vasile budui, cristian-valeriu patriche, modelarea
TRANSCRIPT
„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi
Faculty of Geography and Geology
Geography Department
Present Environment
And
Sustainable Development
Volume 6, no.1, 2012
Editura Universităţii ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”
Editor-in-Chief:
Prof. Liviu Apsotol Ph. D.
,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania
Editorial Advisory Board
Prof. dr. M. Brahim Akdim, Université "Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah", Fès, Morocco
Prof. dr. Liviu Apostol, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, România
Prof. dr. hab. Krzysztof Błażejczyk, Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego
Zagospodarowania, Polska Akademia Nauk, Polska
Prof. dr. Evgeny A. Cerchez, "I. I. Mechnikov" National University, Odessa, Ukraine
Prof. Nathan Cohen Ph.D., "Ben Gurion" University of Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
Prof. dr. Gheorghe Damian, Universitatea de Nord, Baia Mare, România
Prof. dr. André Dauphiné, Université "Sophia Antipolis”, Nice, France
Prof. Nicholas Dickinson Ph. D., "Lincoln” University, Cristchurch, New Zealand
Prof. dr. Pierre Dumolard., Université "Joseph Fourier”, Grenoble, France
Univ.-Prof Dr rer.nat.habil. Wilfried Endlicher, "Humboldt"-Universität zu Berlin,
Deutschland
Prof. dr. Charles Hussy, Université de Genève, Schweiz
Prof. dr. Radu Lăcătuşu, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, membru al
Academiei de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Silvice, România
Prof. dr. Alberto Marini, Universita degli Studi, Cagliari, Italia
Prof .dr. Jean-Robert Pitte, Université "Paris 4 Sorbonne", Membre de l’ Académie
Française, Président de la Société Française de Géographie, France
Prof. dr. Gheorghe Romanescu, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, România
Prof. dr. hab. Valentin Sofroni, Universitatea de Stat din Tiraspol, Chişinău, R. Moldova
Prof. dr. em. Irina Ungureanu, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, România
Editorial Assistant: Lucian Sfîcă Webmaster: Adrian Ursu
English language reviewers : Ionuţ Vasiliniuc, Iulia Apostol
ISSN: 1843-5971
Indexed in the folowing International Data Base:
Cover: Adrian Ursu, Dan-Adrian Chelaru
1. The explosion at reactor No. 3, Fukushima, satellite image March 14, 2011 (Credit & Copyright:
REUTERS)
2. Ground based and Aerial monitoring results, Fukushima, 2011, March 30 - April 3 (Credit &
Copyright: NNSA - Japan).
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CONTENTS
MARIA NEDEALCOV, ZAHARIA NEDEALCOV – Evaluation of thermal comfort
degree in canicular days - record for the Republic of Moldova’s territory……….. 5 CARLO MURGIA, ANDREA MURGIA – Home range and habitat selection of the
sardinian wildcat (felis silvestris libyca) in an area of southern Sardinia................ 11 VASILE GUTSULEAK, TANASIUK M.V. - Estimation of the Ecological State of
the territory on the landscape Basis (on the example of Hertse district in
Chernivtsi region, Ukraina)…………………………………………………......... 21 GHEORGHE JIGĂU, ECATERINA CHIŞLARI – Consideraţii vizînd Pedogeneza
antropizată în spaţiul Carpato-Danubiano- Pontic. Considerations regarding the
anthropized pedogenesis in the Carpato – Danubiano – Pontic area....................... 27 VASILE GUTSULEAK, K. NAKONECHNY, N. АNDRIYCHUK – Тhe Conceptual
Principles of Medical and Ecological Researches in the Context of Medical
Geography………………………..……………………………………………….. 35 MARIA NEDEALCOV, VALENTIN RĂILEANU, RODICA COJOCARI, OLGA
CRIVOVA – Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level..................... 39 TAMARA LEAH – Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable
development............................................................................................................. 47 PETRU COCÎRŢĂ – Forest ecosystems in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems
and solutions……………………………………………………………………… 59 HELENA MARIA SABO, IVANA JINJIG – Learning geography in the classroom or
to distastance?............................................................................. ............................. 75 NICOLETA IONAC, ADRIAN-CĂTĂLIN MIHOC, PAULA TĂBLEŢ – Ambient
well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings. case study……… 81 GHEORGHE DURAC, NICOLAE-HORIA – Sustainable development and the
protection of environmental factors – fundamental objectives of the Marrakech
agreement concerning the creation of the World Trade Organization……………. 95 NICOLETA IONAC, ELENA GRIGORE – The bioclimatic stress due to overheating
in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area……………………………………….. 103 THEODORA ARDELEANU, THEODOR GHINDA – Present problems regarding
urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities……………………………… 113 EUGEN RUSU – Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at
global and regional............................................................................................ ....... 127 RADU LĂCĂTUŞU, MIHAELA MONICA STANCIU-BURILEANU, MIHAELA
LUNGU, I. RÎŞNOVEANU, ANCA-ROVENA LĂCĂTUŞU, NINETA RIZEA,
A. VRÂNCEANU, RODICA LAZĂR – Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta
North-Western part……………………………...................................................... 145 THEODOR GHINDĂ, THEODORA ARDELEANU – Environmental protection
improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant projects…………….......... 157 FLORIN-CONSTANTIN MIHAI, LIVIU APOSTOL – Disparities in municipal waste
management across EU - 27. a geographical approach........................................... 169 NICOLETA IONAC, PAULA TĂBLEŢ, ADRIAN-CĂTĂLIN MIHOC – Heat
waves: meteorological characteristics and biometeorological influences (case
study: Romania, 14-16th july 2011).......................................................................... 181
LIVIU APOSTOL, NICOLETA - DELIA VIERU, PAUL-NARCIS VIERU –
Analysis of gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere of Botosani town…………....... 195 ELENA TEODOREANU, DUMITRU MIHĂILĂ – Is the bioclimate of Suceava
Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? Analysis based on tee and
thi……………………………………………………………………………... 205 LĂCRĂMIOARA MIRELA VLAD, PETRU DELIU, IOSIF BARTHA – Evolution
of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers…………….. 219 ELENA TEODOREANU, DUMITRU MIHĂILĂ – Is the bioclimate of the Suceava
Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? Analysis based on wind cooling power
index and skin and lung stress index……………………………………………… 229 ILEANA VASILESCU, IRINA SMICAL, IOAN POP – the impact of mining industry
on the landscape of Maramureş county……………………………....................... 253 DUMITRU LETOS, CRISTINA LETOS - A local approach of some phenomena with
climatic effects at the global level. Case study: Piatra Neamt town……………… 261 DANIELA IUREA – Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis
development………………………………………………………………………. 275 ION ISAIA – Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States…………. 285 ANCA MĂCIUCĂ, CĂTĂLIN ROIBU – Dead wood – an important issue for
forestbiodiversity conservation…………………………………………………… 299 PAUL-NARCIS VIERU, IOLANDA SÎNCU, NICOLETA-DELIA VIERU – Water
quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botosani
County………...…………………………………………………………………... 309 LILIANA PETRIŞOR, ALEXANDRU-IONUŢ PETRIŞOR – Contribution of
environmental protections specialists to sustainable local and regional
development in Romania……………………………………………………......... 319 DOINA CAPŞA, VALENTIN NEDEFF, EMA FACIU, GABRIEL
LAZĂR, IULIA
LAZĂR, NARCIS BÂRSAN – Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacau City.... 325
FLORIN VARTOLOMEI – Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers
in Prut basin (analysis of conditionalities)………………………………………… 341 ALEXANDRU-IONUŢ PETRIŞOR – dynamics of the environmental transformation
processes during 1990-2006 in Romania reflected by land cover and use
changes………………………………………………………................................. 353 NICOLAE RUSAN – Reusable enerygy, major preocupation for the reduction of the
environment’s pollution…………………………………………………............... 367 COSTEL ALEXE – Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of
Iaşi……………………………………………………… 377 LIVIU APOSTOL, COSTEL ALEXE, LUCIAN SFÎCĂ – Thermic differenciations in
the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave. Case study: 8-20 july 2011.................... 395
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
EVALUATION OF THERMAL COMFORT DEGREE IN
CANICULAR DAYS - RECORD FOR THE REPUBLIC OF
MOLDOVA’S TERRITORY
Maria Nedealcov1, Zaharia Nedealcov
2
Key words: canicular days, danger level, thermal discomfort, cartographic
modelling, record days.
