using computers to support learning academic...

Using Computers to Support Learning Academic Standards

Behaviorist-Oriented vs. Constructivist-Oriented

Approaches

Technology Integration Support Workshop #2

Presented by:

NAU College of Education’s Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) Staff

Fall 2002

Using Computers to Support Learning Academic Standards: Behaviorist-Oriented vs. Constructivist-Oriented Approaches

This workshop is designed to provide examples of a variety of different computer-supported learning environments. The different instructional experiences presented are generally categorized as “behaviorist-oriented” or “constructivist-oriented” based on the types of strategies presented and contexts defined. This workshop begins with an activity in which specific Arizona mathematics standards (along with a corresponding assessment item) are presented. Workshop participants are then provided with directions for accessing different types of learning experiences (behaviorist-oriented as well as constructivist-oriented) that address the standards, and they are encouraged to reflect on the strengths and limitations of each approach. Following this activity, the workshop participants will be presented with specific computer-supported examples of different types of learning contexts. The following list delineates the different material presented within this resource packet: Activity

Comparing behaviorist-oriented and constructivist-oriented computer-based instructional experiences designed to facilitate the learning of a selected Arizona mathematics standard

Information Resources

• Comparing Behaviorist-Oriented and Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Strategy Components

• Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Strategies

• A Sampler of Different Types of Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Models

• Learning FROM Technology [Examples of Behaviorist-Oriented Computer-

Supported Instructional Contexts]

• Learning WITH Technology [Examples of Constructivist-Oriented Computer-Supported Instructional Contexts]

• In-Class and Computer-Based Instructional Scaffolds

• National [and Other] Standards Resources

NAU College of Education - Technology Integration Workshop #2 – Fall 2002

In-Class Activity Sample This in-class activity sample is very simple. The box below presents a pair of related Arizona K-12 content standards [high school mathematics] along with a corresponding AIMS assessment item. After examining this information, follow the steps presented in the “Behaviorist Approach” as well as the “Constructivist Approach” activity sections to access Web-based material designed to help support the learning of the selected mathematics standards. As you explore the different instructional approaches, record what you believe are the individual strengths and limitations of each lesson, using the “Strengths & Limitations of Observed Web-Based Instructional Contexts” chart to help you organize your thoughts. Base your observations and judgments on how well you think the instructional material could facilitate the learning of the specified standards. When you have completed this task, compare your responses to those of others in the workshop. Arizona Standards:

PO 2. Solve applied problems using angle and side length relationships* PO 3. Solve applied problems using the Pythagorean theorem* *Note: These outcomes include the condition “Given a sheet listing required formulas…”

AIMS Assessment:

This sample was taken from the AIMS Mathematics Released Items (Core-Form A):


Computer-Based Behaviorist Approach

Step One: Navigate to the following site:

http://www.thegateway.org

Step Two: Fill out the form as indicated in the picture below and click the “Search” button:

Step Three: From the search return list of lessons, choose the following two “behaviorist-

oriented” approaches to learning the skills indicated within the selected standard:

Pythagorean Puzzle http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/proof/puzzle/ A Picture Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem http://www.utc.edu/~cpmawata/geom/geom7.htm


Computer-Based Constructivist Approach Step One: Navigate to the following site:

http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/bluewebn/ Step Two: Select the menu item “Projects” from the “Mathematics” content area:

Step Three: Select “Mr. Pitonyak’s Pyramid Puzzle for the list of projects (it’s near the

bottom). http://wcvt.com/~tiggr/


Strengths & Limitations of Observed Web-Based Instructional Contexts

Standards the instructional samples support: PO 2. Solve applied problems using angle and side length relationships PO 3. Solve applied problems using the Pythagorean theorem

Type of Instructional Contexts Presented

Behaviorist-Oriented Constructivist-Oriented

Strengths

Limitations


Comparing Behaviorist-Oriented and Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Strategy Components

Component (1)

Behaviorist-Oriented Instructional Strategies (2)

Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Strategies (3)

Pre-instructional Activities

Motivate the learners (gain & maintain attention) State goal(s) & objectives Stimulate recall of prerequisites (i.e. pretest, state necessary prerequisites, etc.)

