validity, reliability, and applicability of psychophysiological …knutson/nfc/wang08.pdf · 2021....

Validity, Reliability,and Applicability ofPsychophysiologicalTechniques in MarketingResearch

Yong Jian WangCollege of Business, Ohio University

Michael S. MinorCollege of Business Administration, University of Texas-Pan American

ABSTRACT

A variety of psychophysiological techniques have been used in themeasurement of consumer reactions to marketing stimuli sincethe 60s. The objectives of this paper are: (1) to present a descriptivereview of the psychophysiological techniques and (2) to discuss critical concerns about validity, reliability, and applicability of thesepsychophysiological techniques raised by previous research. Thestrengths and weaknesses of ten major psychophysiological techniques are analyzed on the basis of the summaries of 67 market-ing studies that have employed psychophysiological techniques. Thisstudy shows a need for marketing research to establish validity andreliability and to emphasize applicability when psychophysiologicaltechniques are to be used. Meeting such a need requires an under-standing of the nuanced psychophysiological process that links particular psychological antecedents and the physiological conse-quences being measured. A framework for analyzing thispsychophysiological process in marketing research is provided.© 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 25(2): 197–232 (February 2008)Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com)© 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20206

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In marketing research, a variety of measurement techniques havebeen used to measure consumers’ reaction to stimuli. These measuresinclude: (1) behavioral measures, such as actual purchase, amount oftime and money spent, or store patronage; (2) verbal measures, such asself-reported assessments of intentions, attitudes, recalls, or emotions; and(3) psychophysiological measures, such as pupil dilation, eye movement,or heart rate (Green & Tull, 1978; Stewart & Furse, 1982; Wiles &Cornwell, 1990; Poels & Dewitte, 2006).

Marketing researchers have been skeptical about using behavioraland verbal measures because of their limitations in providing an effec-tive measure of internal reaction to external stimuli. Behavioral meas-ures of responses to stimuli are problematic because they cannot reflectthe process occurring between affect and behavioral consequence (Wiles &Cornwell, 1990). The affect that consumers receive also cannot be ade-quately measured by self-reported verbal indicators, due to the com-plexity of thought (Wiles & Cornwell, 1990). Respondents usingself-reported verbal measures are also more likely to give so-called lipservice responses, such as socially acceptable answers or uncontemplatedfeedback (Nighswonger & Martin, 1981). Furthermore, from a psychol-ogy perspective, the unconscious minds of consumers have not been fullyemphasized in psychological and behavioral measurement (Liu, 1986;Zaltman, 2000, 2003). Consumers may still have a “feeling of knowing”experience even though they cannot trace a clear memory by verbalmeasures, but researchers have not aimed to “realize that the results ofunconscious processing can be brought into consciousness” (Liu, 1986,p. 42). Zaltman (2003) employed neurology and psychology to understandhow consumers process information. He found that, in most cases, con-sumers cannot clearly explain the reason for buying a specific product bythe use of verbal measures.

On the other hand, psychophysiological measures can “provide a verybasic, unbiased, and sensitive measure of an individual’s reaction to astimulus” because “autonomic reactions are not under voluntary control”and “it is not possible for individuals to mask their ‘true’ reactions to aproduct or advertisement” (Stewart & Furse, 1982, p. 2). Marketingresearch needs to pursue more precise, comprehensive, and unbiasedmeasurements of the psychological processes to reflect a broader anddeeper intellectual understanding of the human mind’s mechanism. Inorder to meet such a need in marketing research, the use of psy-chophysiological techniques in measuring consumer reactions to exter-nal stimuli is an important area worthy of further examination.

Psychophysiology is an interdisciplinary subject that combines phys-iology, biology, and psychology research (Kroeber-Riel, 1979). It has beendefined as “the study of relations between psychological manipulationsand resulting physiological responses, measured in the living organism,to promote understanding of the relation between mental and bodilyprocesses” (Andreassi, 2000, p. 1). Consequently, marketing researchers

WANG AND MINORPsychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

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are able to use physiological indicators to monitor covert psychologicalprocesses.

In this study, the objectives are to present a descriptive review ofpsychophysiological techniques that have been employed in market-ing research, and to discuss some critical concerns that can benefit futureresearch in this area. This study is organized using the following struc-ture: first, a review of ten psychophysiological techniques is offered, alongwith the summaries of sixty-seven previous studies using such techniquesin marketing research; second, the strengths and weaknesses of each psy-chophysiological technique are discussed on the basis of the review; andlast, conclusions and recommendations for future research are provided.

REVIEW OF MARKETING RESEARCH USINGPSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY

Ten psychophysiological techniques have appeared in published mar-keting research. These techniques include three central nervous system(CNS) measures (non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemispheric lat-eralization, and brain imaging analysis); five autonomic nervous system(ANS) measures (pupillary response, electrodermal analysis, voice pitchanalysis, heart rate response, and vascular activity); and two somaticnervous system (SNS) measures (facial muscle activity and eye movementanalysis) (cf. Bagozzi, 1991).1 Sixty-seven marketing studies publishedbetween 1960 and 2006 that have empirically applied these psy-chophysiological techniques are summarized in the Appendix.

It can be found that, along with the progress of psychophysiologicalresearch and the growing interest of marketing researchers inpsychophysiology, the number of marketing publications using psy-chophysiological techniques increased from the 60s to the 80s. Later, thepopularity of certain techniques waxed and waned. In the 60s, pupillaryresponse and electrodermal analysis began in marketing-related exper-iments. Since the 70s, non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemisphericlateralization, voice pitch analysis, and eye movement analysis have beenused in marketing research. In the late 80s, cardiovascular activity(including both heart rate and blood pressure) and facial muscle activ-ity were further explored by marketing researchers. However, in the 90s,the number of publications that employed psychophysiological measuresdecreased. An underlying reason may be that the validity, reliability, andapplicability issues of some techniques—such as voice pitch analysis andbrain wave analysis (both hemispheric and non hemispheric)—werebrought into question by a number of research findings and critiques.Lack of reliability and validity as well as restrictions in applicability dis-couraged further application of some psychophysiological techniques.

VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, AND APPLICABILITY OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUESPsychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar

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1 Eye movement is considered both voluntary (somatic) and involuntary (autonomic) (Stewart &Furse, 1982).

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This decrease of the 90s has not continued. From 2000 to the present, thenumber of marketing publications using psychophysiological techniqueshas become larger than that for the entire 90s. Between 2000 and thepresent, non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemispheric lateralization,electrodermal analysis, facial muscle activity, and eye movement analy-sis were still being used, while heart rate analysis and brain imaginganalysis were adopted and used by a growing number of marketing stud-ies. A chronological classification of published marketing studies usingpsychophysiological measures is provided in Table 1.

REVIEW OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

Psychophysiological techniques use a number of physiological indicatorsto keep track of different psychological responses to stimuli. These psy-chological responses can be represented by cognitive and affectiveprocesses in the mind. The cognitive process is involved with “everythingthat goes in the consumers’ minds concerning the acquisition, process-ing, retention, and retrieval of information” (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis,2001, p. 181). Quantitative measures of the cognitive process usuallyinclude measures of beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, attention, memory,and recall (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis, 2001).2 On the other hand, theaffective process is a mental state that develops spontaneously withoutcognitive effort, and is involved with a set of emotional reactions thatare usually represented by Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) pleasure(pleasant vs. unpleasant), arousal (excited vs. calm), and dominance(dominant vs. submissive) dimensions (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis, 2001).Some researchers have adopted a two-dimensional model, which includes


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Table 1. Chronological Classification of Marketing Studies UsingPsychophysiological Techniques.

60s 70s 80s 90s 2000–present Measure (7) (10) (21) (16) (22)

Non hemispheric brain 1 3 1wave analysis (5)

Hemispheric lateralization (8) 1 5 1 1Pupillary response (8) 6 2Electrodermal analysis (16) 1 5 5 5Voice pitch analysis (4) 2 2Heart rate response (5) 1 4Vascular activity (2) 2Facial muscle activity (4) 1 1 2Eye movement analysis (19) 4 3 8 4Brain imaging analysis (5) 5

Note: Numbers in parentheses are numbers of publications.Studies using two or more psychophysiological techniques are counted by each of the techniques.

2 The structure of the attitude construct includes both cognitive and affective aspects (Ajzen, 2001).

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valence (i.e., pleasure; pleasant vs. unpleasant) and arousal (excited vs.calm), to describe the affective process (e.g., Russell, 1980). Researchersin social psychology posited that, based on the combinations of the basicaffective dimensions (pleasure, arousal, and dominance), a broader senseof human emotions can be divided into fifteen primary categories, includ-ing amusement, anger, contempt, contentment, disgust, distress, embar-rassment, excitement, fear, guilt, pride, relief, satisfaction, sensory pleasure,and shame; and a variety of secondary emotions can be derived from eachof the primary categories (Ekman, 1999).

