using a computerized concept mapping program to assess preservice teachers' thinking about...

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE TEACHING VOL. 27, NO. 10, PP. 961-971 (1990)

USING A COMPUTERIZED CONCEPT MAPPING PROGRAM TO ASSESS PRESERVICE TEACHERS’ THINKING ABOUT

EFFECTIVE TEACHING

BARBARA A. BEYERBACH AND JOYCE M. SMITH

Srate University of New York College at Oswego

Abstract

Concept mapping with Learning Tool, a computerized mapping program, was used to assess changes in the content and organization of 17 preservice teachers’ concept maps for the topic of effective reaching. Preservice teachers in their senior year of an early childhood teacher education program constructed and revised concept maps with a partner. They entered reflections on each mapping experience into their reflective journals, developing implications for teaching. Analysis of the concept maps revealed that these students had a primary concern with classroom management throughout the year, linking diverse information to that concept. They evidenced detailed and diverse understandings under the labels of knowledge and organization. Professionulisrn was a common item, though it was less well developed. Their reflective journals indicated that these students moved from describing emotional reactions to using the computer program as a basis for reflection on the teachinglleaming process. This study illustrates how concept mapping can be useful in describing students’ evolving COI’IstruCtiOnS of knowledge in a particular subject area, and in promoting reflection.

Introduction

Concept mapping, a technique of graphically representing concepts and their interrelationships, has been used by a number of researchers as a method of assessing learners’ conceptual understanding of a particular topic area (Beyerbach, 1988; Bogden, 1977; Nov& & Gowin, 1984). The technique has been used in a variety of ways, reflecting alternative theories of knowledge. For example, Bogden (1977) and Diekhoff and Diekhoff ( 1982) compared student-generated concept maps to ideal, teacher-constructed concept maps. In some research, student maps have been scored for the correctness of the relationships portrayed (Bogden, 1977; Novak & Gowin, 1984). This approach suggests that there is an inherent structure of the discipline which teachers can convey to their students. Such a perspective is consistent with a technical rationalist theory of learning.

0 1990 by the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0022-4308/90/100961-I 1$04.00

962 BEYERBACH AND SMITH

In contrast, others have used concept mapping to examine changes in content and organization of learners’ thinking, emphasizing the process of construction and the uniqueness of individuals’ representations. Beyerbach ( 1988) used concept mapping with preservice teachers as a reflective tool which “can help practitioners to become aware of and criticize their tacit frames” (Schon, 1983, p. 309). Such use is consistent with a constructivist theory of learning, which views knowledge as actively constructed by the learner (von Glasersfeld, 1989).

Recent researchers in science education have emphasized the need to understand how learners construct knowledge through experiences with physical phenomena (Smith & Neale, 1989). Von Glasersfeld (1989) also emphasizes the importance of social interaction in generating discrepancies which promote conceptual change. He suggests that this is why many “constructivist teachers of science and mathematics have been promoting group learning” (p. 136). Okebukola and Jegede (1988) found that students in a predegree biology course who were working “together cooperatively on the concept mapping tasks were found to attain meaningful learning better than students working individually” (p. 498). An emphasis on knowledge construction has also evolved in teacher education, as reflected by the growing body of research on teachers’ thinking (Ball & McDirmid, 1988; Calderhead, 1984; Hollingsworth, Teel, Cantrell & Goodman, 1988). In regards to preparation for elementary science teaching, recent authors have indicated that elementary teachers have difficulty using inquiry-oriented approaches in which students generate knowledge because they themselves have not experienced this method as learners in science classes (Beyerbach, Dismore, Flood, Gooding, Swift, Wattier, & Weber, 1990; Mullis & Jenkins, 1988; Tobin, 1990). Similar arguments have been put forth to explain teachers’ hesitancy to incorporate computers in their teaching (Dossey, Mullis, Lindquist, & Chambers, 1988).

