utilizing socially responsive knowledge
TRANSCRIPT
Researchinmanagementeducationisseverelylack-inginitsfocusonthedeliverytothoselivinginextremepoverty.Todate,mostoftheworkhasnotaddressedtheissue,orithasaddresseditfromtheperspectiveofreplicatingWesternprogramsforwealthierinternationalelites.Inordertoaccomplishdelivery,wecanutilizethethree-partconceptofknowledgedomains.Ireporthereoneinstancewheremanagementeducatorsusedclassroomtrainingandinternationaltraveltoreinforceallthreedomainswhilealsocreatingchangeinthelivesofthestu-dentsandofthoseinpoverty.Thecasestudyalsoportraysaclassroomexerciseeventuallygrowingintoastand-alonenonprofitorganization.Thelessonsfromthatexperienceillustratenewrolesformanagementeducationin—andforpeoplein—conditionsofextremepoverty.
Knowledge Domains: Three Types IrwinAltmandescribesoneapproachthatfacultymembersinhighereducationcanusewhentheyhaveaninterest
in(re)shapinghowstudentsrelatetosocialissuesandtofuturesocietalneeds.1Fromhispsychologyexpertise,heoutlinesthreedomainsofknowledgethathesuggestsmustbedevelopedandutilizedsimultaneouslyinorderto“educatethegoodcitizenofthefuture:” • foundationalknowledge:content,theories,history,andmethodologyofadiscipline • professionalknowledge:practitionerskillsandcontent,oftenvocationallyfocused,ofafield • sociallyresponsiveknowledge:first-handexperienceandunderstandingofissuesinasociety Altmanreiteratesthatthetriadisintertwinedandthatallthreeareco-dependent—inparticular,sociallyrespon-siveknowledgecannotstandapartfromtheothertwoforms.Hesuggeststhatschoolsalreadyexcelatprovidingfoundationalandprofessionalknowledge,buttheydonotexcelatgeneratingorutilizingsociallyresponsiveknowl-edge.WesuggestthatwhenWesternstudentsusefounda-tionalandprofessionalknowledgewhileperformingservice
Utilizing Socially Responsive Knowledge
By Lisa Jones Christensen and Jennifer Boehme Kumar
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learningprojectsinlessadvantagedcontexts,thelessonstheygathercon-stitutesociallyresponsiveknowledge. HELPInternational,orHELP,isanexcellentcasestudyofthisinteractionofdomains,andthe
studyillustrateslessonslearnedforprovidingmanagementeducationtothepoorest.
The First Year: Response to CrisisDuringthecloseof1998,HurricaneMitchdevastatedmuchofCentralAmerica.Dr.WarnerWoodworth,aprofessoroforganizationalbehaviorattheMarriottSchoolofManagementatBrighamYoungUniversity,respondedtothecrisisbycreatinganopenelectivecourseentitledBecomingaGlobalChangeAgent.Fromtheoutset,theclasswasplannedasanactionresearchexperienceaimedatmobilizingcol-legestudentsandtrainingtheminspecificwaystochangetheworld.Itwasalsocreatedasawaytoorganizeteamswhowouldhelpplantripsand/ortraveltoHondurasduringthesummerof1999asreliefandreconstructionvolunteers—withafocusoncreatingmicrofinanceprojects. Thecollegecoursewasapar-ticipatoryexperiencewithaheavyemphasisonthepotentialofmicro-financetohelppeoplerebuildlives.Overall,seventy-ninestudentspar-ticipated.ClassparticipantsformedteamstoplanthelogisticsofgoingtoHondurasandtoexplorewhatmicrofinanceinstitutions(MFIs)werecurrentlyinthecountry,which
MFIswereopentopartnerships,andwhatreliefandhumanitarianaidwasrequiredbythelocalimpov-erishedfamilies. Additionally,classmembersorganizedaHondurascultureteam