Abstract. It is well known that in order to remove excess heat in an environment, a
temperature lower than body temperature, i.e. less than 37 0C is needed. If such
modalities of heat removal do not exist, the organism would be overheated, the
internal temperature would rise, and above 42 0C, all proteins in the human body
would be coagulated and finally heat shock would be produced. When atmospheric
humidity is very high, one looses heat with more difficulty, and increased
temperature is harder to endure, the air seems to be unbreathable. Some categories
of sick people, for example, people suffering from asthma, heart condition,
hypertension, with endocrine diseases (hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism or with
suprarenal problems), as well as people with obesity problems are substantially
affected by increased humidification of air in canicular days.
Introduction
Regional climatic changes show an increase in intensity and frequency of
climatic anomalies, including those of the canicular days’ period 3. We should
mention that the human body removes the accumulated heat by thermal conduction
(directly by contact with cooler objects), by convection (air flows), by heat
radiation and by transpiration.
That is why, in the current stage, the index of thermal comfort, which indicates
subjective heat perception, having at the same time objective quantifiable and
measurable basis of environmental humidification degree, is used to evaluate
sensorial weather conditions.
1 Prof. PhD., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Science, Republic of Moldova,
[email protected]. 2 PhD Student, State University of Medicine and Pharmacy “N.Testemitanu Chişinău, Republic of
Moldova, [email protected].
Maria Nedealcov, Zaharia Nedealcov
6
1. Material and methodology
Thermal comfort indexes are often called Indicators of Temperature and
Humidity (ITH) by meteorologists and indicate just how suffocating weather is for
humans during the canicular days. The calculation of this index is based on two
variables: temperature and humidity. There are two methods of calculation and
evidently of expressing them: „non-dimensional” or „by units” or calibrated on
temperature scale, i.e. in Celsius degrees. Thus, the necessary meteorological
parameters for thermal comfort calculation (ITH), expressed both in units and
calibrated in degrees, are the air temperature at 2 m of height and the relative
humidity.
In this work, the index of thermal comfort calculation expressed in units was
elaborated using the Statgraphics Centurion Software according to the following
formula:
ITU= 0.81T+ 0.01HU (0.99T - 14.3)+ 46.3,
where T – air temperature at 2 m of height, HU - relative humidity on the same
level.
When the ITH is under 79 units, the air is pleasant and easy to breathe, but
when the ITH exceeds 80 units, an increased discomfort risk appears, the air being
difficult to breathe. Such situations occur especially when temperature is high and
air humidity is very high. An increased humidity can make air with not so high
temperature really unbreathable. On the contrary, dry air, though canicular, may be
more tolerable for the organism. The explanation is that high air humidity
interferes with the natural transpiration of human body. Through transpiration,
humans remove heat excess. When the air is saturated, the process of transpiration
or evaporation is complicated, and heat from human body is not eliminated
naturally.
2. Analysis of the obtained results
Analysis of multiyear data on thermal regime evolution shows us that in July
2007, the most significant heat waves occurred during the period of instrumental
observations. 5. According to 4, 6, considering the number of affected persons
(over 210000 affected persons) in canicular days, Republic of Moldova is on the
second place in Europe, after Macedonia. According to the State
Hydrometeorological Service 5, the second decade of August 2010 registered a
record of canicular days for this month.
All the above mentioned had conditioned the calculation of thermal comfort
index on the basis of daily maximum temperatures and daily relative humidity for
the period of June 17-22, 2007 and August 11-16, 2010, registered as record
canicular days.
Evaluation of thermal comfort degree in canicular days for the Rep. of Moldova’s territory
7
The ITH’s cartographical modeling (using Surfer software with Radial Basis
interpolation method) for the above mentioned periods allowed to evidence
regional particularities of thermal discomfort. We should mention that both in
cases of canicular days in July 17-22, 2007 (fig.1) and the ones in August, 11-16,
2010 (fig.2) the indexes of thermal comfort have exceeded the critical value of 80
units. Therefore, the authors consider that the ITH values equal to less than 84
units should be considered as moderate thermal discomfort and the ones above
these values – as intense thermal discomfort.
Bravicea
Briceni
Baltata
Chisinau
Cornesti
Cahul
Comrat
Camenca
Dubasari
Falesti
Leova
Soroca
Tiraspol
Balti
84
85
86
87
88
moderat
intens
Disconfort termic
Fig.1 - Spatial distribution of the index of thermal comfort in canicular days in
July 17-22, 2007
The analysis of obtained maps (fig.1, fig.2) allows stating that in both cases of
canicular periods on the Republic’s territory, thermal discomfort is classified as
intense, with more intensity due to the Eastern and North-Eastern parts, which is
confirmed with thermal record values registered by the State Hydrometeorological
Service of Moldova in the studied periods.
The threat degree of thermal discomfort can be evaluated according to the
Discomfort Index (DI) proposed by Giles 1, 2.
To estimate the discomfort index (DI) in Celsius degrees, the following
equation by Giles et al. (1990) has been applied:
DI=Ta-0.55 (1-0.01 RH) (Ta-14.5)
Maria Nedealcov, Zaharia Nedealcov
8
where Ta is the hourly value of the average air temperature in Celsius degrees
and RH (%) is the corresponding hourly value of the relative humidity. Discomfort
increases as DI increases.
