALIAN IMMIGRATION: GENERAL 458

APPENDIX III: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ARMENIAN DASHNAK PARTY AND ITS SATELLITE ORGANIZATIONS 462

APPENDIX IV: SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES 465

APPENDIX V:

APPENDIX VI:

OTHER KINDS OF SOCIAL PARTICIPATION: NEIGHBOURHOOD PARTICIPATION, CHURCH ATTENDANCE AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

THE ACCULTURATION CONCEPT IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT STUDIES

APPENDIX VII: SELECTED ASPECTS OF THE OBJECTIVE OR EXTERNAL ACCULTURATION OF THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS

APPENDIX VIII: INDICES OF SATISFACTION, IDENTIFICATION AND ACCULTURATION FOR THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS

APPENDIX IX:

A.

B.

c.

INDEX OF SATISFACTION WITH LIFE IN AUSTRALIA

INDEX OF IDENTIFICATION WITH AUSTRALIA

INDEX OF ACCULTURATION

THE TRADITIONAL ARMENIAN FAMILY

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CITED AND SELECTED REFERENCES

470

477

482

504

504

508

512

514

518

No.

1.1

1.2

1.3

2.1

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5a

3.5b

3.6

3.7

3.8

·3. 9

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

xiii

LIST OFTABLES

Title

Completeness of Sections on Postal Questionnaire

Main Reasons Given for Refusing to Answer Postal Questionnaire

Chi Square Tests of Significance on the Distribution of the Interviewed Sample Compared in Selected Characteristics with the Distribution of the Overall Respondent Population

Armenian Populatton Estimates

Origins of the Australian Armenians

Causes of Armenian Emigration

Knowledge of Australia Before Deciding to Migrate

Motivation for Migration: Information Flows

Chain Migration and Family Reunion

Chain Migration and Family Reunion

Characteristics of the Migrants: Prior Mobility by Place of Birth

Characteristics of Armenian Migration to Australia

Characteristics of the Migrants: Age Structure, Conjugal Status and Life-Cycle Stage on Arrival by Last Country of Residence

Characteristics of the Migrants: Socio-Economic Status at Arrival by Country of Last Residence

Arrival in Australia

Index of Metropolitan Segregation Scores for Period of Residence Groups

Settlement Concentration by Country of Last Residence

Principal L.G.A. and Suburb of Settlement by Country Groups

4.5 Armenian Residential Mobility by Life-Cycle Stage on

4.6

4.7

4 .• 8

Arrival

Principal Reasons for Residential Changes in Sydney

Relationship of Occupational Mobility to Residential Mdbility

Residential Mobility by Length of Residence in Sydney

11

12

17

59-60

63

120

122-123

125

127

128

130

132

134

136

149

165

167

169

173

175

178

180

I

No.

4.9

4.10

4.11

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

5.9

5.10

5.11

5.12

5.13

5.14

5.15

5.16

5.17

5.18

5.19

5. 20.

5.21

xiv

Title

Mobility in Sydney: Residential Moves Within Different Sized Areas of Sydney

Influence of Initial Residence on Range of Future Movements

Proportions of Country Groups Which Presently Reside in Major Area of First Residence

Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Financial Resources Available on Arrival

Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Region/Country of Origin

Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Period of Arrival in Australia

Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Assistance Received in Finding Work

Assistance in Finding First Job by Period of Arrival

Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching fcir First Job in Australia: Prior Occupational Experience

Influence of Pre-Migration Job Experience on Occupation Entered in Australia

Factors Affecting Jobs Entered in Australia

Factors Affecting Jobs Entered in Australia: Country of Last Residence

Occupational Distribution of .the Sydney Armenians: Pre-

183

184

187

201

203

204

205

205

206

208

210

212

Migration, First and Most Recent Jobs 214

Factors Related to Duration of First Job in Australia 217

Factors Related to Number of Jobs Held in Australia 219

Occupational Change by Country of Last Residence 220

Occupational Status Change of Armenian Immigrants 224-225

Occupational Status Change 226

Relationship of Country of Last Residence to Occupational Status Change 228

Occupational Status Change by Duration of Residence in Australia 229

Immigrants' Views of Their Occupational Status Change by Their Duration of Residence in Australia 231

Labour Force Participation of Armenian Wives by Duration of Residence in Australia 233

Armenian Wives Workforce Participation 235

Principal Reasons Wives Have Worked in Australia 237

No.