Experts in psychophysiology suggested that appropriate application ofa psychophysiological technique depends on fully understanding its work-ing mechanism and how different cognitive and affective processes arebeing measured (Kroeber-Riel, 1979; Stewart & Furse, 1982). As Stewartand Furse (1982) contended, the application of any psychophysiologicalmeasure “should be based on three additional sources of information: (1)an understanding of the stimulus context in which the measurementswere taken; (2) a knowledge of the physiology of the system measured, and(3) an assessment of other response events that may be occurring simul-taneously” (p. 30). Based on the philosophy of science, Bagozzi (1991) sug-gested different patterns of inference relations between psychologicalantecedents and physiological consequences. So that these inference rela-tion patterns can be understood, the process of bodily response to cogni-tive and affective activities in the mind must be illustrated before thepsychophysiological measure is taken (Jennings, 1986a, b).

Plummer (1972) suggested seven criteria to determine the applicationof a measurement technique for consumer reaction to stimuli in market-ing research. They include reliability, validity, sensitivity, independence ofmeasures, comprehensiveness, relationship to other tests, and accept-ability. Among the seven criteria, validity, independence of measures, andrelationship to other tests are related to validity issues in terms of con-struct validity, discriminant validity, and convergent validity, whereassensitivity, comprehensiveness, and acceptability are related to the appli-cability of a measure in marketing research. Therefore, marketingresearchers need to examine the reliability, validity, and applicability ofpsychophysiological techniques before investigating consumers’ cognitiveand/or affective responses to marketing or advertising stimuli. In thisstudy, each of the ten psychophysiological techniques is to be evaluatedin terms of its validity, reliability, and applicability in marketing research.

1. Non hemispheric Brain Wave Analysis

Brain wave analysis examines different types of waves in the humanbrain (e.g., alpha waves vs. beta waves) to measure variations in the fre-quency of electrical brain activities (Young, 2002). The electroencephalo-graph (EEG) is the most frequently used measurement device for brain waveanalysis in marketing research (see Appendix). Non hemispheric brain


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wave analysis, which is a branch of brain wave analysis, may be appliedto connect brain activity to consumers’ cognitive (e.g., attention, memory)and affective (e.g., arousal, pleasure) changes in the brain (Klebba, 1985).In advertising research, nonhemispheric brain wave analysis was firstused by Krugman (1971) in the investigation of consumers’ responses todifferent advertisements. Since then, considerable effort has been madeto further the study of consumer responses to advertisements by usingEEG to measure brain activities (e.g., Alwitt, 1989; Young, 2002). Previ-ous marketing studies using non hemispheric brain wave analysis havemainly focused on the investigation of consumers’ immediate responsesto variations in advertising, packaging, and branding (see Appendix).

Previous marketing studies found that cognitive information pro-cessing can indicate brain wave peaks (Young, 2002), but the concurrentvalidity of using brain waves to measure a particular affective response,such as arousal, was hardly established in non hemispheric brainwave analysis (see Appendix). Stewart and Furse (1982) considered non-hemispheric brain wave analysis a “straightforward indication of responseto marketing stimuli” but a “less reliable measure of how the individualis responding to a specific stimulus than are measurements of moreperipheral responses” (p. 21). Therefore, despite its easy applicability,non hemispheric brain wave analysis still remains somewhat unclear interms of its validity and reliability. To address the validity and reliabilityissues in using this technique, the combination of brain wave measure-ment with peripheral response measurement (e.g., ANS and SNS meas-ures) in marketing research was recommended (Stewart & Furse, 1982;Rossiter et al., 2001b).

2. Hemispheric Lateralization

Another branch of brain wave analysis is hemispheric lateralization. It doesnot examine the process of brain activity; instead, it examines the differ-ences in the two brain hemispheres (left brain vs. right brain) when theyrespond to external stimuli (Young, 2002). Hansen (1981) and Weinstein(1982) applied the findings of hemispheric lateralization in psychophys-iology research to the understanding of consumers in marketing researchand suggested that the differences in hemispheric lateralization (e.g.,information processing depending on right or left brain) influence thepatterns of an individual’s information acquisition and decision making.

Previous marketing studies have used EEG to measure hemi-spheric differences that are related to arousal and interest (e.g., Weinstein,Weinstein, & Drozdenko, 1984), pleasure (e.g., Cacioppo & Petty, 1982),memory (e.g., Appel, Weinstein, & Weinstein, 1979; Rothschild & Hyun,1990), and information processing (e.g., Weinstein, Appel, & Weinstein,1980; Rothschild et al., 1988). Rossiter et al. (2001a) used an evolution-ary version of EEG, steady-state probe topography (SSPT), as the meas-urement device for brain activity. Using SSPT, which can offer fast and


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accurate measurement of cortical activity in response to a visual stim-uli sequence, Rossiter et al. (2001a) established that dynamic visualscenes are encoded into long-term memory in the left hemisphere.

It can be observed from the number of publications that researchefforts on brain activity analysis have been invested somewhat more onhemispheric lateralization than non hemispheric brain wave analysis. Inthe meanwhile, inquiries about the validity and reliability of hemisphericlateralization in marketing and advertising research have never ceased.Skeptics asserted that Sperry’s (1973) findings on hemispheric special-ization, which were the cornerstones for hemispheric lateralization inmarketing research, were not generalizable.3 For example, Sperry’s (1973)findings were not applicable to individuals with normal brain activity(Katz, 1983) or to left-handed individuals (Klebba, 1985). The explana-tory power of hemispheric lateralization was also low because only lessthan 15 percent of hemispheric dominance could be explained (Klebba,1985). In addition, it has not been found whether brain wave variationscorrespond to any particular psychological process (e.g., pleasure, arousal,or information processing), either cognitive or affective, in response toexternal stimuli (Stewart, 1985).

Another aspect of skepticism over validity and reliability lies in themeasurement device. First, EEG and the SSPT can only monitor gen-eral brain activity in response to external stimuli as a whole. Previousresearch using these measurement techniques has not investigated whichpart of complex stimuli, such as a television commercial, induces thebrain activity (Klebba, 1985; Crites & Aikman-Eckenrode, 2001). Sec-ond, experimental settings have significant influences on the results pro-duced by an EEG. The results of hemispheric lateralization differdepending on the placement of electrodes (Klebba, 1985). Therefore, thevalidity and reliability of hemispheric lateralization are subject to exper-imental conditions, significantly restricting its applicability. These crit-ics urge caution in future use of the hemispheric lateralization technique,and emphasize the need for the reinforcement of reliability and validityof the measure as well as more careful application of this technique inexperiments.

3. Pupillary Response

Pupillary response measures physiological changes in an individual’spupil size (Blackwell, Hensel, & Sternthal, 1970). Early psychophysio-logical research on pupillary response focused on the temporary dilationof pupils in response to visual stimuli as an indicator of affective responsessuch as pleasure and arousal (Hess & Polt, 1960; Hess, 1965). Previous


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3 Researchers in support of hemispheric lateralization claimed that the EEG has sufficient psy-chophysiological basis to be applied in marketing research. For example, Weinstein, Drozdenko,and Weinstein (1984b) argued that, regardless of the percentage of brain activity explained,hemispheric lateralization research could document the fundamental differences between thehemispheres, and such differences exist in the normal brain.

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marketing studies using the pupillary response technique were con-ducted, mostly in the 60s and early 70s, to evaluate the effectiveness ofadvertisements. Pupillary response has shown significant discrimina-tory power on the effectiveness of different advertising stimuli (e.g.,Krugman, 1965; Van Bortel, 1968; Hess, 1968; Stafford, Birdwell, & VanTassel, 1970).

Although pupillary response was considered useful and practical interms of its applicability in measuring affective responses to advertisingstimuli (Stewart & Furse, 1982), researchers have presented empiricalchallenges to the concurrent validity of the physiological measure inrelation to the psychological mechanism. For example, there werequestions about which psychological process was demonstrated by pupildilation (e.g., Blackwell, Hensel, & Sternthal, 1970; Janisse, 1974; seeStewart & Furse, 1982, for a detailed review).Although pupillary responsehas been used as a measure of valence (i.e., pleasure), changes in an indi-vidual’s pupil size can be a result of a number of psychological processes,including attention, arousal, pleasure, memory and information process-ing, and so on (Watson & Gatchel, 1979; Stewart & Furse, 1982). Thus,pupillary response does not merely indicate valence. Besides the validityproblem, the reliability of pupillary response has not been examined inprevious marketing research (see Appendix). This technique has notappeared in marketing publications after the 70s. However, the use ofpupillary response in marketing research has great potential, such as theability to measure mental activity associated with cognitive informationprocessing or with responses to successive stimuli (Arch, 1979). For futureresearch using pupillary response, it is necessary to specify the causalrelationship between psychological processes (e.g., attention, pleasure,or information processing) and physiological indicators (pupil size)(Blackwell, Hensel, & Sternthal, 1970; Watson & Gatchel, 1979).

4. Electrodermal Analysis

Electrodermal activities can be measured by the amount of resistance orconductance of human skin to passing current (Watson & Gatchel, 1979).Psychophysiologists established that physiological arousal occurring inthe sweat glands can reflect psychological activity, and thus changesin electrodermal activities in the sympathetic nervous system may be aresult of interest, arousal, or pleasure (Klebba, 1985). Electrodermalactivities can be monitored through either galvanic skin response (GSR)or skin conductance response (SCR). Galvanic skin response, which canbe recorded by a galvanometer to assess the ability of the skin to conductelectricity, is more frequently used in published marketing studies (seeAppendix). Skin conductance response can also be employed to monitorskin conductance (the reciprocal of skin resistance) by polygraphic record-ing (Klebba, 1985; Wiles & Cornwell, 1990). In marketing research,electrodermal activity has been intensively used to measure attention


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(e.g., Vanden Abeele & MacLachlan, 1994a; Bolls, Muehling, & Yoon,2003) and arousal (e.g., Groeppel-Klein & Baun, 2001; Bolls, Lang, &Potter, 2001), and also linked to anxiety and warmth as affective processes(e.g., Aaker, Stayman, & Hagerty, 1986; Stem & Bozman, 1988; VandenAbeele & MacLachlan, 1994b).