The present study was designed to provide prospective elementary teachers with experiences using a computerized concept mapping program to generate and refine concept maps to reflect their evolving concepts of eflecrive teaching. This article describes changes in preservice teachers’ concept maps as they progressed through their senior year of a teacher education program which was explicitly based on a constructivist theory of learning. Students worked with a partner in developing their concept maps, using a computerized program called Learning Tool. Students were required to keep reflective journals describing their experiences using Learning Tool and to derive implications for teaching. We hoped that by engaging students in the constructive process of knowledge generation as learners, they would be better able to design such experiences in their teaching.

It is assumed that teachers’ beliefs shape their practice, and that we must understand and take into account prospective teachers’ beliefs in developing and assessing our teacher-education programs. It is assumed that “the personal epistemologies of teachers have an influence on the way teachers plan and implement the curriculum” (Tobin, 1990, p. 9). This work is based on the premise that the goal of teacher education is to develop reflective practitioners. As Kennedy (1989) points out, “the reflective practitioner’s knowledge is not static and not prescriptive. It is continually evolving and being reconstructed by the practitioner as she reflects on her experiences” (p. 2). We seek to better understand this evolution as students progress through our program by examining changes in content and organization of their concept maps.

ASSESSING PRESERVICE TEACHERS’ THINKING 963

Related Literature

Concept Mapping

Concept mapping has been recommended as a study strategy (Reigeluth, 1979), as a means of representing structural knowledge in a given discipline (Diekhoff & Diekhoff, 1982). as a means of increasing recall of written text (Raunch & Ellenworth, 1980) and as a powerful assessment device (Novak & Gowin, 1984). Most studies done using mapping in assessment have compared student maps to ideal, teacher- constructed maps (e.g., Bogden, 1977; Diekhoff & Diekhoff, 1982; Novak & Gowin, 1984), rather than describing changes in the content and organization of the maps. Quantitative scores have been derived from maps for the following theoretical constructs which are commonly seen to indicate conceptual growth: differentiation, hierarchical organization, convergence towards a group consensus, and convergence toward an expert’s concept map (Ausubel, 1963; Novak & Gowin, 1984).

Since Hirsch’s book, Culfural Liferacy (1987), there has been an increased focus on developing the technical vocabulary of professionals entering a discipline. In an earlier work, Beyerbach ( 1988) used a concept mapping strategy with undergraduates at three levels of a teacher education program to assess the development of a technical vocabulary. She found that students developed an increasingly shared technical vocabulary as they progressed through the program. Students’ concept maps in each course became more differentiated, more hierarchically organized, and increasingly similar both to other students’ and to the instructors’ maps. Though students’ “post” maps were more like the instructors’ maps (and one another’s) than their “pre” maps, Beyerbach observed that “the interindividual differences displayed among the maps were far more striking than the similarities” (p. 346). It was this observation that led the researcher to shift emphasis and focus on the process of individual construction and change over time, rather than focusing on the maps as group products which matched or did not match an instructor-generated ideal map.

Program Description

Students in this early childhood education program spend the entire year in courses and related field experiences, including two eight-week student-teaching placements, and they focus on the application of child development theory (e.g., Dewey, Piaget) in the chssroom. Coursework focuses on developmentally appropriate teaching strategies which emphasize hands-on problem solving, media for young children, and applied reading instruction, and on seminars which focus upon issues of concern to prospective teachers.

Methods and Procedures

Seventeen female early childhood education majors, who were in their senior year, formed the cohort upon which this study was based. Initial concept maps were constructed during the first class of the year. Students were asked to construct concept maps following a two-step procedure in which they first “brainstormed” categories and subcategories associated with effective teaching. and then arranged these into super-


ordinate-to-subordinate concept hierarchies around the topic. In the first class of the second semester, students were paired and were asked to construct and continually update a concept map for the topic of eflective teaching, using a computerized program called Learning Tool. It has been suggested that this program, developed by Robert Kozma and John Van Roekel at Ann Arbor, Michigan, is a cognitive tool which allows for easy creation of concept maps. It is hypothesized that this program will “facilitate the learner’s integration of new information with previous knowledge, and promote the creation of new knowledge as the understanding of relationships among concepts evolves” (Kozma, 1987, p. 23). It is further theorized that in helping “the learner reflect on the thinking processes, by cuing, evoking, modeling, and supplementing these processes, the computer may help the learner improve cognitive strategies” (Kozma, 1987, p. 24). It was hoped that using Learning Tool with a partner would provide an opportunity for reflection.