Establish a meaningful, purposeful instructional context that encompasses all instructional strategies Initiate orienting activities in which the purpose for personally engaging in the instruction is clearly established Early interactions within the instructional context should facilitate the setting of personal goals relative to succeeding within the impending instructional experience Present a "Big Picture" that focuses attention on the bigger conceptual, intellectual, and/or social contexts in which the current instructional goals reside. Implement strategies to help learners identify in some way those skills, knowledge, and attitudes (SKA) already needed to succeed within the new learning environment Establish cooperative groups, and communicate clearly-perceived learner accountability, role(s) and task(s) Establish clearly-perceived instructor role(s) and learner support mechanisms

Information Presentation

Present information in a sequence that is most appropriate for the type(s) of skill(s) being facilitated Present clear examples and nonexamples

Clearly identify access to learning scaffolds, especially procedural scaffolds (guidance on how to utilize resources and tools such as how-to sheets, tutorials, and examples) Additional learning scaffolds ---conceptual, metacognitive, strategic --- should be available when needed (these may include “behaviorist-oriented” lessons designed to facilitate specific skills)


Learner Participation

Provide practice over exact skills indicated within objectives, with timely feedback

Provide opportunities to explore the overall learning environment with minimal instructor guidance and intervention……but make guidance available to learners as they apply information presented to the skills, knowledge and attitudes being facilitated Practice over individual skills embedded throughout the experience

Testing

Pretest & Posttest eliciting the exact skills indicated within the objectives are implemented

“Posttests” are generally represented by the successful completion of projects, with analytic rubrics provided throughout the experience to guide the learners toward success

Follow-Through Activities

Remediation activities Enrichment activities Memorization and “job aid” use rehearsal Transfer of learning by applying skills within new situations

Provide opportunities for learners to summarize the key ideas emerging from the learning experience. This might include the generation of concept or mind maps. Provide opportunities for the learners to reflect upon and articulate what they learned and how they personally learned it. This might involve assessing their final projects using analytic or holistic rubrics. Provide opportunities for the learners to identify how their newly-acquired skills, knowledge and attitudes fit into the "Big Picture" defined at the beginning of the experience.

(1) These components are derived from the instructional design model described by Dick & Carey (1996). This model is based on the behavioral and cognitive learning theories of Robert Gagne (1992). (2) For excellent information summarizing the main principles defining behaviorist learning theories, see the summaries of Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner at Greg Kearsley’s Theory into Practice Database [see http://tip.psychology.org]. (3) These strategies were culled from a variety of constructivist-oriented instructional models. These models are described in more detail below.


Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Strategies

Although there are many different ways to define constructivism, Jerome Bruner was the one of the first to explore and define the concept as a viable theory of learning. The following definition is taken from an entry in Greg Kearsley’s “Theory into Practice” database (http://tip.psychology.org):

“A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to ‘go beyond the information given.”

This description highlights the two fundamental elements of constructivism:

1) Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment 2) Understanding is an adaptive process driven by learners’ need/desire to organize their experiential world. Learners do no, and perhaps cannot discover an independent pre-existing world outside their own mind.

In addition, most constructivist models include references to the important of social interaction within the learning environment. Reiber (2000) summarized three primary characteristics of learning within the constructivist paradigm:

1) Learning is an active and controllable process in which meaning is constructed by each individual 2) Learning is also a social activity founded on collaboration and mutual respect of different viewpoints 3) Learning is embedded in the building of artifacts that are shared and critiqued by one's peers

Researchers and theorists investigating and defining constructivism have identified and described some common characteristics of meaningful learning environments. In Jonassen, Peck and Wilson’s text Learning With Technology: A Constructivist Perspective (1999, Merrill Publishing), the authors include the following five categories representing necessary components of meaningful learning environments. The descriptions of each category have been elaborated upon using other constructivist models of design (for example, Cunningham, Duffy and Knuth, 1993; Herrington & Oliver, 1997)

Opportunities for Authentic Learning: Instructional contexts are defined that reflect the manner in which the outcomes to be learned are practiced in the real world. This often includes ill-structured, real-world problems. In addition, the instruction (teachers, other students, and/or educational media) facilitates the learner’s evaluation of alternate strategies and methods for solving problems.