toteachvolunteersaboutlocalnorms,values,andtechnicalterms.Theyestablishedapublicrelationsteamtoobtainmediaattention,afundraisingteamtohelpgeneratemoney,andamicrocreditresourceteamtoresearchcompetingmicrofinancemethodolo-giesandeventuallytraineveryoneinrudimentarytechniquesofvillagebanking.Theclasswasdesignedtoallowstudentssignificantautonomyinalmosteveryaspectoforganizationbuilding,andthestudentsvotedtonametheneworganizationHELPHonduras(HelpingEliminatePovertyinHonduras). Duringthecourseofthesum-merof1999,forty-sixstudentstraveledtoandservedinfiveregionsinHonduras.Eachstudentwascommittedtovolunteereightweeksormore.Thestudentsidentifiedandapproachedamicrofinanceorganizationasapartner,andwiththenonprofitorganizationFINCAInternational,theyworkedduringthesummertojointlycreatenewcom-munalbanks.Betweenfoundingnewbanksandrecapitalizingoldbanks,thestudentscreatedonehundrednewmicrobanks.HELPHonduras’smicrocrediteffortscreatedapproxi-matelyeighthundredjobs,benefitingnearlyfourthousandindividuals.2ThepartnershiptermswithFINCA
includedaclausewherebyFINCAwouldmanageallofthenewbanksafterHELPvolunteersleftthecountry,thusensuringfuturesustain-ability.Therefore,thepresenceandsubsequentdepartureofHELPdidnotcreatedependenciesinthecom-munityorwithinFINCA. Studentsworkedwithmanagersofmicrobusinessesbyparticipatinginprojectsthatentailedteachingbusiness,language,andcomputerskillstoindividualsorgroupsofadultlearners.Throughfunction-inginthiscapacity,studentsandfacultylearnedmuchaboutteach-ingbusinessskillstotheextremelyimpoverished.Participantsfromthatformativeyearlearnedthatindividu-als,evenyoungpeople,canhaveatangibleeffectonthelivesofothers.Theyalsolearnedtheimportanceofpreparation,culturalunderstanding,financialmanagement,andbusinessskillacquisitionforthevolunteersandtherecipients. Clearly,theoverallexperienceincorporatedallthreeofknowledgedomains.Bythetimethestudentslefttheprogramtheyhadtheoppor-tunitytoutilizetheirfoundationalknowledgeofaccountingandinven-torymanagementprinciplesandtheirprofessionalknowledgeaboutcontentdeliveryandnegotiationskillstodevelopaproficiencyinactingonaprobleminasocially responsive,efficaciousway.Theyalsogeneratedsociallyresponsiveknowledgeastheylearnedaboutprocessesandbehaviorsthatdidordidnot“work”inthecon-textofextremepoverty. Inadditiontoprovidingfinan-cialandemotionalbenefitstotheHonduranpeople,manystudentsreportthattheirworkwithHELPinformedsubsequentlifedecisionsandbehaviors.Anextremeexampleofthisisthecaseofonevolunteer
Individuals—even young people—can have a tangible effect on the lives of others.
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whoservedinElSalvadorforonesummerpriortoattendingapres-tigiousculinaryinstitute.AfterhissummerwithHELP,hedecidedtochangehiscareerfocusinfavorofdoingsomethingtomoredirectlycontributetopovertyelimination.HesubsequentlystartedsponsoringtheeducationofaSalvadoranstudent,andhealteredhisowneducationalplansinfavorofpursuingaJD/MBAdegree.Currently,heworksinTanzaniaasaclerkinvolvedwiththeRwandangenocidetrials.Obviously,notallvolunteersareaffectedsomarkedly,butthiscaseillustrates
thepotentialimplicationsofservice-learningprojectslikeHELP.
