ut procedure en
TRANSCRIPT
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MME GROUP
Materiaal MetingenTes tg ro ep NDO
Nie t De str uc tie f Onder zo ekNon Destr uc tiv e Examina tio n
EXAM INATIO N PRO CEDURE
Title o f d oc ument : P ro ce du re fo r th e u ltr as on ic e xam in atio n, o f w eld s o f fe rrite m ate ria l,
P rocedure number : MM 48100 E
Issued by : MM-Tes tg roep
P ro ce du re b as ed u po n : EN 1712/ EN 1713 and EN 1714
This docum ent consist of this front page and 23 pages
Rev. 3 Prepared by Approved by Accepted by client
Name G c' van del' S toep AJ, de Roode
Title Procedure technician Leve l I II
Date 10-07-2007 10-07-2007
~Sign"
Procedu re re lea sed
O nly green stam ped procedures w ith "D ate of release" dated and signed by the m anager shall be used.No part of th is docum ent m ay be reproduced or copied in any form without the perm iss ion of MMT.F ront page of th is docum ent issued by MME has been provided w ith the MME -em blem in colour print
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MME GROUP
Materiaal MetingenTestgroep
Proc.nr.: M M48100 ERevision: 3
NDO - Procedure
M M48100 E Ultrasonic examination of welds according to EN 1712, EN 1713 and EN 1714-------- -------- ================================================
Contents
0, Contents I Used documents for this procedure1. Scope2, Competency examiner3 " Method of examination4. Extent and moment of examination5, Equipment
6, Couplant7, Checks prior to examination8, Calibration blocks9, Reference sensitivity10. Instrument adjustment11, Execution12, Acceptance criteria13 Reportable indications14, Rapairs15. Report16, Filling17. Attachments 1 uli 11
Used documents for this procedure.
1. EN 4732" EN 5833" EN 17124, EN 17135, EN 17146. EN 1330-47, EN 120628, EN 12223 (ISO 2400)
9. EN 27963 (ISO 7963)10., M M00001 E11. K-Proc. M M00091 E12. WVS M M0041013., ASTN Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A
M M48100 E 10-07-2007 Page 1 of 23
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MME GROUP Proc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
1.
1.1 Procedure for the ultrasonic examination of welds in ferritic materials, in accordance with EN 1714, forwall thickness ~ 8 mm and : :0 ;100 mm,
1.2 This procedure describes the detection, location and evaluation of ultrasonic reflectors within weld, heataffected zone and adjacent material, according to the EN 1712.
2 " Competency examiner
This procedure shall be used by personnel qualified according to the EN 473 and/or SNT-TC-1A level
:i 2~",UT-II and certified according to K-Proc MM 00091 E, which is in accordance with the ASNTs._:):iRecommended Practice SNT-TC-1A /2001,t i . . , , :{'~ '""" ' '
SKO and PCNqualifications are in accordance with EN 473"
3" Method of examination
Manually with direct contact coupling, using the pulse-echo method,
4, Extent and moment of examination
The extent of examination shall be indicated on the client's request (form),
5" Equipment
5,,1 Instruments
Krautkrerner type:
Sonatest type:
USM 25/35, USL 31/32, USK 7, USIP 11,
SS 110/130/140/230/240/330
All equipment used for this procedure shall be provided with a sticker indicating the calibration dateaccording to MM 00001 E. Equipment without a sticker or invalid dated are prohibited to use"
5.2 Search units
In general the 4 MHz probes shall be used for wall thickness : : 0 ;40 mm and 2 MHz probes for wallthickness> 40 rnm. High frequencies may be used for a better resolution,
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MME GROUP Proc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
83 Material reference blocks
The material of the reference blocks shall have the similar metallurgical structure as the material to be
examined.Reference block shall be tested and checked according to WVS MM : 00410"
9, Reference sensitivity
For the adjustment of the reference sensitivity the DAC-method shall be used,
10" Instrument adjustment
10.1 Sweep length
The sweep length shall be adjusted with the reflections from the Kl and K2 standard blocks"The sweep length shall be at least 1..5 V-path for each type of angle probe and at least 2t for thestraight beam,
102 Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Compensation for material attenuation and beam spread shall be provided by the use of DAC curves,
103 DAC construction. straight beam (only for examination of welds)
The DAC shall be constructed using the reflections of the three side drilled holes in the applicablereference block, as follows (see attachment 3 Fig" 3),
a" Position the search unit for maximum response from the hole which gives the highestamplitude,
b. Adjust gain control to provide an amplitude of 80% (within +/ 5% ) of full screen height andmark the peak on the screen.