Bravicea
Briceni
Baltata
Chisinau
Cornesti
Cahul
Comrat
Camenca
Dubasari
Falesti
Leova
Soroca
Tiraspol
Balti
84
85
86
87
88
moderat
intens
Disconfort termic
Fig. 2 - Spatial distribution of the index of thermal comfort in canicular days in August 11-
16, 2010
The main feature observed in the average daily DI values is the general decline
of the DI levels throughout the examined period of each monitoring site. The
analysis shows that the average daily DI values remain lower than the 240C limit,
which is the limit when more than 50% of the total population feels discomfort.
The cartographical modeling of DI was executed for record canicular days in
July and August and its grading shows that in July 2007 (fig.3 a), more than 80%
of the Republic’s territory was at the dangerous level of discomfort.
The same spatial interpretation has DI for canicular days of August 2010 (fig.3
b), except that it has a more restricted manifestation area.
Statistical indexes calculation (tab.2) show us, that in the above mentioned
periods, the values of DI have exceeded 29, which means the appearance of the
severe stress condition of the population. The obtained results are confirmed by the
fact that there were more than 210 000 persons affected in the Republic of
Moldova, registered during severe drought manifestation in 2007 4.
Evaluation of thermal comfort degree in canicular days for the Rep. of Moldova’s territory
9
Tab. 1 - Classification of the DI values (Giles et al., 1990).
ID (0C) Classification
ID <21 No discomfort
21≤ID<24 Under 50% population feels discomfort
24≤ID<27 More than 50% population feels discomfort
27≤ID<29 Most of the population suffers from discomfort
29≤ID<32 Everyone feels severe stress
ID≥32 State of medical emergency
Bravicea
Briceni
Baltata
Chisinau
Cornesti
Cahul
Comrat
Camenca
Dubasari
Falesti
Leova
Soroca
Tiraspol
Balti
28
29
30
31
32
populatia sufera de disconfort
nivelul periculos al disconfortului
Bravicea
Briceni
Baltata
Chisinau
Cornesti
Cahul
Comrat
Camenca
Dubasari
Falesti
Leova
Soroca
Tiraspol
Balti
27
28
29
30
31
populatia sufera de disconfort
nivel periculos
Fig. 3 - Evaluation of danger degree for the population’s health according to the
Discomfort Index in canicular days (a- July 17-22, 2007; b- August 11-16, 2010)
In conclusion, we state that the threat degree of thermal discomfort on the
Republic’s territory in record canicular days is very important and could contribute
to essential population’s health protection, thus reducing the number of deaths and
affected people caused by the baleful influence of canicular periods.
Bibliography: Giles, B.D. and Balafoutis, C.H. (1990), The Greek heatwaves of 1987 and 1988.
International Journal of Climatology, 10, 505–517.
Maria Nedealcov, Zaharia Nedealcov
10
Nedealcov Maria Fundamente teoretice privind standardizarea indicilor agroclimatici.
Buletinul Academiei de Ştiinţe a Moldovei Ştiinţele Vieţii, nr. 3 (309), 2009, p. 160.
M. Nedealcov Climatic risks and informational database Balwois, Macedonia
ffp_1325.pdf, 2010, p.2.
*** Republica Moldova. Hazardurile naturale regionale / red. resp.: Tatiana
Constantinov; Acad. de Ştiinţe a Moldovei, Inst. de Ecologie şi Geografie. - Ch.: S. n.,
2009. p.29.
*** http://meteo.md
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
HOME RANGE AND HABITAT SELECTION OF THE SARDINIAN
WILDCAT (Felis silvestris libyca) IN AN AREA OF SOUTHERN
SARDINIA
Carlo Murgia1, Andrea Murgia
2
Key words: home range, habitat selection, Sardinian wildcat.
Abstract. Four wildcat adult females and four adult males (Felis silvestris libyca,
Forster 1780) were monitored with the radio-telemetric technique in several time
periods from July 1994 to March 2002, in the faunal park of Monte Arcosu
(southwestern Sardinia). 4,356 radio localisations were gathered. The different
home-range configurations were calculated with two different methods: the
minimum convex polygon method (MPC) and the kernel method. Selection was
measured with the Ivlev preference index. The home ranges of the cats calculated
with the 100% MCP varied between 75.5 and 469.5 ha. The home ranges calculated
with the kernel method varied between 810.0 ha and 133.7 ha. In the summer the
wildcats move in a smaller area than in the other seasons. The overlap of the home
ranges of a few animals in the different seasons was between 24.5% and 82.5%.
High maquis is the most represented vegetational typology in the home ranges of the
wildcats followed by low maquis for the females and by the riparial vegetation for
the males; both are used in relation to their local availability. Both the selectivity
index and the preference index show that only a few wildcats distinguish among the
different habitats.
.
Introduction
Many canids tend to follow their prey, while felids approach it stealthily
(Eisenberg 1986, Kruuk 1986). In general the prey are caught more effectively in a
solitary way, by single individuals, than by groups. Consequently many felids
defend a single territory by joining their partners only for a short period during the
mating season (Kleiman-Eisenberg 1973, Seidensticker et al. 1973, Corbett 1979,
Stahl et al. 1988). The territories may be partially superimposed, in the event of a
mutual alliance (Leyhausen 1965; Hornocker 1969). The factor limiting the
reproductive success of felid males is the availability of females, while the
availability of food limits the reproductive success of females. Consequently, the
1 Sen. Res., Ente Foreste, Sardegna, Italy, [email protected]
2 Sen. Res., Ente Foreste, Sardegna, Italy,, [email protected]
Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia
12
males tend to settle in large territories covering the territory of many females thus
preventing access to other males, while the females tend to defend the food
resource (Eisenberg 1986). The cost benefit ratio of this system determines the use
of space by the felids (Eisenberg 1986).
Wildcats use activity areas (home range) which include a series of paths
linking the hunting areas, several places of refuge and breeding dens (Kitchener,
1991). The home ranges vary in size but can be very large: 184-1090 ha in France
(Stahl, 1986), 174-176 ha monthly areas in Scotland (Colbett, 1979). Males
generally have larger home ranges than females (Stahl, 1986), the males move on
larger surfaces, especially during the breeding season (Kitchener, 1991). Within the
home range, the use of space is not always uniform (Genovesi and Boitani, 1993)
and often there are areas of more frequent occurrence in which territorial defense is
concentrated. The model of social organization of the wild cat is based on
exclusive territories between adults of the same sex and the overlapping territories
of males and females (Stahl, 1986). The wild cat is bound to forest habitats,
particularly hardwoods. The distribution or dispersion of the species appear to be
related to forest cover (Jenkins, 1962; Parent, 1975). The forests generally occupy
more than 50% of the individual areas of activity but it was detected a significant
variability in the use of habitat (Stahl, 1986) in relation to different environmental
conditions and prey availability.