Electrodermal response has been considered a reliable and valid meas-ure of arousal (e.g., Kroeber-Riel, 1979; Klebba, 1985) and it can allowresearchers to identify the magnitude of a response with considerableaccuracy (Klebba, 1985). However, Vanden Abeele and MacLachlan(1994a) reported that electrodermal response was not valid in measur-ing attention. Electrodermal response is also not a valid indicatorof warmth as an affective response to stimuli (Vanden Abeele &MacLachlan, 1994b). In addition, previous research has provided anumber of caveats in applying the electrodermal technique. For example,electrode placement is critical to the accuracy of results because theresults tend to be biased when the placement sites and environment arenot carefully chosen, cleaned, and controlled (Stewart & Furse, 1982).Sensitivity to external influences needs to be better understood in orderto make this psychophysiological technique applicable in experimentalconditions. In addition, Cacioppo and Petty (1983) suggested thatelectrodermal activity should be measured at different times to addressreliability issues.

5. Voice Pitch Analysis

Voice pitch analysis examines the fluctuations generated by vocal cordsin human speech, which can indicate an individual’s affective responsesto external stimuli independent of the volume, content, and speed of thespeech (Klebba, 1985). Relying on the findings from attitudinal research,voice pitch analysis (VOPAN) was developed by Brickman (1976, 1980)in the field of advertising research. Brickman (1980) claimed that voicepitch analysis is more valid, reliable, and sensitive than verbal meas-ures in measuring consumers’ attitude change. Beyond that, it has alsodemonstrated superior discriminatory power in actual purchase andadvertising effectiveness studies (Brickman, 1976, 1980; Nelson &Schwartz, 1979). Another experimental study found that voice pitch leveland range indicate a specific affective dimension—arousal (i.e., activa-tion) (Backhaus, Meyer, & Stockert, 1985).

As noted by Klebba (1985), voice pitch analysis has at least two prac-tical advantages over other psychophysiological techniques in marketingresearch. First, instead of using cumbersome equipment, the experi-mental procedure only requires oral responses and audio recording appa-ratus. Second, participants are least likely to be influenced by controlledand unnatural experimental settings because the recording apparatus isnot apparent or interfering. However, Nighswonger and Martin (1981)questioned the validity of the technique in measuring affective changes,


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especially arousal. They pointed out that affective changes may bereflected by voice pitch change, but the process of these simultaneouschanges is unfounded from a psychophysiological perspective. Therefore,future studies using voice pitch analysis must establish evidence of con-current validity. Nighswonger and Martin (1981) also suggested thatvoice pitch analysis combined with the response latency technique (meas-urement of the amount of time for deliberation) can be a more accurateand reliable measure of affective responses. Although marketing studiesusing voice pitch analysis can hardly be found since the 80s, Nighswongerand Martin’s (1981) recommendations still provide useful guidelines forfuture research using this technique. Further, the ability to capture voicedigitally and apply computerized analysis should revive this technique.For example, a computer-based software program, the Multi-DimensionalVoice Program (MDVP), can be used to generate a database consistingof tens of acoustic parameters, after respondents’ voices are digitallyrecorded. Graphic comparisons on voice parameters can also be producedby computer.

6. Heart Rate Response

As a branch of cardiovascular analysis, heart rate response is usuallymeasured by electrocardiogram (EKG), which monitors the electricaldischarges associated with the muscle contraction of the heart (Wiles &Cornwell, 1990). Previous studies employed heart rate response to meas-ure pleasant or unpleasant responses to external stimuli (e.g., Israel,1969; Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001). However, Watson and Gatchel (1979)contended that, rather than being just a measurement of the directionsof affect, heart rate response is also a valid and sensitive measure ofone of the cognitive processes, attention, because heart rate is an impor-tant component of the psychophysiological attention mechanism. Watsonand Gatchel’s (1979) argument was supported by recent findings of Langet al. (2002) and Bolls, Muehling, and Yoon (2003). Previous researchalso found that heart rate response is capable of predicting recall andmemory (Lang et al., 2002; Bolls, Muehling, & Yoon, 2003). Besides itsvalidity, heart rate response demonstrated high reliability over time(Lang et al., 2002). In addition, heart rate response is not influenced byenvironmental disturbances, showing its applicability in non-laboratoryexperimental settings (Watson & Gatchel, 1979).

Although heart rate response is a valid, reliable, and sensitive meas-ure of several psychological processes, Watson and Gatchel (1979) notedthat “it is difficult to formulate with any certainty generalizations aboutthis physiological response during a number of psychological processes”(p. 22). This reveals a potential threat to concurrent validity. Researchersmust be meticulous when explaining a particular psychological processby interpreting heart rate changes, because the changes may be evoked bymultiple psychological processes.


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7. Vascular Activity

Vascular activity, another branch of cardiovascular analysis, recordschanges in blood pressure, blood volume, or pulse volume (Bagozzi, 1991).Previous studies in the 80s used vascular activity to measure arousal inresponse to external stimuli (Frost & Stauffer, 1987; Sanbonmatsu &Kardes, 1988). Frost and Stauffer (1987) found that blood pulse volumeand skin conductance response highly correlated with each other in meas-uring arousal. However, the validity and reliability of vascular activityin measuring arousal have not been assessed by previous studies. Likeheart rate response, vascular activity may be a result of a number ofpsychological processes, including pleasure, arousal, and memory(Bagozzi, 1991; Brownley, Hurwitz, & Schneiderman, 2000). Future mar-keting research needs to address validity and reliability issues whenusing vascular activity to measure arousal and/or other psychologicalprocesses.

Compared with other psychophysiological techniques, vascular activ-ity can be easily monitored and reported. For example, Sanbonmatsuand Kardes (1988) used a Pollenex blood pressure monitor to measure vas-cular activity. The measurement device is much less complex to handlethan those used in other psychophysiological techniques. However,the auscultatory method of determining blood pressure used inSanbonmatsu and Kardes’s (1988) study, which utilizes a blood pressurecuff placed around a subject’s arm, requires a careful plan on cuff size andplacement of the machine to obtain accurate and reliable blood pressuremeasurement (Brownley, Hurwitz, & Schneiderman, 2000). To obtainvalid and reliable data, future experimental research needs to pay greatattention to these handling skills.

8. Facial Muscle Activity

Different from other involuntary psychophysiological measures, facialmuscle activity is a voluntary physiological indicator generated by thesomatic nervous system. Facial muscle activity is measured by electricalsignals caused by the contraction of facial muscle fibers when the volt-age is active from two electrodes placed on the face (Wiles & Cornwell,1990). The electromyography (EMG) has been the most frequently usedmeasurement device for facial muscle activity in marketing research(see Appendix). Wiles and Cornwell (1990) suggested that facial muscleactivity be used to identify the directions of affective responses (i.e.,pleasure vs. displeasure) to external stimuli.

Bolls, Lang, and Potter (2001) demonstrated the validity, reliability,and applicability of using facial muscle activity to measure the direc-tions of affective responses (i.e., valence/ pleasure) to complex stimuli, suchas radio advertisements. Documented by facial EMG data, the physiolog-ical reaction accompanied by positive affective response was robust acrossdifferent stimuli (Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001). Facial muscle activity can


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also allow researchers to precisely examine the effects of those complexstimuli that can result in non exclusively positive or negative affectiveresponses (Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001). However, Bolls, Lang, and Potter(2001) warned that, in experiments using facial muscle activity, the elec-tric signal produced by an EMG device can be influenced by participants’physical movements or bodily sensitivity. Accordingly, they suggestedthat future research using facial muscle activity in measuring thedirections of affect should well disguise the experiment process anddistract the participant during electrode placement.

9. Eye Movement Analysis

Eye movement is measured by recording either the number of fixationsor dwell time of the eyes during an individual’s exposure to externalstimuli (Stewart & Furse, 1982). By examining the eye patterns on pickupand retention of information, researchers can identify the elements ofa complex stimulus that receive voluntary (somatic) or involuntary(autonomic) attention (Stewart & Furse, 1982).

Eye movement analysis has been widely used in marketing studiesfrom the early 70s to the present (see Appendix). In previous marketingresearch findings, eye movement has found to be related to attention(e.g., Bogard & Trolley, 1988; Lohse, 1997; Pieters, Rosbergen, & Wedel,1999; Pieters & Wedel, 2004), memory (e.g. Krugman, 1971; Morrison &Dainhoff, 1972; Krugman et al., 1994; Wedel & Pieters, 2000), andinformation processing (e.g., King, 1972; Kroeber-Riel & Barton, 1980;Kroeber-Riel, 1984). However, as Kroeber-Riel (1979) pointed out, mostprevious studies using eye movement as a physiological measure havenot established a psychological basis for the meaning of eye movements.Therefore, concurrent validity of the eye movement measure is questioned.Although some studies demonstrated high predictive power on recalland memory based on either dwell time (Krugman et al., 1994) or thenumber of fixations (Wedel & Pieters, 2000), Kroeber-Riel and Barton(1980) argued that the validity of eye movement as a predictor of recalland memory depends on the mediating role of cognitive learning. Pieters,Rosbergen, and Wedel (1999) also questioned the reliability of eyemovement measures. They held that, although external disturbances tothe experiment can be controlled, eye movement measures are not highlyreliable because eye movement patterns can be influenced by subjects’excessive blinking or tear fluid. This restricts the opportunity of recruit-ing certain individuals with various eye problems for eye movementexperiments in marketing research.