c. Position the search unit for maximum response from the other two holes and mark the peaks
on the screen"
d. Connect these three marks with a line covering the examination range,
e, This line is the reference level (100% DAC)
MM 48100 E 10-07-2007 Page 5 of 23
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Proc.nr,: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
lOA DAC construction, angle beam
The DAC shall be constructed using the reflections of the three side drilled holes in the applicable
reference block, as follows (see attachment 4 Fig, 4).,
a, Position the angle search unit for maximum response from the hole which gives the highestamplitude"
b. Adjust gain control to provide an amplitude of 80% (within +/-5%) of full screen height andmark the peak on the screen, This is the primary response,
c. Position the angle search unit for maximum response from the other two holes, and mark thesepeaks on the screen,
d. Connect the three screen marks" This line is the reference level (100% DAC)"
Note: e u/i 9 is not required, only if it is possible (not always possible due to beam spread).
e, If the amplitude of the first response of the 3/4 hole below the 30% of full screen, raise thegain setting by 6 dB and marked the response"
f . Position the angel probe now for maximum response on the 3/4 t hole using the bottom of thecalibration block pos D, if necessary do the same on the 1/2 hole (pas E)..
g" Connect these two or three marks also. This line is called the raised DAC (100% + 6dB)..
10.5 Transfer mechanism
Basically the surface condition of the part to be examined and the reference block should be equal. Ifnot the difference in coupling shall be determined by using the transfer correction as follows,
a" Position two identical angle probes, one transmitting, and one receiving, in full skip on thereference block for maximum response of transmission amplitude and bring this amplitude tothe DAC-Iine,Read the dB setting"
b. Accomplish the same action on the scanning surface of the object, and raise the amplitude byusing to the dB setting to the DAC-line.,The difference between the dB setting of a. and b. is the transfer correction"
c. The primary response (see lOA b) is now raised or lowered by the transfer correction.
d. The reference level (100% DAC) is now called the corrected reference level.
MM 48100 E 10-07-2007 Page 6 of 23
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P roc.nr.: MM 4 810 0 ERevis io n: 3
10,6 S imulato r Check
A fte r th e DAC h as b ee n c on stru cte d a s d es crib ed in p ara gra phlOA th e se ns itiv ity se ttin g o f th e p rim ary
re sp onse shall b e checke d a gainst the re spo nse of the quad rant of stan dard blo ckK1
orK2,
T he rela tio n in dB be tw een prim ary respon se a nd stand ard blo ckKl or K2 is u se d fo r c alib ra tio nconfirmation,T his sh all b e ch ec ke d e ve ry3 m onth s, or afte r re pair o r cha nge of an y p art of the equ ipm ent.