There are few works on the Sardinian wild cat Felis silvestris libyca, Forster
1780 (Ragni, 1981; Murgia et al., 2005; Murgia et al., 2007), for some authors
attributed to the same species as the European wildcat Felis silvestris ( Randi and
Ragni 1991, Ragni and Possenti, 1994, 1996). It is a very elusive small carnivore
(males about 2.6 kg) that lives in Sardinia and Corsica (Murgia et al., 2005).
Although it is a common mammals on these islands, its biology is virtually
unknown. The aim of this work is to improve knowledge on some aspects of the
Sardinian wild cat behavior, especially on home range and habitat selection.
1. Study area
The study area is located in the WWF Park of Monte Arcosu (N 39°09'44", E
08°52'53") in south western Sardinia (fig. 1). The landscape is rough and
tormented, the morphology clearly mountainous. Granitic and schistose formations
dominate with steep slopes and narrow, confined, winding valleys. There are few
level or sub-level areas covering not more than 0.51% of the total. The
watercourses are torrential and remain dry for long periods. The mean annual
rainfall is 487 mm. The mean temperature is 15/17°C with minimum values of
between 6 and 9°C in January and a maximum value of about 24°C in July. The
flora of the reserve has been described by Bacchetta (1997). It is typical
Mediterranean vegetation, divided into five typologies degrading towards garrigue,
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat
13
represented by low-shrubby formations (Helicrisum italicum, Genista corsica,
Thymus capitatus). The vegetable formation with the highest degree of cover is the
high maquis with a dominance of strawberry tree, mock privet, lentisk, and holm
oak. The fifth typology is made up of forest maquis in which the arboreal layer is
monospecific (Quercus ilex), but not very tall (4-10 m), with well represented
shrubby and lianas layers. The Monte Arcosu park plays a fundamental role also on
account of the presence of numerous endemic forms of the island.
Fig. 1 – Sardinian wildcat and study area
2. Materials and methods
The wild cats, were captured by cassette traps (40x30x120 cm) using living
quails as bait. Identified using the method suggested by Toshi (1965), and Ragni
Possenti (1996), and were fitted with radio-collars of the weight of about 55g (TXP
2, Televilt, Störa, Sweden), after anaesthesia with a intramuscular injection of
ketamine (1.5cc/kg). The wild cats were monitored in different periods from July
1994 to March 2002. The position of each animal was recorded, using
triangulation, every 20 minutes by means of a radio receiver (Custom electronics).
Due to the standard measurement error (Springer 1979), the map relating to the
study area at a 1:10000 scale was subdivided in 1x1 cm cells. The different
configurations of the home range were calculated with two different methods not
affected by the intradependence of the recordings:
a) the 100% Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) method (Dalke, 1942;
Mohr,1947), which yields results comparable to many other research studies, was
used to calculate both the annual and seasonal home range. The 95% MCP was
Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia
14
used to exclude animal position recordings due to occasional excursions. The core
areas were estimated considering 50% of the MCP.
b) the kernel method on the other hand estimates a density from the selected
points (fix). The output consists of isopleths of constant estimated density
enclosing a specified percentage of points (Worton, 1989). This method was used
as the preceding one to calculate 100%, 95%, and 50% of the available recordings.
The availability of habitats was measured within home range (MPC 100%) of
each cat (third order selection) and compared with its use (number of fixes found in
that habitat). Selection was measured with the preference index method of Ivlev
(E) (1961), represented by the following formula:
E = (Ui - Di ) / (Ui + Di)
where Ui is the proportion of use of the ith habitat and Di the availability of that
habitat. The value of E varies between –1 (completely avoided habitat) and +1
(strongly preferred habitat); the values near 0 show that there is no preference. The
types of habitats included in the analyses are garrigue, low maquis, high maquis,
forest maquis and riparian vegetation, identified using the vegetation map.
3. Results
Four adult females and four adult male were captured (tab.1). On a total 4,356
radio-localisations, the mean (SE) home range for the male cats (290.6 98.6 ha)
was greater than the mean value for the females (205.633.0 ha), calculated with
the 100% MCP method. The values recorded for the single cats varied greatly
(tab.2). The home ranges of two males (M2 and M3) were comparable to those of
the females. Even excluding the excursions (95% MCP), the mean home range for
the males (236.1 93.3 ha) was larger than the mean home range for the females
(162.329.1 ha). Considering the core areas, the mean values were 56.8 24.4 ha
for the males and 56.810.5 ha for the females. The mean home range value for the
males was greater than the corresponding value for the females by 29.2% with the
100% MCP, and by 31.3% not considering the excursions, but only by 5.0%
considering the core areas. The kernel method yields 100% home range values
ranging from 810.0 ha (M1) to 133.7 ha (M2); these are all greater that those
calculated with the 100% MCP (except F4). The 95% calculated values on the
other hand are all lower than those calculated with the 95% MCP, except for cat
M1.
Considering the cats monitored contemporaneously, only F2 and F3 among
the females had a partial overlap of their home ranges (100% MCP and 95%
MCP). Moreover their core areas were adjacent but not superimposed. M1 moves
both on F2’s and on F3’s areas of use, including their core areas. Among the males
M3 and M4 present a partial overlap (100% MCP and 95% MCP) but this does not
refer to their core areas.
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat
15
The sizes of the home ranges vary considerably with the seasons, in particular
of those of the males (tab.3).
Tab. 1 - Descriptive parameters of radiotagget wildcats.
Tab. 2 – Sizes of the home ranges in ha, calculated with the MCP and Kernel methods.
N. fixes MPC Kernel
100% 95% 50% 100% 95% 50%
1. F
1 768 124,0 84,0 28,5 294,7 64,6 13,0
F2 552 265,5 204,5 59,0 625,8 166,8 10,2
F3 460 252,5 208,5 79,5 549,1 115,9 17,3
F4 474 180,5 152,2 60,0 142,9 71,1 1,3
M1 228 469,5 337,5 114,0 810,0 337,0 19,4
M2 606 75,5 42,5 4,0 133,7 29,7 7,0
M3 646 171,5 120,5 37,0 239,1 95,6 7,1
M4 622 446,0 444,0 84,0 627,5 261,0 34,7
In summer the wild cats move in a smaller area than in the other seasons and
in no case were the home ranges of one single season larger than 78% of the total.
Generally the seasonal overlap of the areas used by F2 and M1 was less than the
overlap calculated for the entire year. Even in the case of F3 and M1, the overlap
was less if we consider the only season in which the two cats were monitored
contemporaneously. In fact, the overlap percentage was 16% only in the summer of
1995. An overlap of the home range of F1 and F2 was never observed in any of the
four seasons in which both cats were monitored. In the case of the males M3 and
M4, there was no overlap in autumn, while a considerable overlap appeared in
winter and a smaller one in spring (tab.4).
