Utilitarianism and Utilitarianism and LibertyLiberty

IntroductionIntroduction

KantKant Only a will can be absolutely good or Only a will can be absolutely good or

badbad

The only good is a will shaped by dutyThe only good is a will shaped by duty

IntroductionIntroduction

KantKant Only a will can be absolutely good or Only a will can be absolutely good or

badbad OKOK

The only good is a will shaped by dutyThe only good is a will shaped by duty

IntroductionIntroduction

KantKant Only a will can be absolutely good or Only a will can be absolutely good or

badbad OKOK

The only good is a will shaped by dutyThe only good is a will shaped by duty Not OK – don’t results matter at all?Not OK – don’t results matter at all?

IntroductionIntroduction

KantKant Only a will can be absolutely good or Only a will can be absolutely good or

badbad OKOK

The only good is a will shaped by dutyThe only good is a will shaped by duty Not OK – don’t results matter at all?Not OK – don’t results matter at all?

We are all some sort of consequentialistWe are all some sort of consequentialist

IntroductionIntroduction

KantKant Only a will can be absolutely good or Only a will can be absolutely good or

badbad OKOK

The only good is a will shaped by dutyThe only good is a will shaped by duty Not OK – don’t results matter at all?Not OK – don’t results matter at all?

We are all some sort of consequentialistWe are all some sort of consequentialist

Bentham/MillBentham/Mill Utilitarianism is pure consequentialismUtilitarianism is pure consequentialism

BackgroundBackground

Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)(1748-1832)

BackgroundBackground

Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)(1748-1832) An Enlightenment manAn Enlightenment man

American and French RevolutionsAmerican and French Revolutions Declarations of RightsDeclarations of Rights

BackgroundBackground

Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)(1748-1832) An Enlightenment manAn Enlightenment man

American and French RevolutionsAmerican and French Revolutions Declarations of RightsDeclarations of Rights

Opposed all talk of rightsOpposed all talk of rightsNatural rightsNatural rights is simple nonsense: natural is simple nonsense: natural

and imprescriptible and imprescriptible rights, rhetorical rights, rhetorical nonsense, -- nonsense upon stilts. nonsense, -- nonsense upon stilts.

……

in proportion as it is advantageous a right in proportion as it is advantageous a right should be should be establishedestablished

BackgroundBackground

John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) (1806-1873)

BackgroundBackground

John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) (1806-1873) Bentham’s godson and intellectual Bentham’s godson and intellectual

successorsuccessor

BackgroundBackground

John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) (1806-1873) Bentham’s godson and intellectual Bentham’s godson and intellectual

successorsuccessor Lived during the later Industrial Lived during the later Industrial

RevolutionRevolution Social dislocationSocial dislocation

UrbanisationUrbanisation Poverty and ProletarianizationPoverty and Proletarianization Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions, Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions,

Cooperatives … Cooperatives … RomanticismRomanticism

BackgroundBackground

John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) (1806-1873) Bentham’s godson and intellectual Bentham’s godson and intellectual

successorsuccessor Lived during the later Industrial RevolutionLived during the later Industrial Revolution

Social dislocationSocial dislocation UrbanisationUrbanisation Poverty and ProletarianizationPoverty and Proletarianization Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions, Cooperatives Luddites, Revolutionaries, Trades Unions, Cooperatives

… … RomanticismRomanticism

Laisser faire capitalismLaisser faire capitalism Socialist reactionsSocialist reactions

Essential UtilitarianismEssential Utilitarianism

A U. is a moral naturalistA U. is a moral naturalist What makes an act a good act is a natural What makes an act a good act is a natural

fact about that actfact about that act The relevant fact is the consequent The relevant fact is the consequent

happiness of personshappiness of persons Bentham simply asserts:Bentham simply asserts:

Nature has placed mankind under the Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, governance of two sovereign masters, painpain and and pleasurepleasure. It is for them alone to point out . It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. what we shall do.

Essential UtilitarianismEssential Utilitarianism

A U. is a moral naturalistA U. is a moral naturalist Mill argues:Mill argues:

The only evidence that something is desirable is The only evidence that something is desirable is that it is desiredthat it is desired

(Compare: The only evidence that something is (Compare: The only evidence that something is visble is that it is seen)visble is that it is seen)

Only pleasure is ever desired for itselfOnly pleasure is ever desired for itself

(Compare with Aristotle’s argument for (Compare with Aristotle’s argument for eudaimoniaeudaimonia))

Therefore only pleasure is desirableTherefore only pleasure is desirable

(Query: Does the argument use ‘desirable’ (Query: Does the argument use ‘desirable’ ambiguously?)ambiguously?)