5.22

5.23

5.24

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7a

6.7b

6.8

6.9

7.1

XV

Title

Husbands' Attitudes Towards Their Wives Working

Occupational Distribution of Selected Ethnic Groups (Males) in Sydney, 1976

Occupational Dissimilarity of Selected Ethnic Groups (Males) in Sydney, 1976

Characteristics Associated with Level of Armenian Ethnicity

Intermarriage Among Respondents' Parents

Intermarriage Trends of Sydney Armenians

Intermarriage Trends by Year of Arrival in Australia

Intermarriage in Australia with British-Australians or Members of Other Ethnic Groups

Intermarriage Rates of Country Groups

Tendency to Marry In or Out of Own Birthplace Groups (Males)

Tendency to Marry In or Out of Own Birthplace Groups (Females)

Attitudes Towards Children Marrying Non-Armenians

Reasons Given for Wanting Children to Marry Within the Group-

Influence of Country Background on Friendship Patterns in Australia

7.2 Influence of Ethnic Origin on Friendship Patterns in

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

7.7

7.8

7.9

7.10

7.11

7.12

7.13

Australia

Stability of Armenian Friendship Patterns in Australia

Place Respondent First Encountered Intimate Friends

Frequency of Contact with Intimate Friends

Place Respondents and Intimate Friends Usually Meet

Attitudes Towards Friendships with Australians and Desire for More Personal Contact with Australians

Organizational Membership and Participation

Categories of Organizational Membership and Participation

Organizational Membership by Country of Last Residence

Organizational Membership by Duration of Residence

Influence of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival on Membership in Australian Organizations Today

Participation in Organizations by Region/Country of Last Residence

238

241

242

251

272

274

275

277

278

281

282

285

286

311

313

314

315

316

318

320

328

329

331

333

335

338

No.

7.14

7.15

7.16

7.17

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

xvi

Title Page

Participation Score by Duration of Residence in Australia 339

Influence of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival on Participation in Australian Organizations Today 339

Relation of Participation in Armenian and Australian Organizations 340

Influence of Regional Background on Patterns of Association in Australian Organizations 341

Satisfaction Level by Migration, Settlement and Life Situation Variables 356

Satisfaction Level by Personal Characteristics 358

Satisfaction Level by Country of Last Residence 359

Relationship of Satisfaction with Life in Australia and Identification with Australia 363

8.5 Relation of Personal Characteristics to Level of

8.6

8.7

8.8

8.9

8.10

8.11

8.12

8.13

8.14

Identification

Other Factors Assumed to Influence Identification

Level of Identification by Country of Last Residence

Comparison of the Armenian's Self-Identification and His Level of Identification with Australia

Reasons for Becoming Naturalized Australians

When Respondents Felt Their Children Should be Allowed to Make Their Own Decisions Without First Consulting Them

Decision-Making in the Armenian Family

Type of Authority Structure in the Armenian Family

Relationship of Selected Variables to Level of Acculturation

Relationship of Country of Origin to Level of Acculturation

365

366

367

370

372

378

381

383

386

387

No.

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

V.l

VI.l

VII.l

VII.2

VII. 3

VII.4

VII.5

VII.6

VIII.l

VIII.2

VIII. 3

VIII.4

xvii

APPENDIX TABLES

Title Page

Country of· Last Residence by Employment Status Before Migration 466

Means By Which Respondent Found First Job in Australia 467

Reasons for Changing Jobs in Australia 468

Occupational Status Change After Arrival 469

Influence of Duration of Residence in Australia on Political Party Affiliation 476

Attempts to Separate Psychological and Non-Psychological Aspects of the Acculturation Process 480

Factors Related to Level of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival and at Survey 485-486

Changes in English Proficiency Between Arrival and Time of Armenian Survey 488

Factors Affecting the Degree of Improvement in English Language Proficiency 489

Reasons Given for Adopting English First Names in Australia 493

Reasons for Giving Australian-Born Children English Names 495

Perception of Changes in Leisure-Time Activities in Australia 502

Satisfaction Scores of Sydney Armenians 507

Index of Identification Indicators 509-510

Identification with Australia Index 511

Distribution of Index of Acculturation Scores 513

No.

3.1

3. 2 .

3.3

5.1

No.

4.1

4.2

4.3

No.

4.1

xviii

LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

LIST OF FIGURES

Title

Post-War Armenian Immigration (Continuous Distribution Graph)

Arrival of Egyptian Armenians 1945-1976

Mode of Migration

Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia

MAPS

Armenian Settlement Pattern in Sydney in 1962

Initial Residential Locations of Arrivals. 1963-1976

Residential Distribution of Armenian Respondents in 19·76

DIAGRAMS

Sequence of Typical Residential Change of Sydney Armenians

6.1 Political and Social Structure of the Sydney Armenian Community

III.! Structure of Armenian Dashnak Party

73

93

124

200

152

154

155

177

300

464