1 0,,7 Ca lib ratio n ch eck
If a part of the equipm ent is changed or a cable or a probe is rep laced or a probe isreshoed, th e wh olesy stem s ha ll b e re -c he cke d fo r s we ep le ng th , d B-s ettin g a nd DAC ,
1 0],.1 R ec alib ra tio n
A t the end o f each exa min atio n or at least eve ry fo ur ho urs the ca lib ratio n shall be che cke d u sing there fe re nce b lo ck s a nd th e sta nd ard ca lib ra tio n b lo cks fo r th e swe ep le ng th "
10, ,7 , ,2 Sensi tiv ity
a) If errors s 4 dB:T he se ttin g s ha ll b e c orre cte d b efo re th e e xamin atio n is c on tin ue d,
b ) Reduction of the sensitiv ity> 4 dB:A ll da ta shee ts sin ce the last calib ration che ck sh all b e m arked void" A new ca lib ratio n shall bem ade a nd the a reas covered b y the void d ata shall b e re-e xam ine d,
c) Increase in sensitiv ity> 4 dB:S ettin g s ha ll b e c orre cte d a nd a ll re co rd ed in dic atio ns s ha ll b e re -e xam in ed ,
10,}.3 Sweep range
a) Errors:;:; 2% of the sweep range:T he s ettin g s ha ll b e c orre cte d b efo re e xam in atio n is c on tin ue d,
b) E rrors> 2% of the sweep range:
S ettin g sh all b e co rre cte d a nd a ll re co rd ed d ata s in ce th e la st va lid ca lib ra tio n sh all b e re -e xam in ed a nd if n ec es sa ry c orre cte d,
MM 48100 E 10-07-2007 Page 7 of 23
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~iaMME GROUP
Materiaal MetingenTestgroep
Proc.nr.: MM48100 ERevis io n: 3
11. Execution
11. Execution
ILl Exte nt o f s ca nn in g
W herever feasib le, the scanning of the exam ination volum e shall be carried out from both sides of thew eld on the sam e surface .W here configura tion or adjacent parts of the com ponent are such that scanning from both sides is notfe asible , this fact sh all be in clu de d in th e rep ort of examina tio n,T he u sed direction o f e xamina tion sha ll be rep orte d b y draw lnq,
11.2 S election of an gle b eam
11.2.1 Genera l
B asic ally w eld s s ha ll b e e xamin ed w ith2 angle probes, the difference betw een the angles shall be atleast 10,The angle selection depends on the configuration of the w eld being exam ined .
11..2. 2 S election of an gle be am
R ecomm en de d for the e xamin ation of w elds:
Wal l t hi ckness 8 mm s t s 15 mm 60 and/or 70 4 MHzWal l t hi ckness 15 mm < t s 40 mm 45 - 60 and/or 70 2 or 4 MHzWal l t hi ckness> 40 mm 45 - 60 and/or 70 2 MHz
See also attachment 5 u/i 11
O ther frequencies and/or angle or stra igh t beam probes m ay be used for bette r penetration or bette rresolution,
11.3 R ate o f se arch u nit m ovemen t
The ra te of search unit m ovem ent shall not exceed150 rnm/s.
11 A Examina tio n cov er ag e
Each pass of the search unit sha ll overlap a m inim um of10% o f th e tr an sd uc er (p ie zo -e le ctric e lemen t)dim ensio ns pe rp en dicula r to the d irection o f th e scan ,
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Proc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
11.5 Base material
Prior to the initial angle beam examination, the base material through which the angle beam will travelshall be scanned with a straight beam to detect laminar reflectors which might affect the interpretationof angle beam results"Locations and areas of such reflectors shall be reported, however detection of these reflection is not abase for rejection of the base material,
11 ,6 Examination sensitivity
The scanning shall be performed at a gain setting on at least two times (+ 6dB) the (corrected) primaryreference level.Indications shall be performed with respect to the (corrected) primary reference level,
lL7 Detection of reflectors parallel to the weld
The angle beam shall be directed at approximately right angles to the weld axis from two directionswhere possible" The search unit shall be manipulated so that the ultrasonic energy passes through therequired volume of weld and adjacent base metal. (See attachment 5 u/i 11)
11..8 Detection of reflectors transverse to the weld
The angle beam shall be directed essentially parallel to the weld axis.The search unit shall be manipulated so that the angle beam passes through the required volumes ofweld and adjacent base metal, The search unit shall be rotated about 1800 and the examinationrepeated.(See attachment 5 u/i 11).,If the weld surface has been made sufficiently smooth, the search unit may be placed on the centerlineof the weld and the beam directed along the weld, to scan the entire weld and adjacent base metal,The search unit shall be rotated 18 00 and the examination repeated"(See attachment 5 u/I 11)
11..9 Evaluation of indications
All imperfections which produce amplitudes greater than 33% reference level (DAC - 10 dB), shall beinvestigated to the extent that the shape, identity and location of such imperfections can be determinedand evaluated in terms of the acceptance standard given in paragraph 12,
11..9,.1 Length of an imperfection
The length of an imperfection shall be determined by moving the probe parallel to the weld and markthe points where the echo height has fallen to 50% DAC (amplitude half-value method).