Opportunities for Active Learning: The instructional context enables the learners to explore and manipulate the components and parameters of their environment, and observe the results of their activities. Opportunities for Intentional Learning: The instruction provides the learners with an opportunity to determine and set their own goals and manage/regulate their own activities. Learners select the methods they feel will help them succeed within the learning environment. The instruction provides coaching, modeling, and other forms of support to facilitate the application of effective methods and strategies for succeeding within the learning environment. Opportunities for Constructive Learning: Instructional strategies are facilitated that encourage learners to articulate what they have been learning and reflect upon the importance and meaning of the outcomes in larger social and intellectual contexts. Efforts should be made to enable learners to communicate their ideas using any appropriate media: oral, written, graphic, video, etc. Opportunities for Cooperative Learning: Instructional strategies are implemented that enable learners to collaborate and socially negotiate their meanings of the events and information presented within the learning experience between themselves and other learners, outside experts, and the teacher. Access to expert performances may also play an important role within the cooperative learning environment.

So What? Why is constructivism an important concept for teachers? One of the most important reasons is that the principles of constructivism can be used to help define purposeful, meaningful (and, consequently, highly effective) learning environments. What follows is a sampling of different types of learning environments based on constructivist ideas:


A Sampler of Different Types of Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Models

Model Description Problem-Based (Inquiry) Learning

As the name implies, instruction based on this particular model presents learners with a problem (or they uncover a problem within an exploratory activity), and the quest for a solution drives the learning experience. Problem-based learning is an important characteristic within most “constructivist” instructional models.

Situated Learning

Instruction based on the Situated Learning model (Herrington & Oliver, 1997) generally include all or most of the following elements:

Provide an authentic context that reflects the way the knowledge will be used in real-life

Provide authentic activities Provide access to expert performances and the modeling of

processes Provide multiple roles and perspectives Support collaborative construction of knowledge Promote reflection to enable abstractions to be formed Promote articulation to enable tacit knowledge to be made explicit Provide coaching and scaffolding at critical times

Provide for integrated assessment of learning within the tasks. Anchored Instruction

The two fundamental aspects of instruction based on the “anchored instruction” model include:

1. Activities should be designed around a conceptual "anchor" which should be some sort of case-study or problem situation.

2. Curriculum materials should allow exploration by the learner (e.g., interactive computer programs).

Case-Based Learning

Case-based instruction focuses on “cases,” either real or contrived. Initial information presented to the learners define the case itself, and free access to potentially useful ancillary information surrounding the case is made available to the learners. Also referred to as “situation exploration,” student interaction with the case material doesn’t alter the case itself (like a simulation might)

Cognitive Apprenticeship

Cognitive apprenticeship instructional models (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989) involve establishing a relationship between the learner and a mediated support system. This support system, which might include a highly-interactive computer-based environment or structured collaborative group, generally includes the following strategies: - situated learning - modeling - explaining - coaching - reflection - articulation - exploration

Generative Learning

A more general type of instructional model than those previously described, generative learning represents any type of learning environment in which learner exploration leads to the generation of problems, information, patterns, and/or solutions. Proponents of generative learning (like proponents of the grounded approach to qualitative research) criticize prescriptive ISD solutions for essentially eliminating the importance of learner constructions in the instructional process.


Discovery Learning

Like many of the context types described above, Discovery Learning emphasizes complete immersion into situations where learners have no choice but to discover problems, patterns, and solutions en route to successfully negotiating the situation. Learner support within the situation can range from gentle, subtle peer or teacher coaching to more overtly direct information presentation when appropriate.

Open Learning Environments

Open Learning Environments (Hannafin, Land & Oliver, 1999) represent instructional situations where divergent thinking and multiple perspectives are valued over a single "correct" perspective. OLE’s are appropriate when the learners are presented with ill-defined, and ill-structured problems.


Learning FROM Technology

Examples of Behaviorist-Oriented Computer-Supported Instructional Contexts

The information in the chart below presents three of the more common instructional support contexts established by computers within typical classroom learning environments: linear information presentation, tutorial, and drill and practice. These context types are referred to as support because they only address a small (but important) portion of the overall instructional strategies needed to maximize the probability that all learners in a class will learn specific outcomes. They are also referred to as scaffolds because they can help individual learners meet specific needs on their way to accomplishing a bigger (and more meaningful) instructional goal. Distinguishing between “meaningful” instructional contexts and support or scaffold contexts is important because it helps define the potential value of computers within the instructional design process. The contexts represented below are valuable, but only if they are used WITHIN meaningful contexts…they don’t define meaningful contexts themselves. The problem is, these context types reflect the more traditional uses of computers in the classroom. Information presentation, tutorials, and drill and practice programs do have a place within some learning environments, but they could never, and should never, be used as the only means of trying to facilitate targeted outcomes. Context Type

Context Description

Web-Based Examples

Tutorial (Direct Instruction)

This context type generally presents "new" information (usually in a linear or stepwise format), and either provides a certain degree of practice using the information in some way, or applies the SKA to specific example(s).