10. Brain Imaging Analysis

Brain imagining analysis has been intensively used in neuromarketingresearch, which relies on neuroscience technologies to investigate


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individuals’ brain activities in response to marketing and advertisingstimuli. Neuroscience technologies that can be employed by brain imag-ing analysis in marketing research include Functional Magnetic Reso-nance Imaging (fMRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), andMagnetoencephalography (MEG) (Zaltman, 1997; Ambler et al., 2004).These relatively new techniques in marketing research monitor mag-netic activity or radioactive patterns in the medial prefrontal cortex ofthe brain, and are able to provide high spatial resolution as well as tem-poral resolution that can document an individual’s brain activities inresponse to non static stimuli (Rossiter et al., 2001a; Berthoz et al., 2002).Thus, these brain imaging techniques complement less precise brainactivity measurement techniques, such as EEG (Rossiter et al., 2001a).Using the fMRI technique, marketing research has identified some ofthe cognitive activities in the brain, with implications for marketing. Theleft hemisphere of the brain is mainly involved with sequential orderingabilities and analytical abilities, whereas the right hemisphere is involvedwith the determination of meaning, nonverbal communications, andvisual-spatial perceptions (Morgan & Reichert, 1999). Previous researchsuggested that brain imaging analysis can be used to investigate thepresence or absence of pleasure and arousal (Novemsky & Kahneman,2005), information processing patterns (Zaltman, 1997), and memory(Percy, 2004).

Brain imaging analysis techniques, such as fMRI, have been inten-sively used by marketing researchers and practitioners since the 90s infield investigations on product preferences, advertising effectiveness,brand loyalty, and so on (Carmichael, 2004; Helliker, 2006). It was consid-ered more accurate in practice than the use of focus groups and surveysin explaining consumers’ experiences and feelings (Kelly, 2002). It was alsoconsidered more effective than other psychophysiological techniquesbecause the experimental process is not influenced by external distur-bances and participant bias (Kelly, 2002). Although suspicions have beenraised as to whether increased brain activity necessarily indicates affec-tive changes as well as product preferences (Carmichael, 2004), recentresearch has provided some illuminative findings. By using fMRI toinvestigate respondents’ brain reactions to brands, it was found that cer-tain brain areas indicating pleasure, self-identification, and rewardswere evoked by a well-known brand, whereas the parts in the brain indi-cating displeasure and memory were evoked by an unfamiliar brand(Helliker, 2006).

In neuroeconomics research that investigates the mechanism of thebrain in economics-related decision-making process, the validity and reli-ability of brain imaging analysis has been demonstrated in measuringboth cognitive and affective responses to stimuli (e.g., Montague & Berns,2002; McClure et al., 2004). Based on brain activity in the prefrontal cor-tex monitored by brain imaging analysis, cognitive and affective responsesto the economic environment can be depicted and then used to predict


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economic decision-making and behavioral consequences (McClure et al.,2004). Using fMRI, McClure et al. (2004) found that the hippocampusand dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are the main brain areas that indicateaffective brain activities, which, together with cognitive brain activitiesindicated in other brain areas, helped to explain subjects’ brand prefer-ences. Recent research conducted by Knutson and Peterson (2005) foundthat the anticipation of increasing monetary gains activates a subcorti-cal region of the ventral striaum, accompanied by increased arousal andpleasure. Therefore, the brain imaging analysis technique in marketingresearch has sufficient psychophysiological basis for the interpretationof both cognitive and affective responses to marketing stimuli.

Nonetheless, brain imaging analysis has been increasingly challengedfrom an ethical perspective, with reasons such as invasion of privacyand the potential for mind control (Thompson, 2003; Wahlberg, 2004).Current neuromarketing research focuses on the use of the ZaltmanMetaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) to investigate the unconsciousof consumers (e.g., Coulter, Zaltman, & Coulter, 2001; Christensen &Olson, 2002; Lee et al., 2003). ZMET is not a psyshophysiological tech-nique. This survey technique is more naturalistic than experimentalbrain imaging analysis, and thus ethical problems restricting the appli-cability of brain imaging analysis can be avoided. However, the use ofexperimental brain imaging analysis should not be discouraged. Whenbrain imaging analysis is used in future marketing research, necessarysteps must be taken to ensure that human subjects are well protected andpotential ethical issues are resolved.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the discussion above, a summary of the ten psychophys-iological techniques used in marketing research is provided in Table 2.

Based on the summary, a psychophysiology framework in marketingresearch is given in Figure 1. This psychophysiology framework can beused for the purpose of analyzing different psychological antecedentsand corresponding physiological consequences. The framework ispresented in a Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) model fromenvironmental psychology to explain the impact of external stimuli on con-sumer response (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis,2001). According to the S-O-R paradigm, the environment contains stim-uli that can influence consumers’ internal organism, which in turn influ-ences consumers’ behavioral outcomes. In marketing research, thepsychophysiological process can be better understood by analyzingconsumers’ internal organism. The relationship between psychologicalantecedents and physiological consequences presented in the internalorganism extends Bagozzi’s (1991) psychophysiological relationship modeland depicts the detailed patterns of the psychological processes and


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Tab

le 2

.Su

mm

ary

of P

sych

oph

ysio

logi

cal

Tec

hn

iqu

es i

n M

ark

etin

g R

esea

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gges

ted

Ph

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logi

cal I

ndi

cato

r P

sych

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M

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easu

rem

ent

Dev

ice]

An

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den

tsV

alid

ity

Rel

iabi

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App

lica

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ty

Non

- h

emis

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ic

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iati

ons

in t

he

freq

uen

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•

Val

id m

easu

re f

or

• L

ess

reli

able

th

an

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cabl

e to

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rain

Wav

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rica

l act

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•

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usa

l co

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A

NS

an

d S

NS

co

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tim

uli

th

e br

ain

[E

EG

or

SS

PT

]•

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onpr

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gm

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atio

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D

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asu

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rary

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•

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obu

st t

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[Pu

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omet

rics

]•

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f m

ult

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usa

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va

lidi

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mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 211

Hea

rt R

ate

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pon

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Ele

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isch

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[E

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]

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den

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mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 212

physiological indicators. The psychophysiology framework reflects theunity of body and mind (Zaltman, 2003) and the complex nature of the psy-chophysiological mechanism (Bagozzi, 1991; Cacioppo, Tassinary, &Berntson, 2000).

An experimental study in marketing using psychophysiological tech-niques usually starts with an intention to examine consumers’ cognitiveand/or affective processes in response to prefabricated marketing stim-uli. In experimental studies, these cognitive and/or affective processes,


213

Cognitive Responses to Stimulus Xn• Attention• Information Processing• Memory• Other Cognitive Dimensions

Affective Responses to Stimulus Xn• Pleasure (or Valence)• Arousal• Dominance• Other Affective Dimensions

Central Nervous System Indicators• Brain Activity (non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemispheric lateralization, or brain imaging analysis)

Autonomic Nervous System Indicators• Pupil Dilation (pupillary response) • Sweat Gland Activity (electrodermal analysis) • Cardiovascular Activity (heart rate response and/or vascular activity)• Laryngeal Muscle Activity (voice pitch analysis)

Somatic Nervous System Indicators• Skeletomotor Activity (facial• muscle activity) • Eye Movement (eye movement analysis)

Psychological Antecedents Physiological Consequences

Stimulus

Cognitive Responses to Stimulus X1

Cognitive Responses to Stimulus X2

Affective Responses to Stimulus X2

Affective Responses to Stimulus X1

Other Physiological/Bodily Indicators

Organism

The psychophysiology framework is based on Bagozzi’s (1991) psychophysiology relationship framework andMehrabian and Russell’s (1974) Stimuli-Organism-Response paradigm.

Behavioral Outcomes

A stimulus series (e.g., print ad, radio ad, or TVcommercial) containing n stimulus (X1, X2…Xn)

• Approach• Avoidance

. . .

. . .

Figure 1. Psychophysiology framework in marketing research.

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separately or jointly, serve as psychological antecedents to a varietyof physiological consequences produced by the human nervous system.The physiological consequences may include CNS indicators and peripheralnervous system (ANS and SNS) indicators. The ANS indicators, which reg-ulate organ functions, are under involuntary control, whereas the SNSindicators, which regulate muscle functions, are under voluntary con-trol. Ideally, by measuring one or a number of physiological change(s),researchers are able to identify the changes in an individual’s cognitiveand/or affective processes.