The Growth of HELP International as an NGOHELPhasexpandeditsoperationseveryyearsinceitsinception,andmanagementhasincorporateditintoanonprofitorganizationoperationgunderthenameHELPInternational.Fromthebeginningin1999,HELPhasenabledmorethanfivehundredstudentstotravelinacombinedser-viceandlearningcapacitymorethanthirteenregionsinninecountries.Table1indicatesthenumberof
volunteersandthecountrieswheretheyhaveserved,taught,andexpandedmicrofinance. Typicalprojectsvolunteersemployindeliveringmanagementeducationtotheseparticipantsincludethefollowing: • Weeklymini-businesslessonsgivenasastand-aloneprojectordur-ingamicrocreditbankmeeting • Six-weekbusinesscoursesthatmeetthreetimesaweek • One-tothree-dayspecialbusi-ness-topicclassesgivenasworkshops • One-on-onepersonalizedcon-sultingwithmicroentrepreneurs • Businessplancreationcourses • ImpactassessmentsforlocalMFIs Duringthelastnineyears,studentsandfacultymentorshavereturnedfromparticipatingintheseinterventionswithsignificantinsightsaboutwhatwouldimprovethedeliveryofbusinessandmanage-menteducationinuniversitiesintheUnitedStatesandinimpoverishedcommunitieswhereHELPoperates.HELPmanagementcollectstheseinsightsaspartofeveryvolunteer’sexitinterview.
Lessons Learned Itisimportanttoclarifythattheobservationsaboutkeylessonsweremadeinthecontextofdeliveringinformaleducationtolargegroups(typicallycomprisedoftwelvetofortywomenorlargermixedgendergroups)offragmented,extremelypoor,andoftenilliteratemicroentre-preneurs,smallbusinessowners,andmanagers. Table2providesasimplelistofpracticesthatHELPmanagementhasconsistentlyseensucceedorfailindisadvantagedcontextsacrossmultiplecontinents.
Table 1: HELP History:
Countries Served and Number of Volunteers
Year Countries Served Number of Volunteers
1999 Honduras 47
2000 HondurasEl SalvadorPeruVenezuela
72
2001 HondurasEl SalvadorPeru
33
2002 El SalvadorGuatemalaBolivia
47
2003 El SalvadorGuatemalaBrazil
49
2004 El SalvadorGuatemala
50
2005 El SalvadorGuatemalaThailand
143
2006 El SalvadorGuatemalaUganda
52
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What Doesn’t WorkHELPleadershavefoundthatformostextremelypoorstudentsaformalclassroomenvironmentisintimidating.Thetermformal classroomreferstoattemptstousealocalcollegeoruniversityinfrastruc-ture(i.e.,rowsofchairs,podiums,microphones,andlargeandpossiblyintimidatingbuildings)asthepri-maryplaceforteaching.Usingformalclassroomsattheoutsetcanleadtodifficultyinrecruitingortohighlevelsofattritionafterrecruitment. Instructorsoftenmistakenlyassumethateachclassparticipantneedshisorherownmaterials.HELPleadershavefoundthatthisassump-tionleadstospendingmisallocationsandprecludesattemptingteam-basedlearningmodels.Itcanalsoleadtoteachingdelaysasinstructorswaituntilmaterialsarecollected,copied,orareotherwiseavailable. Studentsinextremelydisadvan-tagedcontextsdonotnecessarilyhaveexpectationsofhavingtheirownmaterials,noraretheyalways
comfortablewithaninfluxofmateri-alsattheoutsetofclasses.Instead,theyareoftenquitefamiliarwithmodelsoflearningthatrequiretakingturnswithmaterials,watchingothersusematerials,andsharing—orthatrequiredoingwithout.Forexample,whenstudentslearnaboutinventorymanagement,theyworkwithoutcal-culatorsortheytaketurnsusingthecalculators.Theyoftenpassaroundaclipboardtorecordledgerentries.Thesestudentsaretypicallypatientwhiletheywait,andtheytendtolearnfromtheentriesofothers.