Computer-Based Courseware

Check out the math courseware in each of these three popular courseware products…they represent classic examples of tutorials: www.plato.com www.compasslearning.com, http://www.ncslearn.com/successmaker/

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Office Tutorials These tutorials are used to help students and teachers quickly learn how to use the Microsoft Office applications. They are part of the Teaching and Learning with Microsoft program, which is a worthwhile free program designed to help educators learn how to integrate technology (Microsoft technology, that is) into their practice. http://www.microsoft.com/education/?ID=Tutorials


http://www.plato.com/

http://www.compasslearning.com/

http://www.ncslearn.com/successmaker/

http://www.microsoft.com/education/?ID=Tutorials

Linear Information Presentation (no-practice tutorial)

This context type simply provides the learners with the linear presentation of information (“instructions”) and examples. That’s it.

Developing Scales

http://trochim.cornell.edu/kb/scalgen.htm This site is part of an on-line textbook that presents concepts in measurement and statistics. The link takes you to a page that displays information about how to develop scales (which may come in handy if you need to develop a rubric for evaluating instruction). ********************

Theory Into Practice (TIP) Database

http://tip.psychology.org/ This very useful website presents information over a variety of instructional and educational theories. No practice, no review, no assessment, no context. Just good, well organized information.

Drill & Practice

Generally, this type of environment does not present "new" information, but provides practice and feedback over specific skills (often knowledge, defined concepts and rules).

Reading Blaster (Ages 7-8)

www.education.com/blaster/RB7-8demo.shtml This is one of the popular titles in the “Blaster” series of math, reading and language arts drill & practice programs. You can play a demo of this program on-line. Shockwave will install automatically of you don’t already have it as a browser plug-in. And if you need help figuring it out, try to ask an 8-year-old for help (hint: the longer you hold the mouse down, the more power is applied to the ball shooter).


http://trochim.cornell.edu/kb/scalgen.htm

http://tip.psychology.org/

http://www.education.com/blaster/RB7-8demo.shtml

Learning WITH Technology

Examples of Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Contexts

Context Type

Context Description

Web-Based Examples Note: Most of the descriptions were obtained directly from the Websites.

Creation

This type of context provides opportunities for learners to create something.

ThinkQuest

http://www.thinkquest.org/library/winners.html The ThinkQuest Internet Challenge is an international program for students ages 12 through 19. This challenge encourages students to use the Internet to create information-rich Web-based educational tools and materials. Students form teams with their colleagues from around the world and are mentored by teachers or other adult coaches. In the running for scholarships and awards totaling more than $1 million, student participants learn collaboration, leadership and critical thinking skills that help raise their level of education and technological expertise.

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WebQuest

http://www.kn.pacbell.com/ssi_includes/webquests.html A WebQuest presents students with a challenging task, scenario, or problem to solve. The best topics include issues that are under dispute or that offer multiple perspectives. Current events, controversial social and environmental topics work well. Students begin by learning some common background knowledge, then divide into groups. Each student or pair of students has a particular role, task, or perspective to master. They effectively become experts on one aspect of a topic. Students must synthesize their learning by completing a summarizing act such as e-mailing congressional representatives or presenting their interpretation to the world.


http://www.thinkquest.org/library/winners.html

http://www.kn.pacbell.com/ssi_includes/webquests.html

Real/ Simulation

These context types allow learners to make decisions in the development and/or subsequent operation of a real or simulated environment or situation. Simulations often try to replicate real-world environments.