However, as described in the framework, the psychophysiologicalprocess is more complex than a one-to-one inference relationship betweena single psychological antecedent and a single physiological consequence(Bagozzi, 1991). Several noteworthy findings can be disclosed. First, aphysiological change can be accompanied by a number of simultaneousor sequential cognitive and/or affective processes. These psychologicalprocesses usually co-exist when an individual reacts to certain stimuli.As noted previously (e.g., Klebba, 1985; Wiles & Cornwell, 1990), it iscrucial for researchers to establish that a physiological measure indi-cates the particular psychological process that it is supposed to indicate.Second, a particular psychological antecedent can result in a number ofphysiological consequences. A combination of different physiologicalmeasures, such as CNS with peripheral ANS or SNS measures, can offercross-validation for the effects of external stimuli on consumers’ psy-chological responses (Stewart & Furse, 1982). Third, marketing andadvertising research usually investigate a stimulus series, such as mediaads or TV commercials, that consist of an unknown number of elementsin the stimuli (Crites & Aikman-Echenrode, 2001). The particular stim-ulus or portion of stimuli to which the psychological processes respondwas usually not identified in previous studies. The explanatory or dis-criminatory power of psychophysiological measures on the effectivenessof media or stimuli demonstrated is questionable if researchers cannotidentify the particular stimulus in a stimuli set to which a psychologi-cal process corresponds.

FUTURE RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS

This study provides a descriptive review of major psychophysiologicaltechniques used in marketing research and offers some insights in appro-priately applying these techniques in future marketing research. In addi-tion to the recommendation of careful examination of the validity andreliability issues of psychophysiological measures, future research rec-ommendations are made in the following areas.

Dimensionality of Particular Psychological Response. Futureresearch in investigating the relationships between psychological


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antecedents and physiological consequences may focus on exploring thedimensionality of a particular psychological process and using a numberof physiological measures to measure different dimensions of the psy-chological process. For example, arousal was suggested to be a multidi-mensional affective state (Thayer, 1978; Stewart & Furse, 1982; LaTour,1990). Thayer (1978) suggested that physiological measures, such asbrain activity, pupil dilation, and heart rate, reflect different aspects ofarousal. Thus, a single physiological measure may not be valid to meas-ure arousal because of other unmeasured dimensions. The theoreticalframework between the multiple dimensions of a psychological responseand the corresponding multiple physiological measures needs to be exploredin future research.

Sequential Issues in Cognitive and Affective Responses. Furtherinvestigation of the relationships between psychological antecedents andphysiological consequences may also focus on exploring the complexsequence of the effects of external stimuli. An individual’s cognitive andaffective responses to stimuli may occur in sequence. DeVoe’s (1956) hier-archy of effects model for advertising effectiveness described such asequence: attention → interest → desire → action. Lavidge and Steiner’s(1961) hierarchy of effects model in examining advertising effectivenesscontended that consumers follow four stages in response to stimuli:attention → cognition → affect → conation. Bagozzi (1991) suggested thatpsychophysiological measures can be used to investigate such a sequentialprocess in response to marketing stimuli: cogniton → arousal → attitudechange → behavior. However, the hierarchy of effects may vary becauseof high or low involvement (Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983). There-fore, future research combining temporal variations of different physio-logical indicators during an individual’s exposure to marketing stimuli mayoffer great value in assessing the sequence of an individual’s psycholog-ical process in response to marketing stimuli in different situations.

Triangulation of Verbal and Psychophysiological Measures. Althoughpsychophysiological measures have several advantages over verbal meas-ures, researchers should be aware that experimental studies in marketingusing psychophysiological techniques may involve various validity, relia-bility, and applicability problems. For example, participant characteristicsor external disturbances can bias the physiological data. In certain situations,threats to validity and reliability cannot be well controlled. For validationpurposes, researchers may combine a verbal measure and psychophysio-logical measure(s) to examine a particular response to stimuli. Psy-chophysiological measures combined with verbal measures can also help tocontrol the bias caused by participant characteristics or environmental dis-turbances (Wiles & Cornwell, 1990). Future research may also examine thedifferences in consumers’ responses obtained from verbal and psy-chophysiological measures in the study of the unconscious of consumers.


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Application of New Equipment and Technologies. Rapid techno-logical evolution enables marketing researchers to use more advancedequipment to conduct psychophysiological measurements. For example,researchers usually have to visually examine brain wave patterns takenby EEG, but an extension of EEG, which is called Quantitative EEG(qEEG), is able to help researchers conduct brain wave mapping and sta-tistical analyses by computer. Using computer-aided qEEG, future mar-keting research in non hemispheric brain wave analysis or hemisphericlateralization may aim to identify the relationships between psycholog-ical processes and unseen patterns of brain waves.

New Psychophysiological Techniques in Marketing Research. Inthis study, ten psychophysiological techniques that have been used inmarketing research are discussed. Future research may incorporate otherpsychophysiological techniques into marketing research. For example,in the gastrointestinal system, the gastric tract, which is monitored by the electrogastrogram (EGG), can be linked to emotions such as stress anddisgust (Stern, Koch, & Muth, 2000). In the respiratory system, breathingpatterns documented by oxygen consumption (ml/min) or alveolar venti-lation (l/min) can indicate a number of affective processes, such as arousal,anger, or stress (Harver & Lorig, 2000). Previous research also suggestedthat the reactions in the sexual response system indicate sexual arousalin the mind, and these reactions can be measured by a number of psy-chophysiological techniques (Zuckerman, 1972; Geer & Janssen, 2000).

In closing, despite certain difficulties, psychophysiological techniquesoffer a number of advantages over behavioral and verbal measures. Withnew technologies being made available, the potential of psychophysio-logical techniques for further research is vast.

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tive

T

he

corr

elat

ion

bet

wee

n p

upi

llar

y re

spon

se,a

nd

volu

me

of s

ales

in

ques

tion

ed b

ecau

se

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

resp

onse

an

d sa

les

is la

rger

th

an t

hat

m

easu

rin

g ad

vert

isin

g of

sm

all m

agni

tude

of

betw

een

ver

bal r

espo

nse

an

d sa

les.

effe

ctiv

enes

s ch

ange

s

Ap

pen

dix

:(c

onti

nu

ed)

Art

icle

Nam

eR

esea

rch

Qu

esti

on(s

)R

elia

bili

ty o

f M

easu

reV

alid

ity

of M

easu

reF

indi

ngs

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 224

Kru

gman

,196

5P

upi

llar

y re

spon

se a

nd

verb

al

Not

dis

cuss

edP

redi

ctiv

e va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edP

upi

llar

y re

spon

se h

as s

ign

ific

ant

resp

onse

in m

easu

rin

g di

scri

min

ator

y po

wer

bet

wee

n d

iffe

ren

t ad

vert

isin

g ef

fect

iven

ess

com

mer

cial

s,bu

t ve

rbal

res

pon

se

does

not

.

Kru

gman

,196

6C

onsu

mer

res

pon

ses

to

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

Wh

ites

an

d bl

acks

dif

fer

in t

hei

r pa

ckag

e de

sign

s pr

efer

ence

s of

pac

kage

des

ign

s.

Hal

pern

196

7P

upi

llar

y re

spon

se p

atte

rns

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Pu

pill

ary

resp

onse

has

sig

nif

ican

t be

fore

an

d af

ter

expl

anat

ion

va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

eddi

scri

min

ator

y po

wer

in b

efor

e-an

d-af

ter

of t

he

stim

uli

expe

rim

ents

.

Van

Bor

tel,

1968

Pu

pil d

ilat

ion

un

der

init

ial

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Pu

pill

ary

resp

onse

has

sig

nif

ican

t im

pact

,per

suas

ion

,an

d va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

eddi

scri

min

ator

y po

wer

in t

he

diff

eren

ces

sale

s le

ads

of s

ales

lead

s,bu

t n

ot in

th

e am

oun

t of

di

ffer

ence

s in

sal

es.

Hes

s,19

68P

upil

lary

res

pons

e to

des

igns

,N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

tent

and

pre

dict

ive

Pup

illa

ry r

espo

nse

is p

osit

ivel

y as

soci

ated

ty

pes

of a

ds,a

nd

prod

uct

sva

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edw

ith

act

ual

sal

e.P

upi

llar

y re

spon

se h

as

sign

ific

ant

disc

rim

inat

ory

pow

er b

etw

een

prin

t an

d T

V a

ds.

Sta

ffor

d,B

irdw

ell,

&

Pu

pill

ary

resp

onse

in

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Pu

pill

ary

resp

onse

has

sig

nif

ican

t V

an T

asse

l,19

70m

easu

rin

g af

fect

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

disc

rim

inat

ory

pow

er b

etw

een

st

imu

lus

ads.

Kin

g,19

72R

elat

ion

ship

bet

wee

n p

upi

l N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d pr

edic

tive

E

nla

rged

pu

pil s

ize

indi

cate

s fa

vora

ble

dila

tion

an

d m

essa

ge a

ppea

lva

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edat

titu

des

and

con

sum

ers’

inte

rest

s.

Ele

ctro

der

mal

An

alys

is

Koh

an,1

968

Gal

van

ic s

kin

res

pon

se a

nd

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onve

rgen

t an

d pr

edic

tive

D

iffe

ren

ces

betw

een

gal

van

ic s

kin

ve

rbal

res

pon

se in

mea

suri

ng

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

resp

onse

an

d ve

rbal

res

pon

se a

re n

ot

adve

rtis

ing

effe

ctiv

enes

s si

gnif

ican

t.