Additionally, each preservice teacher kept a journal reflecting on her experiences using the new computer program, deriving implications for teaching. Concept maps were analyzed to describe changes in the content and organization of prospective teachers’ thinking. Reflective journals were analyzed to describe evolving beliefs about teaching and learning.

Results

Concept Map Content Analysis

Maps were analyzed to look for changes in the following: total number of items on the maps, number of item streams (superordinate concepts listed closest to the central concept), hierarchical organization, increased similarity to one another, use of technical vocabulary introduced in the program, and content analysis of frequently used terms.

Analysis of the concept maps constructed by hand during \he first class of the academic year indicated that students were concerned with personal qualities of teachers. Many students listed terms such as organization, positive attitude, and professional attitude as major organizing categories on their maps. Other frequent item streams included communication, knowledge, discipline, and classroom management. There was a general lack of technical vocabulary evidenced on the maps, as well as a lack of detail and hierarchical organization. Figure 1 illustrates a typical preliminary concept map.

Maps were constructed by pairs of students during the first class of the second semester using Learning Tool. Students received a three-hour group tutorial on the program and then began constructing their maps for eflective teaching. Analysis of the streams listed on the first concept maps constructed with Learning Tool indicated that students listed several common streams. Of the 17 students (seven pairs and one trio), seven pairs of students listed the term organization, six listed the terms knowledge and classroom management, five listed professionalism, and four pairs listed communication and attitude. When comparisons were made at the end of the semester, these were highly consistent. Frequencies for the final maps were exactly the same, except that one pair added the term curriculum to form an item stream. This consistency may be an artifact of the program, as many students commented that once they created a notecard for an item stream, it was impossible to eliminate it.

i


It was decided to examine the development of the maps in depth for the four most frequently listed terms: organization, knowledge, classroom management, and professionalism. We sought to examine changes in students’ representation of knowledge about these topics. Additionally, general comparisons between the initial and final concept maps were made. General comparisons between the initial and final maps consmcted on Learning Tool indicated that students incorporated more information on their final maps, with more hierarchical organization (i.e., more levels of submaps) and more narrative detail. The mean item score increased from 67 on the premaps to 76 on the postmaps, and the mean level score increased from 3 to 4 levels. These changes were expected and are consistent with an earlier investigation of concept mapping (Beyerbach, 1988). General Organization of the maps reflected the structure of the textbook by Arends (1988). which was used in the Year-long program, and final maps incorporated more technical vocabulary than preliminary maps. Unlike earlier investigations of concept mapping where maps were constructed by hand, item streams for maps in the present study did not bec~me m ~ e abstract and inclusive, perhaps because of students’ lack of facility in manipulating the program,


Changes in students’ representation of knowledge about organization, knowledge, classroom management, and professionalism were also examined. Figure 2 presents a partial concept map which illustrates the levels which can be incorporated on a map. Complete maps were as long as 32 pages. A number of students incorporated subheadings under the topic organization in their preliminary maps. For example, materials, time, and space were listed by one pair; lesson plans, time management, schedules, learning centers, and personal were included in another. None of the preliminary maps incorporated any narrative detail. Final maps did not change significantly in their organization; however most pairs incorporated considerable detail.

The preliminary maps which incorporated knowledge as an item stream likewise reflected diverse representations in the submaps constructed. For example, one pair listed curriculum, background, materials, and new knowledge in their submap; another listed content background, curriculum, chiki development, group processes, and strategies for teaching. Unlike the submaps for organization, the submaps for knowledge were more likely to contain additional submaps. For example, one pair listed content areas, with a submap listing all content areas and with further submaps for some of the content areas. None of the preliminary maps incorporated narrative detail. Though the preliminary maps for knowledge were more developed than for the topic of organization, they evidenced fewer changes from initial to final maps.