Lego Mindstorms

http://mindstorms.lego.com/community/missions/mission.asp “We are going to start you out on one of the more routine missions that we do with our unmanned Robotic Cargo Vehicles (RCV's.) This will help you get familiarized with our standard operating procedures and let you test your skills before we get to the heavier stuff. However, make no mistake, this will be a little tricky to pull off - so pay attention! We have a crew of geologists studying glacial movement in the Arctic. These men and women are highly mobile, taking scientific readings on the ground and checking for shifts in the ice flow across a diverse and often hostile terrain. To keep safe - and alive - they have to travel light and maintain a fast pace. We try to fly in supplies to them on a weekly basis, but the weather has often grounded the planes and held up the team's ability to move. We want to start using our new RCV's fitted for cold weather travel to deliver supplies and equipment to our crews during bad conditions. You mission is to use your RIS 2.0 set to design, build, and program a simulation of an Arctic RCV supply mission. Follow the directions in the Mission Brief and Checklist and you will get a sense of the challenges we're facing out there.”

ThinkerTools http://thinkertools.berkeley.edu:7019/ ThinkerTools is a Newtonian force and motion simulation environment for the Macintosh. The ThinkerTools curriculum scaffolds scientific inquiry using both simulated and "real-world" experiments.


http://mindstorms.lego.com/community/missions/mission.asp

http://thinkertools.berkeley.edu:7019/

Situation Exploration, Case-Based, Story

Situation explorations and cases don’t allow the learners to control parameters of the environment, but they can freely explore within a simulated or real environment or situation. These types of contexts are often "problem solving" in nature. Story contexts present stories (fiction or non-fiction), and story elements such as characters, plot, setting, and conflict might be used as “anchors” or themes to help facilitate specific, discrete outcomes. Non-fiction story elements, such as collected and tabulated data, reflect elements of cases that are often used to help facilitate the learning of specific outcomes as well.

Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series

http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/ctrs/lsi/morejw.htm The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury consists of 12 videodisc-based story adventures (plus video based analogs, extensions and teaching tips) that focus on mathematical problem finding and problem solving. Each adventure is designed from the perspective of the standards recommended by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). In particular, each adventure provides multiple opportunities for problem solving, reasoning, communication and making connections to other areas such as science, social studies, literature and history (NCTM, 1989; 1991).

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The JASON Project http://www.jasonproject.org/ The JASON Project offers students and teachers in grades 4 through 9 a comprehensive, multimedia approach to enhance teaching and learning in science, technology, math, geography, and associated disciplines. The project delivers its educational content through a print curriculum, videos, fully interactive Internet programming, and live satellite "telepresence" broadcasts in which students become part of real global explorations.

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ID Case Event: Chronicles of Rocketboy http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/ITcases/Chronicles/ This “case event” represents an imaginary case study in which a newly-educated instructional designer takes a job at a California company that provides computer-based special effects for film companies. The ID problems to be solved, as well viable solutions, are embedded within the case itself. This case was designed to help instruct (and assess) instructional design skills.

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BioQuest Cases http://www.bioquest.org/case99.html Resources for using complex, open-ended problems are presented as narrative cases to initiate student-centered investigation in biology are provided for classroom use.


http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/ctrs/lsi/morejw.htm

http://www.jasonproject.org/

http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/ITcases/Chronicles/

http://www.bioquest.org/case99.html

Research Problems

In this context type, research problems (problems associated with a specific content domain) are presented to the learners, and they must use computer-based resources to help solve the problems.

Clear View Charter School Science Program

http://glef.org/ (type “Introducing Project Based Learning Clear View” into the search engine) Clear View Charter School was originally featured in the George Lucas Educational Foundation's 1997 documentary film, Learn & Live. The original 23-minute video story follows teacher Jim Dieckmann's 4th/5th grade class as they research insects, create multimedia reports, and prepare questions to pose to entomologists at San Diego State University. Then, through a two-way fiber-optic connection to the University, students and scientists look at insect body parts together using an electron microscope. The interaction with experts helps Albert and Charles deepen their understanding of the scientific process.

Reference Exploration

This context type allows the learner to freely explore and access reference-type information.

NASA On-Line Resources

http://education.nasa.gov/multimedia.html Although the entire Internet could fall into the reference exploration category, the NASA on-line resources represent a good example of a more specific body of knowledge that is accessible via the web. At this site, learners can explore images, sounds, movies, and other information related to the exploration and study of space.

Games

This type of context usually engages learners in competition, cooperation, puzzles, or strategies, often for the sake of entertainment. Other contexts may employ this context to because of the motivational advantages of games.