Bel

ch e

t al

.,19

82P

sych

olog

ical

an

d ph

ysio

logi

cal

Not

dis

cuss

edP

redi

ctiv

e va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edN

udi

ty a

nd

sugg

esti

ven

ess

elic

it s

kin

re

spon

ses

to s

ex in

ads

reac

tion

s,an

d th

e co

gnit

ive

and

affe

ctiv

e re

spon

ses

asso

ciat

ed w

ith

th

ese

reac

tion

s va

ry b

y ge

nde

r.

Kil

bour

ne,P

aint

on,&

E

ffec

tive

ness

of s

exua

l em

bedd

ing

Not

dis

cuss

edP

redi

ctiv

e va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edS

exua

l em

bedd

ing

is e

ffec

tive

in in

crea

sing

Rid

ley,

1985

in a

dver

tisi

ng

elec

trod

erm

al a

ctiv

itie

s in

res

pons

e to

ads

.

(Con

tin

ued

)

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 225

Aak

er,S

taym

an,&

G

alva

nic

ski

n r

espo

nse

an

d T

est-

rete

st

Con

ten

t,co

nve

rgen

t,an

d G

alva

nic

ski

n r

espo

nse

is p

osit

ivel

y H

ager

ty,1

986

war

mth

in a

dver

tisi

ng

reli

abil

ity

pred

icti

ve v

alid

ity

esta

blis

hed

asso

ciat

ed w

ith

war

mth

leve

l in

de

mon

stra

ted

adve

rtis

ing.

Fro

st &

Sta

uffe

r,19

87A

rous

al in

res

pons

e to

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

tent

,con

verg

ent,

and

Ski

n co

nduc

tanc

e re

spon

se a

nd b

lood

pul

se

med

ia v

iole

nce

con

curr

ent

vali

dity

vo

lum

e ar

e bo

th p

osit

ivel

y as

soci

ated

wit

h es

tabl

ish

edar

ousa

l lev

els.

Ste

m a

nd

Boz

man

198

8M

eth

ods

in r

edu

cin

g re

spon

den

t N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edS

ign

ific

ant

diff

eren

ces

in a

nxi

ety

exis

t an

xiet

ybe

twee

n q

ues

tion

met

hod

s.

Sta

yman

& A

aker

,199

3W

arm

th,l

ikin

g,h

um

or,i

rrit

atio

n,

Tes

t-re

test

C

onte

nt,

con

verg

ent,

and

Gal

van

ic s

kin

res

pon

se is

pos

itiv

ely

and

galv

anic

ski

n r

espo

nse

reli

abil

ity

pred

icti

ve v

alid

ity

esta

blis

hed

asso

ciat

ed w

ith

war

mth

leve

l an

d h

um

or.

dem

onst

rate

d

Van

den

Abe

ele

&

Rel

iabi

lity

an

d va

lidi

ty o

f L

ow r

elia

bili

ty

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

ed;

Gal

van

ic s

kin

res

pon

se is

rel

iabl

e to

M

acL

ach

lan

,199

4aga

lvan

ic s

kin

res

pon

se t

o ba

sed

on s

plit

co

nve

rgen

t va

lidi

ty s

usp

ecte

d m

easu

re a

tten

tion

wh

en a

dequ

ate

sam

ple

dyna

mic

sti

mul

isa

mpl

e co

rrel

atio

nssi

ze w

as u

sed,

but

its

vali

dity

in m

easu

ring

at

tent

ion

is q

uest

ione

d.

Van

den

Abe

ele

&

Em

otio

nal

war

mth

in r

espo

nse

L

ow r

elia

bili

ty

Con

ten

t an

d di

scri

min

ant

Gal

van

ic s

kin

res

pon

se a

nd

the

war

mth

M

acL

ach

lan

,199

4bto

TV

com

mer

cial

sba

sed

on s

plit

va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

ed

mea

sure

are

cor

rela

ted,

but

they

mea

sure

sa

mpl

e co

rrel

atio

ns

diff

eren

t af

fect

ive

resp

onse

s.

LaB

arbe

ra &

G

alva

nic

ski

n r

espo

nse

as

a T

est-

rete

st

Con

ten

t an

d pr

edic

tive

G

alva

nic

ski

n r

espo

nse

has

hig

her

T

ucc

iaro

ne,

1995

mea

sure

of

affe

ct

reli

abil

ity

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

pred

icti

ve v

alid

ity

for

sale

s th

an v

erba

l de

mon

stra

ted

mea

sure

s.

Bag

ozzi

,199

6In

flu

ence

of

arou

sal o

n t

he

hal

o N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Not

dis

cuss

edA

rou

sal i

ncr

ease

s th

e h

alo

effe

ct f

or

effe

ct f

or b

elie

fspo

siti

ve b

elie

fs,a

nd

decr

ease

s th

e h

alo

effe

ct f

or n

egat

ive

beli

efs.

Gro

eppe

l-K

lein

&

Vis

ual

mer

chan

disi

ng,

stor

e N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d co

ncu

rren

t E

lect

rode

rmal

res

pon

se is

a v

alid

an

d B

aun

,200

1de

sign

,an

d co

nsu

mer

aro

usa

l va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edse

nsi

tive

indi

cato

r of

aro

usa

l.

Bol

ls,L

ang,

&

Val

idit

y of

fac

ial m

usc

le a

ctiv

ity

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

con

curr

ent

Con

sum

ers

are

sign

ific

antl

y m

ore

arou

sed

Pot

ter,

2001

in m

easu

rin

g va

len

ce

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

duri

ng

posi

tive

ads

th

an d

uri

ng

neg

ativ

e ad

s.

Ap

pen

dix

:(c

onti

nu

ed)

Art

icle

Nam

eR

esea

rch

Qu

esti

on(s

)R

elia

bili

ty o

f M

easu

reV

alid

ity

of M

easu

reF

indi

ngs

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 226

Bol

ls,M

ueh

lin

g,&

E

ffec

ts o

f vi

sual

cu

ts in

a

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Fast

-pac

ed a

ds h

ave

a po

siti

ve e

ffec

t on

Yo

on,2

003

com

mer

cial

on

att

enti

on

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

view

ers’

invo

lun

tary

att

enti

on.E

nh

ance

d an

d re

call

in

volu

nta

ry a

tten

tion

is d

irec

ted

tow

ards

th

e n

on-c

laim

ele

men

ts o

f an

ad.

Su

nda

r &

E

ffec

ts o

f an

imat

ion

spe

ed o

n

Not

dis

cuss

edN

ot d

iscu

ssed

Fast

an

imat

ion

spe

eds

attr

act

atte

nti

on

Kal

yan

aram

an,2

004

arou

sal,

reca

ll,a

nd

inte

nti

onan

d el

icit

gre

ater

aro

usa

l,w

her

eas

slow

an

imat

ion

spe

eds

enh

ance

th

e ov

eral

l app

eal o

f a

Web

sit

e.

Por

ter

et a

l.,20

06P

rogr

amm

ing

con

text

an

d N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t,di

scri

min

ant,

Pos

itiv

e pr

ogra

mm

ing

con

text

act

ivat

es a

proc

essi

ng

of f

ear-

appe

al m

essa

geco

nve

rgen

t,an

d pr

edic

tive

vi

ewer

’s a

ppet

itiv

e m

otiv

atio

nal

sys

tem

,va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edw

her

eas

neg

ativ

e pr

ogra

mm

ing

con

text

ac

tiva

tes

a vi

ewer

’s a

vers

ive

mot

ivat

ion

al

syst

em.

Voi

ce P

itch

An

alys

is

Bri

ckm

an,1

976

Con

sum

ers’

aff

ecti

ve r

espo

nse

s

Not

dis

cuss

edP

redi

ctiv

e va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edV

oice

pit

ch is

pos

itiv

ely

asso

ciat

ed w

ith

to

pro

duct

att

ribu

tes

con

sum

ers’

act

ual

pu

rch

ase

afte

r co

mm

erci

als

are

wat

ched

.

Nel

son

& S

chw

artz

,197

9C

onsu

mer

s’ a

ttit

ude

s to

war

d H

igh

rel

iabi

lity

P

redi

ctiv

e va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edV

oice

pit

ch a

nal

ysis

pre

dict

s br

and

usa

ge

TV

com

mer

cial

sco

effi

cien

tm

ore

accu

rate

ly t

han

ver

bal m

easu

res.

Bri

ckm

an,1

980

Con

sum

ers’

att

itu

des

tow

ard

Tes

t-re

test

C

onte

nt,

con

verg

ent,

and

Voi

ce p

itch

an

alys

is is

a m

ore

reli

able

,br

ands

an

d pu

rch

ase

reli

abil

ity

pred

icti

ve v

alid

ity

esta

blis

hed

vali

d,an

d se

nsi

tive

mea

sure

th

an v

erba

l de

mon

stra

ted

mea

sure

s in

pre

dict

ing

actu

al p

urc

has

e.

Bac

khau

s,M

eyer

,&

Voi

ce p

itch

pat

tern

s an

d ar

ousa

lN

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

curr

ent

vali

dity

V

oice

pit

ch le

vel a

nd

voic

e pi

tch

ran

ge

Sto

cker

t,19

85es

tabl

ish

edin

dica

te a

rou

sal l

evel

.