The preliminary maps which incorporated the term classroom management used more differentiated submaps than any other topic. The following submap terms illustrate the diversity of topics covered under classroom management: teacher confidence, student accountability, transitions, use of non-lesson time, behavior recognition, classroom rules, system of rewards, preventive management, discipline, j oor plan, materials storage, schedules, daily format, and behavior modijcation. There was little consistency in terms used across the maps. This topic, classroom management, was developed by students on their final maps more so than any other topic. All but one pair significantly modified this section of their maps, by either adding submaps, detail, or both. There was a great deal of narrative detail on the students’ maps, incorporating information from their field placement and textbook. This is consistent with much of the literature on student teaching, which reports classroom management is of primary concern during this time.

The term professionalism was the most sparsely developed common item stream on the maps. None of the preliminary maps for it included narrative detail. Terms incorporated in the submaps included the following: appearance, tact, confidentiality, relationships, in-service training, self-assessment, rejective teaching and conferences. There were few changes for this topic.

Analysis of Rejections on the Concept Mapping Experience

Students were each asked to enter reflections on each mapping experience into their reflective journals. They were instructed to reflect on their experiences during the mapping and to develop implications for teaching. During their first entry, many students reflected on the emotional impact of the experience and derived implications for practice. For example one commented, “I have never been so frustrated in my life. The first problem 1 had to overcome was lack of spatial coordination. I got a taste of


concept tlsp

= EFFECTIVE TI‘ACHER,

Interactive Functions Ch-qanizational Funclions

Tylw flodel Dela l l

Execdive Functions

Executfve Functions Subnap

Planning Subnap

Yearly Plans Daily Plans

Weekly Plans Units

Fig. 2. topic effective teaching.

Example of a portion of a final Concept map constructed on Learning Tool for the

what it is like to ay and fail, something that will help me in dealing with this problem in children.”

Another commented:

My initial reaction was to get up and run. However I felt that, as we worked together on the program, we might be able to handle this. I learned that, by listening and watching new concepts being demonstrated. a learner can achieve familiarity with them. But when a learner is required to use new concepts, it is more effective if the learning process requires active participation. Also. sometimes a learner’s background knowledge needs to be modified to be useful.


A third student likewise acknowledges lack of computer background, but approached the task with a different attitude:

I was thoroughly excited to learn how to use the computer program. I was relieved that our instruction was done in such a basic, step-by-step way. I find myself concentrating so much on how to use the computer that what I want to say about effective teaching seems to get lost. This is comparable to children learning to write, who may get caught up in the mechanics.

She concludes,

Now that I have broken the barrier between myself and the computer, I can see how important it is to view the computer as a challenge, and not an obstacle in my career.

In addition to expressing emotional reactions to their experience, students made diverse connections between their learning and future teaching in their first entry. One noticed “the ability to organize was very important. Being able to categorize and break a category into parts is a skill needed to plan an effective map. As teachers we will need to know what skills need to be learned before going on to other skills.” Another commented,

1 think the implications of this assignment for teaching are several. Just from our small class we all have different backgrounds. Through working in groups, we pulled our ideas and capabilities together. This parallels the problem of children entering a classroom with different and unique experiences in all subject areas and social skills. I will be more aware of different students’ needs and capabilities.

Many students commented on the benefits of having a learning partner. Some students experienced changes in their level of confidence as a result of the experience. One commented,

When you said computer, I panicked; it actually made me ill. This experience demonstrated to me that fear is my worst enemy. As a prospective teacher this has helped me realize that if a child decides that he or she does not like a subject, it may be because they are afraid of failure.

Students’ preliminary reflections evidenced a preoccupation with learning to use the new program, rather than a focus on eflecfive reaching. They tended to share emotional reactions, and derive implications for teaching which focused on becoming sensitized to students’ feelings when they were asked to learn something new. They reflected on their own background with computers and compared it with that of others. They commented on their learning styles and how the computer program related to or conflicted with their learning styles.