Essential UtilitarianismEssential Utilitarianism

Thesis:Thesis:

What is good is what conduces to What is good is what conduces to the greatest happiness for the the greatest happiness for the greatest number of peoplegreatest number of people

Essential UtilitarianismEssential Utilitarianism

Principle:Principle:

Always act to produce the Always act to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest happiness for the greatest number of peoplegreatest number of people

Essential UtilitarianismEssential Utilitarianism

Advantages:Advantages: Clarity – it’s absolutely clear what Clarity – it’s absolutely clear what

counts in moralscounts in morals Impartiality – favourites are not playedImpartiality – favourites are not played Results – justifies our desire to see good Results – justifies our desire to see good

outcomesoutcomes

Essential UtilitarianismEssential Utilitarianism

A disadvantage:A disadvantage: Mundanity – where’s the moral Mundanity – where’s the moral

heroism?heroism? Nietzsche (Nietzsche (Twilight of the IdolsTwilight of the Idols))

Man does not strive after happiness; Man does not strive after happiness; only the Englishman only the Englishman does that. does that.

Bentham’s VersionBentham’s Version

Introduction to the Principles of Introduction to the Principles of Morals and LegislationMorals and Legislation

By the principle of utility is meant that principle By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves, or disapproves of every action which approves, or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other question: or, what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to oppose that happiness words, to promote or to oppose that happiness

Bentham’s VersionBentham’s Version

Add the values for the following Add the values for the following qualities to discover the moral worth qualities to discover the moral worth of an actionof an action

1.1. intensityintensity2.2. durationduration3.3. certainty or uncertaintycertainty or uncertainty4.4. propinquity or remoteness (whether the propinquity or remoteness (whether the

sensation is ready to hand or a long-term effect)sensation is ready to hand or a long-term effect)5.5. fecundity (how likely it is that the sensation will fecundity (how likely it is that the sensation will

yield further sensations of the same kind)yield further sensations of the same kind)6.6. purity (how likely it is that the sensation will be purity (how likely it is that the sensation will be

followed by sensations of the opposite kind)followed by sensations of the opposite kind)7.7. extent (how much the sensation is shared)extent (how much the sensation is shared)

ProblemsProblems

KnowledgeKnowledge Can we always know what the outcome Can we always know what the outcome

of an action will be?of an action will be?

ProblemsProblems

KnowledgeKnowledge Can we always know what the outcome Can we always know what the outcome

of an action will be?of an action will be? PracticalityPracticality

How many alternative possibilities need How many alternative possibilities need to be considered?to be considered?

How far into the future must we How far into the future must we project?project?

ResponsesResponses

Apply rules of thumb rather than Apply rules of thumb rather than doing complete calculationsdoing complete calculations

ResponsesResponses

Apply rules of thumb rather than Apply rules of thumb rather than doing complete calculationsdoing complete calculations

Treat it as a Treat it as a standard standard of right action of right action rather than as a rather than as a decision proceduredecision procedure Our Our decision procedure decision procedure may be an may be an

appeal to intuitions or rules of thumb, appeal to intuitions or rules of thumb, but if they are shown to fail to meet the but if they are shown to fail to meet the standard standard then they must be adjustedthen they must be adjusted

More ProblemsMore Problems

JusticeJustice U. seems to violate our notions of U. seems to violate our notions of

justicejustice A doctor may kill one healthy patient to A doctor may kill one healthy patient to

save 5 terminally ill patientssave 5 terminally ill patients Can we torture a terrorist to find the ticking Can we torture a terrorist to find the ticking

timebomb?timebomb? Ends justify all meansEnds justify all means

More ProblemsMore Problems

The ‘Pig Philosophy’The ‘Pig Philosophy’ Wouldn’t we hook ourselves up to a Wouldn’t we hook ourselves up to a

happiness machine if there was one?happiness machine if there was one? Arnie in Arnie in Total RecallTotal Recall dreams he’s with a dreams he’s with a

beautiful girlbeautiful girl Are the pleasures of women’s mud Are the pleasures of women’s mud

wrestling just as valuable as the wrestling just as valuable as the pleasures of ballet and mathematics?pleasures of ballet and mathematics?

More ProblemsMore Problems

FairnessFairness Does distribution of happiness matter?Does distribution of happiness matter?

AA BB CC DD

Choice Choice 11

11 11 11 11

Choice Choice 22

-2-2 22 22 22

Choice Choice 33

-1-1 -1-1 -1-1 77

More ProblemsMore Problems

LifestyleLifestyle Must our life be directed entirely to the Must our life be directed entirely to the

service of others?service of others?

Mill’s VersionMill’s Version

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

The creed which accepts as the foundation of The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals Utility or the Greatest Happiness morals Utility or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in the Principle, holds that actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote happiness, proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure. and the privation of pleasure.

