using general knowledge

8/10/2019 Using General Knowledge

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CHAPTER 8USING GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

By: 1. Noor Haslinda Binti Mohd Idris MPP141041

2. Nurmayulis@Malina Binti Noordin MP1310633. Ahmad Shahir Bin Muhamad MPP141042


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The Structured Of SemanticMemory

Semantic Memory :

- encyclopedic knowledge, lexical or languageknowledge, conceptual knowledge

- (organized knowledge about the world)


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Background On Semantic MemoryCategory : set of objects that belongtogether.

Example : fruit represents a certain categoryof food items

Concept : refer to our mentalrepresentations of categoryExample : we have a concept of fruit

These inferences allow us to go to beyond thegiven information, to expand our knowledge


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The Prototype Approach

Prototype : an abstract, idealized example Prototype Approach :

By personal experiences, we can decidewhether an item belongs to a category bycomparing it with the prototype.

Example : conclude Robin is a bird because itmatches the prototype of bird.


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Characteristics of Prototypes supplied as examples of a category

Example : many people judged robin to be inthe bird category.

judged more quickly after semantic primingExample : we can see the name of colourbefore judging the pair of colours.

Share attributes in a family resemblancecategory

Example : many students rated a car as amost prototypical vehicle.


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The Prototype Approach

Level Of Categorization

Superordinate-

level :

more general categories.

Example :

Furniture,

animal,

Basic-level :

moderatelyspecific

Example :

Chair,

dog

An object can be categorized at severaldifferent levels .

Subordinate-

Level:

more specificcategories

Example :

Desk Chair,

Collie


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The Exemplar Approach First learn some specific examples of a concept

(exemplars) then classify each new stimulus by deciding how

closely it resembles those specific examples Example :1) You read 4 case studies which each case study

described a depressed individual.

2)Then, you read an article that described a womanspsychological problem, but the article does notspecify her disorder.

3) You decide that she fits into the category depressed person because this description resemblesthe characteristics of 4 earlier exemplars.


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Network Models and Semantic

Memory

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apple


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The meaning of a particularconcept depends on the other

concepts to which it isconnected.


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1. Andersons ACT R model

- Attempts to explain a wide variety ofcognitive processes.

- Represents sentences and concepts witha propositional-network structure


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Propositional Network Representingthe sentences :

Ali gave a brown wallet to Ana whois his wife.


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Example :

1. It starts with a letter c.2. It is orange.

3. Type of vegetable.4. Rabbits like it.


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Advantage of PDP :

1. Allow us to explain how human memory canhelp us when someone information ismissing.

2. Make a default assignment based oninformation from other similar people orobjects.


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SCHEMAS AND SCRIPTS


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Schema generalized knowledge about asituation, an event or a person

Schema theories are especially helpfulwhen psychologists try to explain howpeople process complex situations andevents.


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Background on Schemas and Scripts

Schema theories propose that peopleencode generic information about asituation, then use this information tounderstand and remember new examples ofthe schema.


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A psychology professors office

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Schemas and Memory Selection If the information describes a minor event

and time is limited people tend toremember information accurately when it isconsistent with a schema.(e.g., the desk , thechair )

If the information describes a minor event

and time is limited people do not rememberinformation that is inconsistent with the

schema. (e.g., the hat , the wine bottle )

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People seldom create a completely falsememory for a lengthy event that did notoccur

When the information describes a major

event that is inconsistent with the standardschema, people are likely to remember thatevent

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Schemas and Boundary Extension

Boundary extension our tendency to rememberhaving viewed a greater portion of a scene than wasactually shown

Intraub and colleagues see photo then draw replica of photo Participants consistently produced a sketch that

extended the boundaries beyond the viewpresented in the original photo

activate a perceptual schema

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Abstraction a memory process thatstores the meaning of a message but not theexact words

Verbatim Memory word-for-word recall

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http://www.nytimes.com/video/opinion/100000002847155/verbatim-what-is-a-photocopier.html?playlistId=100000001150263http://www.nytimes.com/video/opinion/100000002847155/verbatim-what-is-a-photocopier.html?playlistId=100000001150263


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Schemas and Memory Abstraction

1. The Constructive Approach

Bransford and Franks (1971)

listen to sentences from several differentstoriesrecognition test including new itemspeople convinced that they had seenthese new items before ( false alarm )false alarms particularly likely for complex

sentences consistent with the originalschema


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2. Pragmatic view of memory

- people pay attention to the aspect of amessage that is most relevant to their currentgoals

Murphy and Shapiro (1994) o correct recognition was higher for

sentences from the sarcastic condition thanfor sentences in the bland condition

o more false alarms for paraphrases of blandsentences than sarcastic sentences

o more accurate in their verbatim memory forthe sarcastic version than for the blandversion


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Schemas and Memory Abstraction

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The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction

two approaches (Constructive andPragmatic) quite compatible

in many cases we integrate informationinto large schemas

in some cases we know that specificwords matter and pay close attention toprecise wording


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Schemas and Inferences in Memory

inferences logical interpretations andconclusions that were not part of the originalstimulus material


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R h I f B d


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Research on Inferences Based onGender Stereotypes (continued)

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Implicit Memory Tasks

1. Using neuroscience techniques to assessgender stereotypes

Osterhout, Bersick and McLaughlin (1997)ERP technique stereotype consistentsentences vs. stereotype inconsistentsentences change in ERPs for stereotype-inconsistent words but not for stereotype-consistent words


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2. Using the Implicit Association Test toassess gender stereotypes

Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002)

Implicit Association Test (IAT) based on

the principle that people can mentally pairrelated words together much more easilythan they can pair unrelated wordsStereotype-Consistent pairings (male/mathvs. female/arts)Stereotype-Inconsistent pairings(female/math vs. male/arts)


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Conclusions About Schemas

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1. We often select material for memory that is

inconsistent with our schemas.

2. We may indeed remember that we saw onlya portion of an object, rather than thecomplete object.

3. We frequently recall the exact words of apassage as it was originally presented.

4. We often avoid making inappropriateinferences.


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