What WorksHELPmanagementdiscoveredthatalternateteachingenviron-ments—liketheoutdoors,churches,workfacilities,andhomes—haveyieldedsignificantsuccessintermsofretention,recruitment,anddemand.HELPinstructorshavefoundthateventualmigrationtomoreformalclassrooms(particularlythoseinlocalschoolsutilizedduringevenings)ispossibleafterareputationfor
nonintimidatingmethodshasspreadthroughoutthecommunity. Otherpositivetechniquesaretouseexperientialmethods,suchassimulationgamesorroleplaying,thattiestudentlifeexperiencestobusinessormanagementtopics.3Usually,usingthesemethodsallowsinstructorstoteachcompellingbusi-nessconceptsfirstandthenintroduceformalnamesandtheorieslater. Forexample,inteachingthetheoreticalconceptofseparateentitiesinbusinesspractice,HELPinstructorstalktostudentsabouttheirstrugglestokeepfamilymem-bersawayfromtheirbusinessmer-chandise.Participantscanunderstandandelaborateonthisproblemfromtheirsharedexperience,andtheycantalktogetheraboutpossibleoptionstokeeptheentitiesseparate.ButtheyrarelygrasptheconceptwheninstructorsuseWesterntacticsandbegindiscussionswiththetheoryofseparateentities.HELPmanagementlearnedthatwithexperientialmethods,instructorscanmoreeasilymoveto
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Table 2: Issues in Implementing U.S. Management Practices in Disadvantaged Contexts
Western Practices That Do Not Translate Well
Formal classroom environments early in educational process
Leading with theory-based introductions
Assuming that each student needs his or her own materials
English-language instruction
Screening based on literacy
Adjusted Practices That Do Translate Well
Alternate teaching environments (outside, in homes, smaller classes, etc.)
Experiential methods (games and role plays)
Teaching concepts first and theories later (or never)
Tailoring educational content by geographic location and according to local cultural mores
Checking assumptions that teachers and learners have about the role and motive of profit maximization
Revisiting biases about student motivation
otherbusinessdevelopmenttopics.Inthisexample,thenexttopicisusuallyadiscussionofseparatebookkeepingforbusinessandfamilyenterprises. Anothertacticthathasprovensuccessfulacrossmultiplecontextsistailoringeducationalmethodstogeographiclocationand/orculturalbiases.Forexample,HELPinstruc-torsfoundthaturbanresidentsdem-onstrateanunderstandingofbusinessconceptsinwaysthatarequitesimi-lartowhatonemightexpectfromatypicalWesterncollegestudent.Theseurbanstudentsindevelopingcoun-triestendtoquicklyunderstandcon-cepts,suchasnegotiationtechniquesoreconomiesofscaleandscope,andtomorequicklyapplytheseconceptsintheirownbusinesses.Forexample,HELPvolunteersinUgandafoundthatteachingmarketingprinciplesinanurbanorsemi-urbansettingwas
fairlyeasy.Participantsintheclasscouldciteexamplesoftechniquestheyhadseenthatwereeffectiveornoteffectivebecausetheywereaccus-tomedtoseeingandinteractingwithmultipleformsofmarketing. Incontrast,aHELPvolunteerteachinginaveryruralsetting,wheremanyofthestudentshadlittleinteractionwithmarketingandrarelytraveledoutoftheirsmallvillage,reportedthattheconceptsweredifficultformanyparticipantstograsp.Forinstance,whenHELPvolunteersaskedpigfarmershowtheycouldletothersknowtheyweresellingpigs,theystruggledtofindanyotheroptionthansimplytellingtheirneighborsthattheysoldpigs.Theseclassparticipantshadnotbeenpreviouslyexposedtoothertypesofmarketing. Generallyspeaking,HELP
instructorshaveconsistentlyfoundthatruralparticipantslearnedmoreslowlythantheirurbancounterpartsandthatbusinessconceptsmustbetaughtdifferentlyinextremelyruralareas.Thus,simplybeingprimedtoadjustcontentbygeographyhasimprovedtheteaching. Thefinaltwotechniquesthathaveimprovedtheteachingofbusi-nessconceptstotheextremelypoorrelatetoconsideringinstructorbiases.IntheWest,weencouragecreativityandindustryandtendtocorrelatetheseskillswithincreasedsuccessinbusinessandmanagement.However,byusinggamestoteachbusinessskillsindevelopingcontexts,HELPhasrepeatedlyfoundthatplayerswhoshowhighlevelsofcreativityandindustryinthegamedonotneces-sarilyautomaticallyhavetheskillsormindsettotranslatethatcreativity