Females Males
F1 F2 F3 F4 M1 M2 M3 M4
Weight
(kg) 2.1 2.1 1.8 1.8 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.7
Tracking period
Jul/94
Jun/95
Jul/94
Jun/95
Aug/95
Dec/95
Oct/01
Mar/02
Aug/94
Dec/94
May/95
Aug/95
Nov/97
Aug/98
Sep/00
Jun/01
Oct/00
Jul/01
age adult adult adult adult adult adult adult adult
Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia
16
Tab. 3 – Size of the seasonal home ranges (ha) and average percentage on the total home
2. F
1
(94-95)
F2
(94-95) F3
(95) F4
(01-02) M1
(94-95) M2
(97-98) M3
(00-01) M4
(00-01)
Summer 43,5 98,0 182,0 118 28,0
Autumn 90,0 112,0 194,5 61,5 288,5 35,0 54,0 203,0
Winter 88,5 142,0 140,5 45,2 117,0 194,0
Spring 61,5 149,0 54 33,5 86,0 320,5
%mean
es
57,2
9,0
47,2
4,6
74,6
1,8
101
39,5
26,3
12,4
49,6
23,5
49,9
9,2
53,6
7,9
Tab. 4 – Percent overlap of the seasonal home ranges of the cats with the 95% MCP
Summer
1994
Autumn
1994
Spring
1995
Summer
1995
Winter
2000/2001
F2 11,1 24,7 8,9
M1 32,0 18,6 33,3
F3 6,7
M1 15,4
M3 76,0
M4 42,0
The kernel method shows that in all seasons, the cats preferably use two or
three areas inside their total home range, linked together by a few tracks. Moreover
the resting locations (50% inactive fixes) appear small (less than a hectare) and
scattered in the normally used area. There are not significant difference in land use
between male and females (U=12; p0.05; Mann-Whitney U-Test). Habitat use in
each season is independent of its availability (Autumn: 2=687.7, gl=15, p0.01;
Winter: 2=821.6, gl=15, p0.01; Spring:
2=1339.6, gl=20, p0.01; Summer:
2=232.3, gl=12, p0.01). Sardinian cats are more active during darkness hours
(Murgia et al., 2007) and, in every season, land use is significantly different during
day or night (Autumn: 2=293.2, gl=28, p0.01; Winter:
2=460.9, gl=28, p0.01;
Spring: 2=472.1, gl=28, p0.01; Summer:
2=332.1, gl=28, p0.01). Nevertheless
high maquis is the most widely represented vegetable typology in the home range
of the Sardinian cats, followed by low maquis for the females and riparian
vegetation for the males. The home range of F3 includes only 3 environments
(excluding garrigue and riparian vegetation), that of F4 only 4 environments
(excluding forest maquis), while the home ranges of the other cats includes 5
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat
17
environments, though in different proportions. No cat showed a marked selective
behaviour (Ivlev’s index) towards high maquis and only M3 negatively selected
low maquis. Riparian vegetation was selected negatively by all females (except F4)
and by the male M1, which presents a positive selection for forest maquis, while it
was positively selected by the other males. F2 and to a lesser extent M1 showed
that they preferred garrigue (fig.2).
3. Discussions
The only detailed study on home range of wild cats in Europe (Stahl et al.,
1988) has shown that the seasonal home ranges of 17 adult males were larger
(573 259 ha) and more variable in size than those of the 7 females (158 51 ha).
The home ranges of the males overlapped with those of 3-5 females, while the
overlap was poor among individuals of the same sex. Our results partly disagree
with this picture. Only two of the captured male cats showed a home range double
in size the mean home range of the females (using both the 100% and the 95%
MCP), but the other two males showed values even lower than those of some of the
females. The male M1, which frequented the same valleys as the captured females,
overlaps its home range very extensively with the home ranges of two of them. The
overlap between areas of individual use is never so marked, especially if we
consider the core areas, suggesting the existence of the male-female couple as the
basic social unit. Moreover we also observed a partial overlap also between areas
of use of two males which were monitored contemporaneously. The comparison
between the extension of the area of overlap of the individual home ranges shows
that in none of the cases did the overlap seem to be the result of excursions outside
the normally used area.
Nevertheless, none of the couples of animals showed concordance in the use
of space. This agrees with the hunting strategy of these felids, in which the
presence of a conspecific near the hunting animal could have a negative effect on
its predatory efficiency. It can be expected therefore that in the areas of overlap the
animals tend to avoid each other except in the mating season. In the Sardinian wild
cat this avoidance seems to be achieved through the use of different portions of the
overlapping strip. In the European wild cat Corbett (1979) found that the seasonal
sizes did not change, in spite of changes in the main prey population.
The seasonal sizes of the home range of Sardinian cats, compared to the total
sizes, and the partial overlap between areas used by the same animal in all the
seasons suggest a seasonal use of a reduced, partially different portion of the home
range. It could be hypothesised that the difference between our data and those
reported by Corbett is due to the characteristics of the vegetation, which offers
cover to a hunting cat in every environment. In such a situation, seasonal variations
in the availability of food may affect the size of the home ranges. The small home
Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia
18
range of M2 could be justified by the fact that this cat frequents a maquis area
bordering on an open field, with a high density of wild rabbits, and therefore needs
smaller movements to find its prey. Even the sites suited to resting, when limited,
may determine the size of the home range with their spatial distribution, especially
in the case of the females, which need adequate shelters to raise their offspring.
Like other felines (Eisenberg, 1986; Leyhausen 1965), the home range of Sardinian
wild cat are used uniformly and are made up of a variable number of more or less
regularly visited areas, linked together by an elaborate network of tracks. The
choice of the habitats is likely to be affected by the temporal dispersion of the
resources and of their abundance and concentration within the different sectors of
each environment.
Fig.2 – Ivlev preference index (HM=high maquis; LM=low maquis; MF=forest maquis;
G=garrigue; VR=riparian vegetation)
The study area is characterised by a rather uniform vegetation and by a
relatively scarce variety of habitats. In this environmental typology we may expect
a relatively homogeneous spatial dispersion of the resources and therefore not a
very marked preference by the wild cats. The results of the selection indices in fact
seem to suggest a poor selectivity. All home ranges include a relatively similar area
of high maquis. It can be hypothesised therefore that the high maquis is an
important habitat for the cats and that each individual may need a more or less
similar area of this habitat within its family area and that the lack of selection in the
-1 -0,8 -0,6 -0,4 -0,2 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
F1
F2
F3
F4
M1
M2
M3
M4
HM
LM
MF
G
VR
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat
19
use of high maquis is precisely related to its abundance in the home ranges.
Nevertheless, a few individual variations in the selection of the other environments
emerge.
The overall results, in particular the individual variations in the size of the
home range, in the portion of home range used seasonally, in selecting the habitat,
in the dispersion of the resting sites, in the size of the home ranges, and in the
distance covered during moves seems to be a complex strategy of use of the
environment, which probably allows the cats to better exploit the variety of
resources present in the area and reduce interindividual competition to a minimum.