Hea

rt R

ate

Res

pon

se

Lan

g,19

90E

ffec

ts o

f st

ruct

ura

l fea

ture

s an

d N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edS

tru

ctu

ral f

eatu

res

in c

omm

erci

als

elic

it

emot

ion

al c

onte

nt

in c

omm

erci

als

invo

lun

tary

ph

ysio

logi

cal a

tten

tion

.on

att

enti

on a

nd

arou

sal

Em

otio

nal

con

ten

t in

com

mer

cial

s in

ten

sifi

es in

volu

nta

ry p

hys

iolo

gica

l at

tent

ion

thro

ugh

the

med

iati

on o

f aro

usal

.

Bol

ls,L

ang,

&

Val

idit

y of

fac

ial m

usc

le a

ctiv

ity

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Neg

ativ

e m

essa

ges

rece

ive

mor

e at

ten

tion

P

otte

r,20

01in

mea

suri

ng

vale

nce

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

than

pos

itiv

e m

essa

ges.

(Con

tin

ued

)

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 227

Lan

g et

al.,

2002

Eff

ects

of W

eb s

tru

ctu

ral f

eatu

res

Tes

t-re

test

C

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Pla

in t

ext,

boxe

d te

xt,a

nd

non

an

imat

ed

on a

tten

tion

an

d m

emor

yre

liab

ilit

y va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edba

nn

er a

ds d

o n

ot e

lici

t ca

rdia

ori

enti

ng,

dem

onst

rate

d bu

t w

arn

ings

an

d an

imat

ed b

ann

er a

ds

elic

it o

rien

tin

g.

Bol

ls,M

ueh

lin

g,&

E

ffec

ts o

f vi

sual

cu

ts in

a

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Fast

-pac

ed a

ds h

ave

a po

siti

ve e

ffec

t on

Yo

on,2

003

com

mer

cial

on

att

enti

on

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

view

ers’

invo

lun

tary

att

enti

on.E

nh

ance

d an

d re

call

in

volu

nta

ry a

tten

tion

is d

irec

ted

tow

ards

th

e n

on-c

laim

ele

men

ts o

f an

ad.

Sm

ith

& D

ickh

aut,

2005

Eff

ects

of

emot

ion

on

pri

ce

Not

dis

cuss

edN

ot d

iscu

ssed

E

mot

ion

al in

ten

sity

aff

ects

pri

ce s

etti

ng

sett

ing

beh

avio

rbe

hav

ior.

Th

e ca

rdia

c sy

stem

is in

volv

ed

wit

h p

roce

ssin

g ec

onom

ic e

ven

ts.

Vas

cula

r A

ctiv

ity

Fro

st &

Sta

uff

er,1

987

Aro

usa

l lev

el in

res

pon

se t

o N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d co

nve

rgen

t S

kin

con

duct

ance

res

pon

se a

nd

bloo

d m

edia

vio

len

ceva

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edpu

lse

volu

me

are

both

pos

itiv

ely

asso

ciat

ed w

ith

aro

usa

l lev

el.

San

bon

mat

su &

E

ffec

ts o

f ar

ousa

l on

info

rmat

ion

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d pr

edic

tive

P

erip

her

al c

ue

has

a s

tron

ger

infl

uen

ce o

n

Kar

des,

1988

proc

essi

ng

and

pers

uas

ion

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

bran

d at

titu

des

un

der

hig

h t

han

un

der

mod

erat

e ar

ousa

l,w

her

eas

cen

tral

cu

e h

as

a gr

eate

r im

pact

un

der

mod

erat

e th

an

un

der

hig

h a

rou

sal.

Fac

ial

Mu

scle

Act

ivit

y

Cac

iopp

o &

Pet

ty,1

989

Aff

ecti

ve r

espo

nse

s to

pro

duct

sN

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d co

ncu

rren

t Fa

cial

mu

scle

act

ivit

y in

dica

tes

posi

tive

va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edor

neg

ativ

e em

otio

ns

of a

n in

divi

dual

to

war

d a

prod

uct

.

Haz

lett

& H

azle

tt,1

999

Aff

ecti

ve r

espo

nse

s to

TV

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

curr

ent

and

pred

icti

ve

Faci

al m

usc

le a

ctiv

ity

is a

mor

e se

nsi

tive

co

mm

erci

als

usi

ng

self

-rep

ort

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

disc

rim

inat

or b

etw

een

com

mer

cial

s th

an

and

faci

al m

usc

le a

ctiv

ity

self

-rep

ort,

and

is m

ore

stro

ngl

y re

late

d m

easu

res

to r

ecal

l.

Ap

pen

dix

:(c

onti

nu

ed)

Art

icle

Nam

eR

esea

rch

Qu

esti

on(s

)R

elia

bili

ty o

f M

easu

reV

alid

ity

of M

easu

reF

indi

ngs

(Con

tin

ued

)

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 228

Bol

ls,L

ang,

&

Val

idit

y of

fac

ial m

usc

le a

ctiv

ity

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt,

con

verg

ent,

and

Th

e va

lidi

ty o

f fa

cial

mu

scle

act

ivit

y in

P

otte

r,20

01in

mea

suri

ng

vale

nce

pr

edic

tive

val

idit

y es

tabl

ish

ed

mea

suri

ng

vale

nce

res

ult

ed f

rom

med

ia

mes

sage

s is

dem

onst

rate

d.

Por

ter

et a

l.,20

06P

rogr

amm

ing

con

text

an

d N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t,di

scri

min

ant,

Pos

itiv

e pr

ogra

mm

ing

con

text

act

ivat

es a

pr

oces

sin

g of

fea

r-ap

peal

mes

sage

con

verg

ent,

and

pred

icti

ve

view

er’s

app

etit

ive

mot

ivat

ion

al s

yste

m,

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

wh

erea

s n

egat

ive

prog

ram

min

g co

nte

xt

acti

vate

s a

view

er’s

ave

rsiv

e m

otiv

atio

nal

sy

stem

.

Eye

Mov

emen

t An

alys

is

Kru

gman

,197

1E

ffec

ts o

f ad

vert

isin

g st

imu

li

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt,

con

curr

ent,

and

Rec

all i

s po

siti

vely

ass

ocia

ted

wit

h e

ye

on r

ecal

l pr

edic

tive

val

idit

y es

tabl

ish

edm

ovem

ents

.Les

s-sc

ann

ed a

ds a

re

bett

er r

ecal

led.

Mor

riso

n &

Dai

nof

f,19

72R

ecal

l of

ads

and

indi

vidu

als’

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d pr

edic

tive

R

ecal

l of

ads

is p

osit

ivel

y as

soci

ated

wit

h

tim

e lo

okin

g at

mag

azin

esva

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edin

divi

dual

s’ lo

okin

g ti

me

on m

agaz

ines

.

Kin

g,19

72E

ye m

ovem

ent

and

mes

sage

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d co

ncu

rren

t R

atio

nal

an

d ob

ject

ive

thou

ghts

are

ap

peal

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

rein

forc

ed w

hen

eye

dir

ecti

on is

rig

ht,

whe

reas

em

otio

nal a

nd s

ubje

ctiv

e th

ough

tsar

e re

info

rced

wh

en e

ye d

irec

tion

is le

ft.

Tre

istm

an &

Gre

gg,1

979

Eye

mov

emen

ts,v

erba

l mea

sure

s,N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

tent

,con

verg

ent,

and

Eye

mov

emen

t ha

s su

peri

or d

iscr

imin

ator

yan

d sa

les

in m

easu

rin

g pr

edic

tive

val

idit

y es

tabl

ish

edpo

wer

in c

onsu

mer

s’ r

eact

ion

s to

ad

vert

isin

g ef

fect

iven

ess

diff

eren

t ad

s.

Kro

eber

-Rie

l &

Eye

mov

emen

t an

d re

cogn

itio

n

Not

dis

cuss

edV

alid

ity

of e

ye m

ovem

ent

Info

rmat

ion

acq

uis

itio

n is

bet

ter

for

Bar

ton

,198

0da

ta in

mea

suri

ng

adve

rtis

ing

depe

ndi

ng

on c

ogn

itiv

e te

xtu

al e

lem

ents

pos

itio

ned

in t

he

upp

er

effe

ctiv

enes

s le

arn

ing

hal

f of

an

ad.

Mem

ory

perf

orm

ance

is

posi

tive

ly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith

th

e n

um

ber

of

eye

fixa

tion

s.

Kro

eber

-Rie

l,19

84E

ffec

ts o

f e

mot

ion

al p

icto

rial

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d co

ncu

rren

t E

ye m

ovem

ent

indi

cate

s th

e ex

ten

t of

th

e el

emen

ts in

th

e ad

on

va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edco

gnit

ive

acti

viti

es a

s w

ell a

s th

e se

lect

ive

info

rmat

ion

pro

cess

ing

info

rmat

ion

acq

uis

itio

n a

nd

proc

essi

ng.