Mill’s VersionMill’s Version

Qualities of pleasureQualities of pleasure Distinguish higher and lower pleasuresDistinguish higher and lower pleasures

Higher pleasures count for more pointsHigher pleasures count for more points

Of two pleasures, if there be one to which Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all or almost all who have experience of all or almost all who have experience of both give a decided preference, irrespective both give a decided preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure it, that is the more desirable pleasure

Mill’s VersionMill’s Version

Qualities of pleasureQualities of pleasure Happiness is a matter of having superior Happiness is a matter of having superior

pleasures pleasures Pleasures of the mindPleasures of the mind Happiness is not correlated with contentmentHappiness is not correlated with contentment

the being whose capacities of enjoyment are low, the being whose capacities of enjoyment are low, has the greatest chance of having them fully has the greatest chance of having them fully satisfied; and a highly endowed being will always satisfied; and a highly endowed being will always feel that any happiness which he can look for … is feel that any happiness which he can look for … is imperfect. … It is better to be a human being imperfect. … It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied

Acts and RulesActs and Rules

Act utilitarianismAct utilitarianism

An act is right if and only if it An act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any results in as much good as any available alternativeavailable alternative

Acts and RulesActs and Rules

Rule utilitarianismRule utilitarianism

An act is right if and only if it is the An act is right if and only if it is the consequence of following a rule consequence of following a rule that, with other rules, if followed that, with other rules, if followed would lead to as much happiness as would lead to as much happiness as any other rulesany other rules

Acts and RulesActs and Rules

Rule utilitarianismRule utilitarianism Solves practicality problem directly. Solves practicality problem directly.

Rules aren’t just Rules aren’t just ad hocad hoc, they’re essential to , they’re essential to utilitarianism.utilitarianism.

Acts and RulesActs and Rules

Rule utilitarianismRule utilitarianism Solves practicality problem directly. Solves practicality problem directly.

Rules aren’t just Rules aren’t just ad hocad hoc, they’re essential to , they’re essential to utilitarianism.utilitarianism.

Solves justice? Solves justice? Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet

standards of justice. Otherwise not.standards of justice. Otherwise not.

Acts and RulesActs and Rules

Rule utilitarianismRule utilitarianism Solves practicality problem directly. Solves practicality problem directly.

Rules aren’t just Rules aren’t just ad hocad hoc, they’re essential to , they’re essential to utilitarianism.utilitarianism.

Solves justice? Solves justice? Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet Maybe, if the rules are rules that meet

standards of justice. Otherwise not.standards of justice. Otherwise not. Knowledge problem solved. Knowledge problem solved.

Not every act will be for the best Not every act will be for the best It’s easier to work out good rules than good actsIt’s easier to work out good rules than good acts

LibertyLiberty

On LibertyOn Liberty The The Harm PrincipleHarm Principle defends us from defends us from

the state the state

The sole end for which mankind are warranted, The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. his will, is to prevent harm to others.

LibertyLiberty

On LibertyOn Liberty The The Harm PrincipleHarm Principle defends us from defends us from

the state the state

The only part of the conduct of any one, for The only part of the conduct of any one, for which he is amenable to society, is that which which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part of which merely concerns others. In the part of which merely governs himself, his independence is, of governs himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign. body and mind, the individual is sovereign.

LibertyLiberty

On LibertyOn Liberty The The Harm PrincipleHarm Principle defends us from defends us from

the statethe state The public sphereThe public sphere

Do no harm to othersDo no harm to others The private sphereThe private sphere

No business of anyone elseNo business of anyone else Freedom of speech, association, thought, life-Freedom of speech, association, thought, life-

style, …style, … Justified as a good for societyJustified as a good for society

LibertyLiberty

Free speech justified Free speech justified ……the peculiar evil of silencing the expression the peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race; posterity as well as the existing race; posterity as well as the existing generation; those who dissent from the generation; those who dissent from the opinion, still more those who hold it. If the opinion, still more those who hold it. If the opinion is right, they are deprived of the opinion is right, they are deprived of the opportunity of exchanging error for truth: if opportunity of exchanging error for truth: if wrong, they lose, what is almost as great a wrong, they lose, what is almost as great a benefit, the clearer perception and livelier benefit, the clearer perception and livelier impression of truth, produced by its collision impression of truth, produced by its collision with error. with error.

LibertyLiberty

Harm PrincipleHarm Principle Prevents paternalism, which is Prevents paternalism, which is

generally badgenerally bad Provides a rule for public policy that is Provides a rule for public policy that is

clear, easy to follow, not easy to fudge, clear, easy to follow, not easy to fudge, not open to abusenot open to abuse

Is the best such ruleIs the best such rule