References: Bacchetta G. (1997). La Riserva Naturale di Monte Arcosu. Il Golfo Editore, Cagliari.
Corbett L.K. (1979). Feeding ecology and social organization of Wildcats (Felis silvestris)
and domestic cats (Felis catus) in Scotland. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. Aberdeen, Scotland 296
pp.
Dalke P.D. (1942). The cottontail rabbit in Connecticut. State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey
Bull., 65: 1-97.
Eisemberg J.F. (1986). Life history strategies of the Felidae: variations on a common
theme. Pp 293-305 in: Cats of the world: Biology, conversations and management.
Miller S.D. and Everett D.D. ed., National Wildlife Federaation. Washington, D.C..
Genovesi P., Boitani L. (1993). Spacing patterns and activity rythms of a wildcat (Felis
silvestris) in Italy. Seminar on the biology and conservation of a wildcat (Felis
silvestris). Council of Europe, Strasbourg, Environmental encounters, 16: 98-101.
Hornocker M.G. (1996). Winter territoriality in mountain lions. J. Wildl. Manage. 33:
457-464.
Ivlev V.S. (1961). Experimental ecology of the feeding of fishes. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
Kitchener A. (1991). The natural history of the wild cats. Christopher Helm, London.
Kleiman-Eisenberg J.F. (1973). Comparison of canid and felid social systems from an
evolutionary perspective. Aim. Behav. 21: 637-659.
Kruuk H.H. (1986). Interactions between felidae and their prey species: a review. Pp 353-
374 in: Cats of the world: Biology, conversations and management. Miller S.D. and
Everett D.D. ed., National Wildlife Federaation. Washington, D.C..
Jenkins D. (1962). The present status of the wild cat (Felis silvestris) in Scotland. Scott.
Nat., 70: 126-139.
Leyhausen P. (1965). The communal organization of solitary mammals. Symp. Zool. Soc.
Lond. 14: 249-263.
Mohr C.O. (1947). Table of equivalent populations of North American small mammals.
Am. Midl. Nat., 37: 223-249.
Murgia C., Murgia A., Deiana A.M. (2005). Caratterizzazione biometrica di popolazioni
selvatiche di gatto selvatico sardo. Rendiconti Seminario Facoltà Scienze Università
Cagliari • Vol. 75, Fasc. 1-2.
Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia
20
Murgia C., Murgia A., Luiselli L., Angelici F.M. (2007). Movements and activity
patterns of radiotracked Sardinian wildcats, Felis silvestris libyca Forster, 1780. Rev.
Écol. (Terre Vie), vol. 62:121-126.
Parent H.G. (1975). La migration recente, a caractére invasionnel, du Chat sauvage, Felis
silvestris silvestris Schreber, en Lorraine belge. Mammalia, 39:251-288.
Ragni B. (1981). Gatto selvatico Felis silvstris Schreber, 1777. Pp105-113 in:
Distribuzione e Biologia di 22 specie di Mammiferi in Italia. Consiglio Nazionale delle
Ricerche, Roma.
Ragni B., Possenti M. (1994). Predatory behaviour of Felis silvestris. Boll. Zool. Suppl.
61:44.
Ragni B., Possenti M. (1996). Variability coat-colour and markings system in Felis
silvestris. Ital. J. Zool. ,63: 285-292.
Randi E., Ragni B. (1991). Genetic variability and biochemical systematics of domestic
and wild cat populations (Felis silvestris: Felidae). J. Mamm. 72:79-88.
Seidensticker J.C., Hornocker M.C., Wiles M.V., Messick L.P. (1973). Mountain lion
social organization in the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildl. Monogr. 35: 1-60.
Springer J.T. (1979). Some source of bias and sampling error in radio triangulation. J.
Wildl. Manage. 43: 926-935.
Stahl P. (1986). Le Chat forestier d’Europe (Felis silvestris, Schreber, 1777): exploitation
des resources et organization spatiale. Ph.D Thesis, Univ. Nancy.
Stahl P., Artois M., Aubert M.F.A. (1988). Organisation spatiale et dèplacements des
chats forestiers adultes (Felis silvestris, Schreber, 1777) en Lorraine. Rev. Ecol. (Terre
et Vie), vol.43: 113-132.
Toschi A. (1965). Fauna d’Italia, vol. 7. Mammalia: Lagomorpha, Rodendia, Carnivora,
Ungulata, Cetacea. Calderini, Bologna.
Worton B.J. (1989). Kernel methods for estimating the utilization distribution in home-
range studies. Ecology 70: 164-168.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ESTIMATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL STATE OF THE
TERRITORY ON THE LANDSCAPSE BASIS - ON THE EXEMPLE
OF HERTSE DISTRICT IN CHERNIVTSI REGION, UKRAINA
Vasile Gutsuliak1, M.V. Tanasiuk2
Key words : landscape, ecological state of the territory, Chernivtsi region.
Abstract. Landscape-geochemical researches and geochemical problem solving of
the territories are based on the principles of landscape geo-ecology and landscape
studies. They contain corresponding methods of analysis and evaluation of a
geochemical state. The task of a landscape-geochemical research is the evaluation of
the ecological states and of the eco-situation within natural and anthropogenic geo-
complexes. The object of the evaluation is landscape complexes of various ranges
modified as a result of the anthropogenic influences; the subject is their ecological
state as well as the conditions of favorability for human activity.
Introduction
Conducting landscape-geochemical studies is one of the necessary aspects of
the study of the ecological state of a territory that enables to investigate the degree
of environment contamination, the migration ability of geocomplexes depending on
the chemical composition and physical-chemical properties of their components,
the possible areas of contaminating substances, the geochemical ability of
accumulation landscape complexes to self-purification from contaminating
substances etc.
The theoretical and methodological basis for the study and research of
anthropogenic geo-systems is formed by the scientific works of Voloshyn I.M.,
Voropai L.I., Gutsuliak V.M., Denysko G.I., Isachenko A.G., Kovalchuk I.P.,
Malysheva L.L., Milkov F.M., Saieta Y.E., Shwebs G.I., Shevchenko L.M.,
Shyshchenko P.G. and others.
Main results of research and their discussion
Hertsaivsky district is situated in the south-western part of the before-
Carpathian landscape area of Bucovina, in the eastern part of the Prut-Siret in-
between interfluve area. The Prut tributaries, which wash out loose sandy-clay
1 Prof. Ph.D., Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine, [email protected]
2 Assist. Prof. Ph.D. Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine
Vasile Gutsuliak, M.V. Tanasiuk
22
residues, have formed a compound erosion relief. Range-hilly and sloping-wavy
types of relief are common here. The slopes of ridges and valleys are complicated
with landslides, which add a slight hilly character to the surface.