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~!.MME GROUP
Materiaal MetingenTestgt'oep
Proc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
12" Acceptance criteria
Be fo re th e u ltra so nic e xamin atio n w eld s sh all b e vis ua l e xamin ed in a cco rd an ce w ith th e a pp lica blequality level of the EN 25 817 as m entioned in the contract docum ents or the request form of the client
T he requ ire d acceptance level according the E N 1 712 shall m eet the levels of EN 12062 Table A .6
Quality level according Exam ination techniques and Acc ep ta nc e le ve ls a cc ord in g ENE N25 817 levels according EN 1714 *1 1712
B At least B 1 *3C At least A 2 *3D Level not applicable *2 No t a pp lic ab le *2
1) Wh en c ha ra cte riz atio n o f in dic atio ns is re qu ire d b y a gre em e nt b etw ee n th e c on tra ctin gparties,EN 171 3 s ha ll a pp ly,
2) U T is not recommended but can be agreed betw een the contracting parties (w ith the sam er~ uirem en ts a s q ua Jity le ve l C )
Note: Acceptance level 1 is not mentioned in the EN 1712.According EN 1712 art. 4.1 Acceptance level 2 will normally require at least examination levelBf and for acceptance level 3 at least examination level A.
12,1 A cc ep ta nc e le ve ls 2 a nd 3 fo r lo ng itu din al in dic atio ns
A ll in dica tio ns w ith amp litu de s a nd le ng th s e xce ed in g th e lim its o f Tab le 1 2,1 a re u na cce pta ble ,
a e ccep ance eve s an or me a .8 rnrn s t < 15 mm
Indication length I in mm Maximum p erm itte d e ch o amplitu deI:s:t 1 00 % DAC R efe re nce le ve l.I> t 5 0% DAC Reference level - 6dB
15 mm s t:s: 100 mmIndication length I in mm Maximum p erm itte d e ch o amplitu de
1 < 0,5 t Reference level+ 4 dB05t t Reference level- 6 dB (5 0% DAC)Evaluation level: Reference level- 10 dB (33% DAC)
Recor ding levels :A cc ep ta nc e le ve l 2= Reference level - 6 dB (DAC - 6 dB)A cc ep ta nc e le ve l 3= Reference level 2 dB (DAC - 2 dB)
T bl 121 A t I 2 d 3 ~ DAC th d
12.2 Acceptance levels 2 and 3 for transverse indications
A ll in dica tio ns e xc ee din g th e lim its a s sta te d in Tab le 1 2,1 a re u na cce pta ble "T ra nsve rse in dic atio ns w ith e ch o amp litu de s e qu al to o r e xce ed in g th e e va lu atio n le ve l sh all b ecla ss ifie d b y a dd itio na l u ltra so nic sca nnmq, ra dio gra ph y o r o th er e xamin atio n m eth od to d ete rm in e th eirnature" O nly indications that are isolated (l.e m axim um three per m eter), w hose length is less than 10rnm, a re a cce pta ble if th ey a re p la na r. If th ey a re n on -p la na r th e a cce pta nce le ve l fo r lo ng itu din alind ic a tion s shall apply
MM 48100 E 10-07-2007 Page 10 of 23
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MME GROUP
Materiaal MetingenTestqroep
P roc. nr.: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
123 Linearly a ligned and grouped indications
L in ea rly a lig ne d in dic atio ns sh all b e co nsid er a s co ntin uo us if th ey a re se pa ra te d b y a d ista nce dx, ofle ss th an tw ic e th e le ng th o f th e lo ng est in dica tio n, T he to ta l, comb in ed le ng th sh all th en b e a sse sse da ga in st a p pro p ria te a cc ep ta nc e le ve ls (Table 1 2.,1 ).,
L in e arly a lig ne d in dic atio ns s ha ll s atis fy th e fo llow in g:
d, s 5 mm, dz ~ 5 mm see fig" 123"
A dja ce nt in dica tio ns g ro up ed in th is w ay sh all n ot b e u se d fo r fu rth er g ro up in g w ith a dd itio na lin dic atio n s, On ly d is cre te in d ic atio ns s ha ll b e s ub je ct to q ro up ln q.