Bog

art

& T

olle

y,19

88P

atte

rns

of b

rain

act

ivit

y an

d N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edA

ds la

rger

th

an h

alf

a pa

ge r

ecei

ve m

ore

con

ten

ts o

f ad

s fi

xati

ons

and

mu

ltip

le f

ixat

ion

s. (Con

tin

ued

)

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 229

Kru

gman

et

al.,

1994

Eff

ects

of

cau

tion

ary

not

ices

in

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt,

con

curr

ent,

and

Dw

ell t

ime

is p

osit

ivel

y as

soci

ated

wit

h

ads

on r

ecal

lpr

edic

tive

val

idit

y es

tabl

ish

edco

nte

nt

reca

ll.T

he

tim

e sp

ent

look

ing

at

the

war

nin

g is

pos

itiv

ely

rela

ted

to r

ecal

l of

th

e m

essa

ge.

Ru

sso

& L

ecle

rc,1

994

Con

sum

ers’

ch

oice

pro

cess

by

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

Th

e ch

oice

pro

cess

has

sev

eral

dis

tin

ctiv

e u

sin

g ey

e fi

xati

ons

stag

es d

ue

to e

ye f

ixat

ion

s fo

r di

ffer

ent

purp

oses

.

Loh

se,1

997

Fact

ors

infl

uen

cin

g co

nsu

mer

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

ed

Su

bjec

ts a

re m

ore

like

ly t

o n

otic

e la

rger

at

ten

tion

to

yell

ow p

ages

ads

ads

and

ads

nea

r th

e h

eadi

ng.

Col

or a

nd

grap

hic

s h

ave

sign

ific

ant

effe

cts

onvi

ewin

g ti

me.

Ros

berg

en,P

iete

rs,&

E

ffec

ts o

f ph

ysic

al a

d pr

oper

ties

T

est-

rete

st

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edC

onsu

mer

s ex

hib

it d

isti

nct

pat

tern

s of

W

edel

,199

7on

att

enti

on

reli

abil

ity

visu

al a

tten

tion

,pro

duct

invo

lvem

ent,

dem

onst

rate

d br

and

atti

tude

,an

d ad

vert

isin

g re

call

.

Jan

isze

wsk

i,19

98In

form

atio

n g

ath

erin

g an

d N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onsu

mer

s en

gage

d in

exp

lora

tory

sea

rch

re

tent

ion

duri

ng e

xplo

rato

ry s

earc

hsp

end

less

att

enti

on o

n a

reas

su

rrou

nde

d by

mat

eria

l gen

erat

ing

a st

ron

g de

man

d fo

r at

ten

tion

.

Fox

et

al.,

1998

Eff

ects

of

prod

uct

war

nin

gs

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

Sim

ilar

war

nin

gs c

an p

rodu

ce d

iffe

ren

t on

att

enti

on

len

gth

s of

dw

ell t

ime,

depe

ndi

ng

on t

he

prod

uct

an

d m

essa

ge.

Pie

ters

,Ros

berg

en,&

C

onsu

mer

s’ v

isua

l att

enti

on d

urin

gR

elia

bili

ty w

as

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edA

tten

tion

du

rati

on d

ecre

ases

sig

nif

ican

tly

Wed

el,1

999

repe

ated

exp

osu

res

to p

rin

t ad

squ

esti

oned

bec

ause

ac

ross

adv

erti

sin

g re

peti

tion

s.A

tten

tion

al

of e

xces

sive

blin

king

sc

anpa

ths

rem

ain

con

stan

t ac

ross

or

tea

rad

vert

isin

g re

peti

tion

s.

Pie

ters

& W

arlo

p,19

99E

ffec

ts o

f ti

me

pres

sure

an

d ta

sk

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt a

nd p

redi

ctiv

e In

crea

sed

tim

e pr

essu

re le

ads

to

mot

ivat

ion

on

con

sum

ers’

va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edac

cele

rati

on,m

ore

filt

rati

on,a

nd

mor

e vi

sual

att

enti

onin

form

atio

n a

cqu

isit

ion

,wh

erea

s in

crea

sed

task

mot

ivat

ion

lead

s to

de

cele

rati

on,l

ess

filt

rati

on,a

nd

less

in

form

atio

n a

cqu

isit

ion

.

Ap

pen

dix

:(c

onti

nu

ed)

Art

icle

Nam

eR

esea

rch

Qu

esti

on(s

)R

elia

bili

ty o

f M

easu

reV

alid

ity

of M

easu

reF

indi

ngs

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 230

Wed

el &

Pie

ters

,200

0E

ye f

ixat

ion

s on

pri

nt

ads

and

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

pred

icti

ve

Eye

fix

atio

ns

to t

he

pict

oria

l an

d th

e m

emor

y of

adv

erti

sed

bran

dsva

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edbr

and

are

posi

tive

ly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith

br

and

mem

ory.

Gar

cia,

Pon

soda

,&

Eff

ects

of i

nvol

vem

ent

and

posi

tion

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edP

osit

ion

of

the

illu

stra

tion

has

no

effe

ct o

n

Est

ebar

anz,

2000

of il

lust

rati

on o

n a

tten

tion

at

ten

tion

wh

en in

volv

emen

t is

hig

h,b

ut

it

does

wh

en in

volv

emen

t is

low

.In

tera

ctio

n

effe

ct e

xist

s be

twee

n p

osit

ion

of

the

illu

stra

tion

an

d in

volv

emen

t.

Dre

ze &

Hu

ssh

err,

2003

Att

enti

on,r

ecal

l,an

d co

gnit

ion

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edV

iew

ers

inte

nd

to a

void

ban

ner

s,bu

t of

ban

ner

adv

erti

sin

glo

cati

on,s

ize,

and

zon

e co

nte

nt

pred

ict

wh

eth

er a

ban

ner

att

ract

s at

ten

tion

.

Pie

ters

& W

edel

,200

4E

ffec

ts o

f br

and,

pict

oria

l,an

d N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t an

d pr

edic

tive

P

icto

rial

ele

men

t is

su

peri

or in

cap

turi

ng

text

on

att

enti

on o

f ad

sva

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edat

ten

tion

,in

depe

nde

nt

of it

s si

ze.T

ext

elem

ent

best

cap

ture

s at

ten

tion

in d

irec

t pr

opor

tion

to

its

surf

ace

size

.Bra

nd

elem

ent

mos

t ef

fect

ivel

y tr

ansf

ers

atte

nti

on t

o th

e ot

her

ele

men

ts.

Bra

in I

mag

ing

An

alys

is

Am

bler

et

al.,

2004

Bra

in a

ctiv

atio

n di

ffer

ence

s in

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Not

dis

cuss

edB

rain

act

ivat

ion

in b

ran

d ch

oice

dif

fers

br

and

choi

ce a

nd

hei

ght

from

th

at f

or h

eigh

t di

scri

min

atio

n,a

nd

disc

rim

inat

ion

choi

ce t

imes

are

fas

ter

wh

en o

ne

bran

d is

mor

e fa

mil

iar.

Ru

stic

hin

i et

al.,

2005

Con

sum

er c

hoic

es b

etw

een

cert

ain,

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

Bra

in a

ctiv

atio

n in

cer

tain

reg

ion

s di

ffer

s ri

sky,

and

ambi

guou

s lo

tter

ies

wh

en s

ubj

ects

hav

e di

ffer

ent

choi

ces.

Sub

ject

s es

tim

ate

the

valu

e of

the

lott

erie

s an

d th

e di

ffic

ulty

to

mak

e a

choi

ce d

urin

g lo

tter

ies.

Knu

tson

& P

eter

son,

2005

Bra

in a

ctiv

atio

n d

uri

ng

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

and

con

curr

ent

An

tici

pati

on o

f in

crea

sin

g m

onet

ary

gain

s an

tici

pati

on o

f ga

in

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

acti

vate

s a

subc

orti

cal r

egio

n of

the

ven

tral

st

riat

um,w

here

as a

ntic

ipat

ion

of m

onet

ary

loss

es d

oes

not

.

(Con

tin

ued

)

mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 231

Bh

att

& C

amer

er,2

005

Bra

in a

ctiv

ity

duri

ng

deci

sion

N

ot d

iscu

ssed

Con

ten

t va

lidi

ty e

stab

lish

edL

ittl

e di

ffer

ence

is f

oun

d in

bra

in a

ctiv

ity

mak

ing

and

beli

ef e

xpre

ssio

nac

ross

ch

oice

an

d be

lief

tas

ks.A

ctu

al

earn

ings

fro

m c

hoi

ces

and

beli

efs

are

neg

ativ

ely

corr

elat

ed w

ith

act

ivit

y in

th

e in

sula

,su

gges

tin

g po

or s

trat

egic

th

inke

rs

are

self

-foc

use

d.

Yoon

et

al.,

2006

Sem

anti

c ju

dgm

ents

abo

ut

Not

dis

cuss

edC

onte

nt

vali

dity

est

abli

shed

Judg

men

t ab

out

pers

ons

cau

ses

grea

ter

prod

ucts

and

pers

ons

acti

vati

on in

th

e m

edia

l pre

fron

tal c

orte

x pr

oces

sed

in t

he

brai

nre

gion

s,w

her

eas

judg

men

t ab

out

prod

uct

s ca

use

s gr

eate

r ac

tiva

tion

in t

he

left

infe

rior

pre

fron

tal c

orte

x,an

are

a fo

r ob

ject

pr

oces

sin

g.

Ap

pen

dix

:(c

onti

nu

ed)

Art

icle

Nam

eR

esea

rch

Qu

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