The climate in comparison with other areas of the before pre-mountain
territory is drier and warmer, it corresponds to the moderate continental. Average
January temperatures 5-5,50C, July – 19-20
0C. The total sum of the temperatures
over +100C in a year comprises 2600-2800
0C. The average precipitation amount is
563 mm.
The soil covering of the territory is represented by grey and dark-grey forest-
turf-podzol soils, meadow-swampy soils, which were formed on the loamy soil,
contemporary diluvium and bedded with guarded clays. In the natural vegetation,
motley-grass and cereals meadows dominate. Deciduous forests (common oak,
beech forest, common hornbeam) are widespread, beech plantings prevailing, with
occasional coniferous representatives.
The morphological structure of landscapes is characterized by the conjunction
of valley-terrace, slope and water-bearing complexes. Valley-terrace complexes are
represented by flood plains, low and medium terraces of the Prut River with
meadow and ashed black earth under the complete belt of village settlements,
motorways and agriculture lands.
Landscape complexes of high Prut terraces are intensively broken down with
ashed black earth and dark-grey forest soils, and are mainly under agriculture
lands. Slope and water-bearing landscape complexes of high above-Prut plains,
hilly and erosion-landslide areas are covered with grey and light-grey forest soils,
under meadows of secondary formation, arable plots, beech-oak-hornbeam woods.
These landscape complexes are formed by kidney-like erosion-landslide meadow
hollow units with motley-grass and cereals meadows, arable plots, and village
buildings. Landscape complexes of slumping sloping valley of the Prut tributaries
are widely spread there.
I. Territories of water-bearing units and their slopes: 1- Residues are formed
by sandy loams, brownish-ashy podzol surface-clayed soil, under arable land; 2-
Slopes of water-bearing units composed by forest-like sandy loam soils and loamy
soils, with brownish-ashy surface-clayed washed-out soils, under ploughed fields
and constructions.
II. Territories of slopes: 3- Gentle slopes (1-2), composed by loamy soils and
clays, with light-grey forest washed-out soils under ploughed fields; 4- Slightly
falling down slopes (3-5), formed by loamy soils and clays, with light-grey forest
washed-out soils under ploughed fields, constructions and fragments of beech
forests; 5- Falling down and steep slopes (3-5), formed by loamy soils and clays,
with light-grey forest medium-and highly washed-out soils, under constructions
and beech forests fragments; 6- Slopes of river valleys, gullies and ravines, formed
Estimation of the ecological state of the territory on the landscape basis
23
by loamy soils and sandy loam, with light-grey forest medium-and highly washed-
out soils, under ploughed fields, constructions and beech forests fragments.
III. Territories of river valleys, gullies and ravines. 7- Bottoms of small rivers
formed by sandy loam soils under meadows, pastures and hydrophytic
associations; 8- Wide bottoms of small rivers formed by sandy loam soils and
loamy soils, with alluvial meadow clayed soils under meadows, pastures, swamps
with considerable parts of hydrophytic associations;
9- Gullies and temporary waterways made of loamy soils, with dark-grey
forest highly washed-out soils, under motley-grass and cereals vegetation.
Geo-chemically, the district belongs to the family of geo-chemical landscape,
which makes the transition from forest to steppe and meadow, from acid to calcium
class. It is characterized by the medium water exchange, trans-eluvial, eluvial-
accumulative, neo-eluvial elementary landscapes, availability of forest-like loamy
soils and clays.
This district has many aspects common with other forest-steppe districts.
Concentration coefficient of all 4 macro-elements is higher than 1 (from 1,03 to
1,22), indicating their high contents in ground waters. Moreover, their migration
ability is rather high, especially calcium and sodium (correspondingly 7,7 and 3,5).
The properties of ground waters of Hertsa geo-chemical district are the
following: according to alkali-acid condition – neutral or low-alkali; according to
the hardness category - moderate-hard, hard and very hard (the average hardness is
10,2 mg-eqv/dm); by the degree of mineralization - fresh (average mineralization -
0,66 g/dm); by the limited norms of mineralization - good; by the chemical
composition - hydrocarbonate-calcium, infrequently - hydrocarbonate-magnesium-
calcium.
Cl is a good migrant in district waters; calcium also has a rather high
coefficient of water migration. The concentration coefficient of macro-elements in
waters is >1, especially Ca. The Hertsa geo-chemical district belongs to the forest-
steppe type of landscapes according to the main geochemical parameters.
The general evaluation of the components of the ecological-geochemical state
of a landscape and the level of ecological changes of the environment in
connection with the contamination is carried out according to the 5-point system
and the following criteria [1;2]: 1- favourable (there is no contamination); 2-
relatively favourable (contamination is acceptable, the substance content exceeds
the background one, but not more than the maximum permissible concentrations in
all landscape components); 3- relatively unfavourable (concentrations in
moderately dangerous chemical substances content exceed MPC in soils); 4-
unfavourable (concentration is dangerous; there is excess of MPC in soils and air);
5- very unfavourable (concentration is very dangerous, substances content exceeds
MPC in environment - soils, air, water, vegetation).
Vasile Gutsuliak, M.V. Tanasiuk
24
2
22
2
22
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
12
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
33
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3 3
3
3 3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
44
4
4
4
4
5
55
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
78
8
8
9
9
9
Fig. 1 - Fragment of the landscape map scheme of the territory of Petrashivka village in
Hertsa district Chernivtsi region, Ukraina
0,01
0,1
1
10
100
water-bearing bottoms of gullies sloping (LC)
mg
/kg
Pb
Zn
Cu
Cd
Fig. 2. Contents of heavy metals in landscape complexes of Petrashivka village,
territory of Hertsa district Chernivtsi region, Ukraina
The content of microelements in landscape complexes of the territory is
various. Analyzing the data received, we see that the lead content ranges from 1,31
Estimation of the ecological state of the territory on the landscape basis
25
to 2,89 mg/kg (when MPC is 30 mg/kg), zinc correspondingly from 8,07 to 12,63
(when MPC is 23 mg/kg), copper - from 3,34 to 3,54 mg/kg (while MPC is 100
mg/kg), cadmium data vary from 0,021 to 0,042 mg/kg and also do not exceed
MPC (1,0 mg/kg).
Tab. 1 - Chemical composition of ground waters in the Petrashivka village of the Hertsa
district Chernivtsi region, Ukraina
Having viewed the acquired characteristics and data, we can give the general
estimation of the ecological situation in landscape complexes (Picture 1).
According to the ecological-geochemical data, the territory of the research has a
favourable situation, meaning the contamination is almost absent. The index of
contamination intensity of landscape complexes reaches 15 (according to the
estimating scale of the ecological danger of landscape contamination).
Conclusions
Landscape-ecological investigations of residential geo-systems of the Hertsa
region enabled us to distinguish and use in practice morphological units (ravines,
territories), which reflect rather distinctly the structure, properties and a degree of
transformation of landscape complexes. Correspondingly, these units are
characterized as geo-ecological complexes and form the basis for distinguishing
geo-ecological units.