A fte r g ro up in g, a ny re co rd ed a nd a cc ep te d in dica tio ns in th e same c ro ss s ectio n a nd d ep th p ositio n(dz s 5 mm) shall be separated by a d is tance d, > 10 mm. In dic atio ns in th e s am e la te ra l p os itio n(d, s 5 mm) sha ll be separated by a distanced, > 1 0 m rn . A dja ce nt in dic atio ns w ith sma lle r d is ta nc esd,
and dz a re n ot a cc ep ta ble .
F ig ,,123 Geome tr iC configu ra tion s fo r g rouped ind ic a tion s"
12.4 C um ulative length o f acceptable in dication s
Fo r a ny le ng th o f w eld e qu al to G t, th e m ax im um cumu la tive le ng th o f a ll in divid ua lly a cce pta blein dic atio ns a bo ve th e re co rd in g le ve ls sh all n ot e xc ee d 2 0% o f its le ng th fo r a cce pta nc e le ve l 2 ,
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MME GROUP
Materiaal MetingenTestgroep
Proem: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
13" Reportable indications
a, All unacceptable indications, according to par, 12"b All indications detected with a straight beam probe according to par, 11,5
This record shall locate each area, the response level in % DAC, the dimensions, the depthbelow the surface and classification
14" Repairs
Repaired areas will be reexamined using the original technique as with the first examination" Therepaired areas shall be recorded by drawing or other means,
15 Report
All significant examination data shall be recorded in the NDE report at least containing the following:
L Surface condition2" Couplant3. Technique4. Type of search units, frequencies and measures5, Type of ultrasonic equipment6" Sweep length, calibration block and reference block7. Extent of examination and material thickness8" Name and level of operator9. Date and place of examination10, The identification of the object being examined
15,1 Examination completed
After the examination has finished completely the NDE-report is prepared, The NDE-report is signed bythe examiner including his NDE-leveL If applicable the NDE-report shall be accompanied by attachmentsor drawings indicating the position, nature and length of all unacceptable defects,The original report and 1 copy shall be handed over to the client,
16" Filing
The NDE-supervisor receives a copy of the NDE-report and, if applicable, the attachments and drawinqs.The NDE-supervisor is responsible for the correct handling and filing of those copy reports at the officefor at least one year.After that year reports stay on file for 6 years in the technical archive"
17" Attachments
Attachments nr. 1 u/i 11.
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Mater'iaal MetingenTestgt'oep
P roc.nr.: MM 4 810 0 ERevision: 3
Attachment: 1
Fig, 1, K1 Block
F ormu la s fo r c alc ula tin g p ro be a ng le s
A ng le s s ha ll b e w ith in+ or - 20
A probes 60 - 75 tng a = (i + c) - 3530
B probes 60 - 80 tnga = (i + c) - 3515
C p ro b es 35 - 600 tng a = (i + c) - 3570
P ro be in de x i ::::;100 mm - b
C on tro l o f re so lu tio n o f a stra ig ht b eam p ro be
Good reso lu t ionFig" i.e.
Bad reso lu t ionFig, tc
Fig,l,a,
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MME GROUP Proc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevision: 3
Attachment: 2
~ ~ ~ L ~ ( ~ 3 T ~ m ~ i n ~ . J ~
!,..._ fa r1- ~L I
:4 L ~i Ile -I , : r. - .T- ' l - ' - ' - ' ' - - - - - ;o .1)I I 1I I 1
--J--- 1 1 11 ---.-:1-:-1: : ' ,q ;: I!I : t : ~I: !I!I :I: i I ~ ,
, iii:] . H ::1 ; :I! 'I '
~ ~
: I~ q: ' I;1:81 :1 :8 2 il;S 3
l : 1 : II' '1 '1, " t" :" Ii lr ;-,-- -- --{I:!: IH : I 1!Ii I I
i ii1 I I
" Iiii I I~I! I
_; - I I I, , I
: 1 1 I I I'I I I I
r- rT x iJ i'l t ' - -~ ;.- .. .::i[ _ _ _$-A2 _ -------- _$_ I- - - - - A3 - = = _= _ --- - - _ .,- - - --""1;"'-
38
Al - A3 = angle probes holes
Bl - B3 = straight beam holes
,
"-[f
Length of block: min, 8T (150 mm) for 19 mm block, min. 7T (270 mm) for 38 mm block, min, 6T (450mm) for 75 mm block and min ..3T for thicker blocks"Width of block: minimum 150 mm
Hole diameter !Z l3 mm, with a tolerance of +/~0,2 mm
Fig, 2,: Reference blocks
Table: Range reference blocks
Nominal weld Basic calibrationThickness (t) block thickness (T)
> 8 mm s 25 mm 19 mm or t
> 25 mm s 50 mm 38 mm art
> 50 mm s 100 mm 75 mm art
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~i.MME GROUP
Mater'iaal MetingenTestgr'oep
P roc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevis io n: 3
A tta chme nt: 3
iLlL~u
~
~
0
0
0
'-..