Students’ reflections on their final concept m p S were examined to determine whether students’ concerns shifted as they became more experienced in the classroom and more familiar with the Learning Tool Program. Concerns of each pair were listed


and common themes were identified. Reflections on postmaps indicated that several shifts of emphasis had occurred. Students still reported on emotions associated with the experience in their final reflections. However, they reported greater feelings of confidence, a sense of mastery, and excitement at their success. For example, one student commented, “Learning Tool and I have finally reached a truce. Maybe someday we’ll be friends. Today I’m just grateful that we get along. I really do learn through involvement and feel much more cornfortable with the program after spending time with it.” She goes on to reflect, “This is an important concept to remember when teaching new programs to children. They should be given sufficient time, without feeling performance pressure, to become comfortable with a program and to build self-confidence concerning their newly acquired knowledge and skills.”

A second generalization was that all students reflected more about the topic of efecrive teaching in their final journal entries. Many noticed this shift in their focus. One student reported, “Today we spent a great deal of time discussing the integration of theory and practice, and professionalism.” More final reflections focused on the learning process and implications for their teaching practice. Several students reported that they had forgotten how to use the program between the first and second times they had tried it. One commented, “This made me think about teaching a child a new concept and expecting them to get it in one lesson. I t takes practice to become familiar with a new concept.” Students were sensitized to the learner’s perspective.

A third theme was that students final reflections drew more from class discussions and information presented in their text. Students discussed the executive, instructional, and organizational functions of teaching--a framework presented in their text. They linked learning on Learning Tool to the instructional models presented in class. One commented “the concepts of organizing, categorizing, and thinking critically summarize what Laura and 1 did with Learning Tool. These are the concepts involved in the information processing model.”

A fourth theme was that students became more analytic about the computer program itself. One critiqued the program and criticized it for not having features such as automatic scrolling in windows and a simpler method of underlining. Several commented that the program facilitated retention through active manipulation, enhanced learning through active involvement, and was a highly enjoyable experience. Students’ reflections focused on the process of learning rather than the products. Finally a number of students commented that their maps were incomplete and continually evolving. One commented, “Deb and I realized that making a concept map could be an ongoing, never-ending process. Room for revising would always be there.”

In this assignment it is important to note that students did not all master the same content at the same pace. They did have opportunities to share their emerging understandings about teaching and learning in small and large groups. They were not tested on their knowledge acquisition, nor did they necessarily construct the same meanings from the experience.

It is a privilege to be party to the changes that students share through their reflections; the concept maps and journals Serve as another way of knowing our students, as well as a tool for their development. In their own voices, in diverse ways, the students in our program have illustrated their evolving constructions of the teaching/ learning process and the relationship of their experiences in our program to that evolutionary process.


Implications

Both the concept maps and the reflective journals provided insights into our students’ thinking that can inform their teacher education program, in the same way that research on children’s misconceptions has influenced science education. For example, the mapping revealed that students have a primary concern with classroom management throughout the year and tend to link diverse information to that construct. Our students also evidenced detailed and diverse understandings under the label knowledge-representing various components they considered to be an essential knowledge base for effective teachers. Their maps reflected a welldeveloped conceptualization of organization and its relationship to effective teaching by the middle of the year when the preliminary maps were constructed on Learning Tool. Less well-developed was their conception of professionalism, although elements of the program’s focus were incorporated, for example, rejective teaching, self assessment, and continuing professional growth. It is possible that by organizing our teacher education curriculum around concepts which were central and common to students’ maps, and developing and expanding that framework, we might achieve a better mesh between our theories and theirs. This study illustrates how concept mapping can be a useful strategy in tracking students’ evolving constructions of knowledge in a particular subject area, as well as a tool which promotes reflection.

Acknowledgment

Special thanks goes to Robert Kozma, John Van Roekel, and Arborworks for the granting of a site license and software for Learning Tool.

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Manuscript accepted August 21, 1990.

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