SimCity Classic On-Line

http://simcity.ea.com/us/guide/ SimCity is a simulation program in which the user designs a city and then turns it loose to see if its population grows, thrives, and ultimately survives the many different challenges introduced (like natural disasters, disease etc.). Although this could be classified as a simulation, the link above will allow you to play an on-line version of SimCity on which you compete against other users to try and keep a city “alive.”


http://glef.org/

http://education.nasa.gov/multimedia.html

http://simcity.ea.com/us/guide/

Story-telling

This type of context encourages learners to construct and communicate fiction and nonfiction stories. This context types is presented separately from “creation” contexts simply because the act of storytelling falls somewhere in-between creation and communication.

Stories.com

http://www.stories.com This Web site enables users to create a free account and post a story.

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Blogger.com http://www.blogger.com The word “blog” represents the abbreviated form of “Web log.” A Web log is a Web site designed to communicate information in diary fashion by presenting text and picture posts according to the day they were posted. Blogger.com allows users to create free accounts and develop easily-updatable “blogs” within minutes!

“Big-Picture” Concept Mapping

This context type encourages the learners to create conceptual “Big Pictures” that represent the scope of particular content domains.

Inspiration

http://www.inspiration.com/vlearning/index.cfm Inspiration is a software tool designed to help learners construct concept maps or “mind maps” depicting their understanding of a particular issue or topic. This Inspiration site presents background information on the benefits of concept mapping, and it portrays a good sampling of different types and applications of concept maps creating with the Inspiration software.


http://www.stories.com/

http://www.blogger.com/

http://www.inspiration.com/vlearning/index.cfm

Discussions

Discussion contexts are simply environments in which a moderator presents or facilitates the articulation of topics to be discussed by the learners.

Kidlink

http://www.kidlink.org/ Kidlink is a non-profit grassroots organization working to help children through the secondary school level be involved in a global dialog. The work is supported by 83 public mailing lists for conferencing, a private network for Real-Time Interactions (like chats), an online art exhibition site, and volunteers living throughout the world. Most of our volunteers are teachers and parents. Since the start on May 25, 1990, over 175,000 kids from 137 countries on all continents have participated. Their primary means of communication is electronic mail (email), but Real-Time Interactions (like "chats"), various types of web-based dialogs, ordinary mail, fax, video conferencing, and ham radio are also being used.

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Knowledge Forum http://www.learn.motion.com/lim/kf/kf3info1.html Knowledge Forum 3.0 allows users to create a knowledge-building community. Each community creates their own database in which they can store notes, connect ideas, and "rise-above" previous thinking. The note-taking, searching, and organizational features of this sophisticated tool allow any type of community to build knowledge. If your goals are building your community knowledge then Knowledge Forum is the application for you. Users start with an empty database to which they submit ideas, share information, reorganize the knowledge, and ultimately "rise-above" to new understandings. Knowledge Forum makes information accessible with multiple vantage points and multiple entry points. Even the collection and display of the community's work can be organized in flexible visual displays. Your work is not limited to your individual organization; if desired, you can become part of a larger community and work in concert on related problems. This type of tool could probably be used within any of the different context types presented in this table, but it is being included in the “Discussion” section because its principle feature is to promote the sharing of ideas between learners.


http://www.kidlink.org/

http://www.learn.motion.com/lim/kf/kf3info1.html

In-Class and Computer-Based Instructional Scaffolds Scaffold Type

Description

Common In-Class Examples

Computer-Based Examples

Procedural

Guidance on how to utilize resources and tools

How-To Sheets Tutors Introductory remarks and examples from the instructor

Guided Tours Maps and Overview Diagrams Tables of Content Search Engines Tutorials

Conceptual

Guidance on what to consider throughout the learning experience

Benchmark lesson(s) facilitated by an instructor Study Questions Advance Organizers

Moderated chat experiences Moderated discussion groups

Metacognitive

Guidance on how to think about the problem(s) under study

Individual Mentoring Peer Tutoring Teacher Modeling

Planning scaffolds allow students to set goals and objectives, chart benchmarks and deadlines for projects, create concept maps, etc. Regulating scaffolds allow students to monitor their progress and receive feedback on their performance (i.e., online quizzing, interactive practice exercises, etc.) Evaluating scaffolds allow students to critique one another's work, exchange documents to-from the instructor for revising, etc.