,....--- -- _ _._--_--- ,
CRT-,
-,
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~ l aMME GROUP
MM 48100 E
Materiaal MetingenTestgroep
P roc, nr.: MM 48100 ERevis io n: 3
A tta chme nt: 4
Ang le b eam p ro be p os itio ns
100% SBHAC --- -- .- -- -- -- -- -. --
10{ lY t .+-, A
200/0
80%
B - 60%
50% ._ l'obe 'probe SZW probe :F probe probe posltio".angleR prulltion. jlQ.!tlOlUl {irffC,ans angles of B~lUlS------
mO l L~n N . " " " T-"""".. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._.,..._ - ,--,-- T-A Ss t 15 I Aor l , 2 r ; rp - ._ . 1 - I.O,Wp1---- ----.-----.--
15s!S4Q 1 Aor 1,25p C (l 2 - I)~. O,50p
- l-IB
_..2),3)8 : ; : ;t o : : 15 2 AOf l$>p - _, 2 1 X a ndY 2
I B O,5Op
15:$!
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Materiaal MetingenTestgroep
Proc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevis io n: 3
Attachment: 10
1 End view2 Side view3 Component 14 Component:25 Component ,')
Scanning zone widths are indicated by the letters: a, b, c, d, e,f, 9 and k
'fable A.6 Cruciform joints----" _ ._ _._---------
I".xantlnatlon Thiduteli& oI LQug!tud.lnallnd.leatlol18 'fiaru;vel'$e iudiClltlo1l8 ,--cve! the parent ----materlal
RequIred number or. Total Notes RequlMd uuruber of: Total Note.
probe probe posit lolt fl SZW uumbet' probe probe position. D01uber
A11g 1 e . 8of ecane angle. Q,fHCIUI8
nun L-scan T-aeans
A- -.......,------
1 (A and C) or (B and D) - - 1 ,2 5 1 ) :2,---
l)8: :5"i 1 5 - - - -15st,,40 1 AandBandCandD O , 7& p 4 3)
_."l)-- -
40$ t$lOO 2 AandBandGandD O,75p 8 3) I)--- - -
B 8:$ t" 1 5 1 Aa.ndB and C and D 1,25p 4 - 1 (Xl and Yl and Wi and Zl) and 8 2)
..,---- i3 J - - -~-(X2 and Y2 and W2 and Z2 )
lJ5$t,,40 2 AandBandCandD O,75p 8 (Xl and Yl and WI and Zl) and 8 2)
(X2 and Y2and W2 and Z2)
40$ tslOO 2 A and B and C and I) O,75p 123) , .j)
2 (Xl and Yl and Wi and Zl) and 162)
I(X2 and Y2and W2 and Z2)
1 EandFandGandH e-k tr-C 4Ost:sl00 2 A andB and and tandem O,75p 1 2 - 2 (Xl and Yl and WI and Zl) and 16 2)
CandD (A or B) and (X2 and Y2 and W2 and Z2)(C or D) r------
1 E andF and e-kGandH
,,- --"---I) Not applicable,2) Sh:oll be . ,. ,mod oul by spec ia l a gr eemen r on ly_3) If a more sensitive level. is required, a tandem technique shall he applied,") But then F. an
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~1t .MME GROUP
Materiaal MetingenTestgt'oep
P roc.nr.: MM 48100 ERevis io n: 3
A tta chme nt: 11
------'-4----
-.--+----( 0
1 Coroponent1 ~ main pip"
2 Component 2 = branch pipeScanning zone widths are indicated by the letters: d, c,1.g and h
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . .-_ ._- - -_ .Table A.7 Nodejoints in tubular structures _. ._._---, ._ -El