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andindustrytotheirbusinesses.Thegameshaveillustratedthatstudentspossesstheskills,butinstructorsneedtotakeextracareintranslatingthegamelessonstoreal-lifebehavior. Somestudentswhowerehighlysuccessfulinthecontextofgamesstillclaimedthattheirskillscouldnothelpthemintheirreallivesbecausetheybelievedthatbeingpoorwastheirfate.Therefore,HELPvolunteerslearnedtheyneededtounderstandthestudents’perspectivesonpovertyandaltertheirlessonstoworkwithinthatcontext.Thisfindingservesasacriticalreminderthatnoteveryonelearnsbythesamemethod. Instructorsmayalsoneedtoadjusttheirmindsetconcerningassumedstudents’motives.Theyshouldnotethatabiasintrainingtowardstheprofit-makingmotivecanaffecttheholisticpictureofstudentlives.Participantsarenotalwaysprimarilydrivenbyastrongprofitmotivebecausebusinessforthemisalsointerwovenwithfamilyandculturalconcerns.Thus,theyoftenchoosetoadjusttheirprofitmargins
dependingontheircustomerinsteadofalwayschargingthehighestprice. Instructorsmayalsoneedtohelpstudentsseethelong-termimplica-tionsofsomeoftheirpreferences.Forexample,manyofthepeopleHELPteachesgrowcashcropsforexporta-tion.Thelandisfertileandyieldscashcropstosellinforeignmarkets.However,insteadofusingpartofthelandforgrowingvegetablesfortheirownfamilies,theyuseallofthelandforcashcropsandthenusetheincometopurchasesimilarorlessnutritiousproductsfromthelocalmarket.Situationssuchastheseillustratetheresponsibilityofteach-erstounderstandtheholisticviewofstudents’lives.Clearly,understandingtheparticipants’perspectivesiskeytousingbusinessknowledgeformaxi-mumpositiveeffect.
Conclusion Asresearchersandpractitionersexpandtheroleofmanagementeducationtoincludenewandatypicalstakeholdersindevelopingcountrycontexts,manyquestionsandchallengesremaintobeanswered.
about the authors
Lisa Jones Christensen is an
assistant professor of entrepre-
neurship at the University of North
carolina. her research and teaching
focuses on sustainable enterprise,
corporate social responsibility, lead-
ership, change management, and
change implementation. through
her research, she co-founded hElP
honduras (now hElP International).
Jones christensen has a Phd in
organizational behavior and has been
published in numerous edited books
and journals. Jennifer Boehme
Kumar is the executive director of
hElP International. She has held that
position for eight years. her service
in the organization began as a volun-
teer during its first year.
Thispaper—withitsgroundinginthemodelofknowledgedomainsandexamplesofsociallyresponsiveknowledgegeneratedinsuchset-tings—seekstoinformothersastheyrefinetheroleofmanagementeducationindevelopmentinterven-tions.Wehopethispaperbenefitsresearchersandpractitionersastheyattempttoincreasetheself-relianceofstudentslivinginsuchsettings.
Endnotes1 IrwinAltman,“HigherEducationand
PsychologyintheMillennium,”American Psychologist51,no.4(1996):371–378.
2WarnerW.Woodworth,“MicrocreditinPost-Conflict,Conflict,NaturalDisaster,andOtherDifficultSettings”(Papercommis-sionedbytheMicrocreditSummitCampaignin2006).(BasedonthestatisticthatinHonduras,onejobtypicallysupportedfivepeople.)
3SeeJohnDewey,Experience and Education(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1938/1997)andDavidA.Kolb,Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1984)formoreinformationonexperientiallearning.
Understanding the participants’ per-spectives is key to using business knowledge for maximum positive effect.
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