Strategic Guidance on approaches to solving problems

Small Group Mini-Lessons Textbook Assignments

Open Chats Open Discussion groups and forums


National [& Other] Standards Resources

http://pt3.nau.edu/resources/workshops/wkshp1/standards_menu.htm Language Arts

National Council of Teachers of English http://www.ncte.org/standards/thelist.html

Arts National Standards for Art Education

http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/professional_resources/standards/natstandards/index.html

Information Problem Solving

Big Six Skills for Information Problem Solving by Michael Eisenberg & Bob Berkowitz http://www.big6.com

Science Projec2061: Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy American Association for the Advancement of Science

http://www.project2061.org/tools/benchol/bolframe.htm

National Science Education Standards http://www.nap.edu/html/nses/html/ http://www.nap.edu/html/nses/html/

Mathematics Principles and Standards for School Mathematics National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

http://standards.nctm.org/ History

National Center for History in the School’s National Standards for History Basic Edition (1996)

http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/nchs/standards/ Geography

National Geographic’s 18 Geography Standards http://www.nationalgeographic.com/resources/ngo/education/standardslist.html

Nutrition United States Department of Agriculture’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans

http://www.dga2000training.usda.gov/ Social Studies

National Council for the Social Studies http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/toc.html

Technology National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) International Society for Technology in Education

http://cnets.iste.org Thinking and Reasoning

Thinking and Reasoning Standards Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory

http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/Standard.asp?SubjectID=21 Working with Others

Working with Others Standards Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory

http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/Standard.asp?SubjectID=22


References

Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, S. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

Hannafin, M; Land, S. & Oliver, K. (1999). Open Learning Environments: Foundations, Methods, and Models. In Instructional-Design Theories and Models: Volume II. Reigeluth, C. (Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Herrington, J. & Oliver, R. (1997). Multimedia, magic and the way students respond to a situated learning environment. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 13(2), 127-143.

Jonassen, D. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research & Development, 39(3), 5-14.

Papert, S. (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.), Constructionism, (pp. 1-11). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Rieber, L.P. (2000). The Studio Experience: Educational reform in instructional technology. Brown, D.G. Best Practices in Computer Enhanced Teaching and Learning (pp. 195-196). Winston-Salem, NC: Wake Forest Press.

Thorndike, E. (1932). The Fundamentals of Learning. New York: Teachers College

Press.

Note: Much of the information presented within the “context type” table above was presented in Greg Kearsley’s Theory Into Practice Database. (http://tip.psychology.org). This is an excellent resource for anybody interested in comparing instructional theories, strategies, and ideas. There are also links to some interesting articles related to constructivism at the following sites:

http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/Publications/index.html http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html

…And here are some links to information on scaffolding:

http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/interface/help.html

http://edweb.sdsu.edu/people/bdodge/scaffolding.html http://www.indiana.edu/~idtheory/chapter_6_summary.html http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/edis771/webquest2000/student/ssusandigiac/scaffold.htm


http://tip.psychology.org/

http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/Publications/index.html

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html

http://edweb.sdsu.edu/people/bdodge/scaffolding.html

http://www.indiana.edu/~idtheory/chapter_6_summary.html

http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/edis771/webquest2000/student/ssusandigiac/scaffold.htm

http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/edis771/webquest2000/student/ssusandigiac/scaffold.htm


About the PT3 Program at NAU… The Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) program at NAU is a federally-funded initiative that is administered through the Arizona K-12 Center. This program is committed to helping education faculty integrate technology into their professional practices. Offering individual technology mentoring and support, helping with course redesign efforts, and providing technology resources represent the primary ways in which the PT3 staff can help with technology integration efforts during the Fall 2002 semester. Currently, the PT3 staff at NAU includes two full-time personnel. Greg Sherman is an instructional technologist, specializing in the development of computer-supported instructional strategies to facilitate learning within a broad range of contexts. Paul Alley is an educational media developer, specializing in the creation of interactive Web-based material. Greg and Paul are housed in Room 178 of the education building. Contact information for NAU’s PT3 program:

NAU’s PT3 Website : http://pt3.nau.edu Greg Sherman’s Contact Info: [email protected]

3-9415 Paul Alley’s Contact Info: [email protected]

3-9434 An on-line version of this document can be found at:

http://pt3.nau.edu/resources/workshops/

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