According to the received ecological-geochemical data, the territory is
ecologically favourable, it means there is almost no contamination. We should
point out only some excess of zinc contents in the soils of water-bearing areas (12
mg/kg) and lead accumulation in the ravines of gullies bottoms (10 mg/kg).
However, such concentration of heavy metals doesn’t produce any danger for
human activity.
Vasile Gutsuliak, M.V. Tanasiuk
26
Bibliography: Gutsuliak V.M. (2002), Landscape Ecology: geochemical aspect: teach. User / Gutsuliak
V.M. - Chernivtsi: Ruta, - 247 sec.
Gutsuliak V.M. (1994), Geochemistry: Manual. - Chernivtsi: Ruta, - 82s.
Gutsuliak V.M. (1992), Fundamentals of Landscape: Teach. The user.-K.: SMC
PA,1992.-60 p.
Tanasiuk M.V. (2010), Landscape-geochemical analysis of rural geo-systems (for
example Drachynetskoyi key areas of Bukovina) / Scientific Bulletin of Chernivtsi
University: Collected Works. 2010. S. 38-41.
*** (1978), Nature of Chernivtsi region / edited by K.I. Gerenchuka - Lviv: High School,
1978. – 160 p.
.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE ANTHROPIZED
PEDOGENESIS IN THE CARPATO – DANUBIANO – PONTIC
AREA.
Gheorghe Jigău1, Ecaterina Chişlari
2
Key words: anthropized pedogenesis, carpato-danubiano-pontic area.
Abstract. If we start from the premise that geographical space can be considered a
concrete space, coherent and changeable, then landscape - environment rapport
becomes essential for understanding how the prehistoric humans were affected by
natural conditions. In these conditions, we treat the environment as a multi-
dimensional reality, which includes both natural environment and human creations,
and the human being in a double hypostasis: as an environment component and as
its beneficiary. The geographical space that became „a consumable good” for
Neolithic communities will end by being anthropized, fact that attests a specific
mentality of the respective populations about life. Moreover, human beings started
to depend on environment, changing it in their own interests. From this perspective,
the soil←factors reality had suffered the most. In the different stages of agriculture,
different progresses were registered, and modifications also occurred in the soil and
the environment in general.
According to V.V Docuceaev (1949), soil is a product of interaction in time of
the climate, vegetation, parent rock and relief. In term of functional - genetical
concept, the interaction between the specified factors and their dynamics
determines a certain pedogenetical ambiance, which conditions the realization of a
specific pedogenetical elementary process, thus ensuring pedogenetical diversity
materialized in different classes, types and subtypes of soils. They also determine
the geographical rules of distribution in space of the pedogenetical formations. In
such an approach, the system soil ← factors is a self-regulator system at the
geological time scale. Along with human involvement in the environmental
components functionality, also time at its historical (social) scale gets involved.
The first changes are related to the first agricultural revolution (the years
12000 and 7000 Before Christ- BC) with the first steps in soil tillage, by a simple
operation of „scratching” in order to improve conditions for seed germination. The
1 Assist. Prof. Ph.D., Moldova State University, Chişinău, R. Moldova, [email protected]
2 Lecturer Ph.D., Moldova State University, Chişinău, R. Moldova /[email protected]
Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari
28
first „plows” hauled by human being force appeared 7000 years BC, when soil
tillage was as a necessity in order to achieve an adequate life environment for the
seeds and efficient fight against weeds. Namely, this superficial soil tillage was
probably the most important rupture of the trophic chain from the natural
ecological system.
Tab. 1 - Techno- anthropic implications within pedogenetical factors
Along with human society development, people have succeeded to transform
continuously and increasingly the pedogenetical ambiance, intervening with the
help of science and technologies on the vegetation and also on the relief (especially
microrelief), on groundwater and surface waters, on climate (especially on the local
climate). Therefore, these interventions have influenced the morpho-dynamics of
the local processes through grubbing, construction of human settlements, roads and
The other component of the system soil←factors – the SOIL also suffers important
modifications.
As a result of anthropic implication, modifications of the pedogenesis process
occurred: agricultural crops have replaced the steppe meadows; the soil is
Considerations regarding the anthropized pedogenesis
29
intensely processed mechanically; drainage works and irrigations are executed;
mineral and organic fertilizers, amendments are introduced (tab. 3,4).
Tab.2 - Evolution factors and natural-anthropic dynamics of the soils
All these lead to: diminishing of the bioacumulative process; intensification of
the compounds laundering; increase the danger of salinization and solonetization
processes; extension of some areas temporarily affected by humidity; increase of
chemical pollution etc. (tab. 5).
From the above table, we can notice that the polluting impact of the sources is
different. In the case of sources with agricultural origins, the impact is
preponderantly small. But, in the same time, it falls on all over the surface of the
Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari
30
Tab. 3 - Phylum of agrotechnical implications
Identification criteria (evaluation) Involved elements
Number of works; passes on the field
minimal
medium
high
Time of processing works
early
optimal
late
Depth of processing works
superficial
usual
deep
bottomless
Implications on the traits:
physical
hydrophysical
pedogenetical regimes
Mobilization and water accessibility.
Soil climate dynamics.
Tab. 4 - Implications phylum of crop plants
Identification criteria (evaluation) Involved elements
Humidity consuming
Implications on the thermal regime
Sowing:
dense
rare
mixed
high
low
Duration of vegetation period
short
moderate
long
Nutritive elements consumption
very demanding
moderately demanding
slightly demanding
Implications on the substances redistribution
(anti-erosional protection)
Dense sowing
Hoeing
technical
multi-annual plantations
Work necessities
cleaning
deep plowing
usual plowing
deep refining
Implication on physical traits
Dense sowing
Hoeing
Technical cultures
Multi-annual plantations
Considerations regarding the anthropized pedogenesis
31
Tab. 5 - Pollution sources of the agricultural soil in the Carpato- Danubiano – Pontic area
Tab. 6 - The quantity of mineral fertilizers used in agriculture in R. Moldova
(recalculated to 100 % nutritive substances, thousand tones)(Burlacu,2000)
Mineral
fertilizers
Years
1965 1970 1975 1989 1985 1990
Total
Nitrogenous
Phosphatic
Potassic
61
21
26
13
118
54
42
22
205
91
66
48
317
119
100
98
410
161
126
123
226
85
106
35
region. Moreover, the agricultural impact is constant and permanently increasing.
The quantity of mineral fertilizers, for example, from the ′60s to the ′90s increased
more that 5 times (Table 6).
Researches in this field have highlighted that together with mineral fertilizers,
some quantities of heavy metals are transported in the soil (Table 7).
Thereby, it constitutes an anthropizated pedogenetical ambiance: the result of
human activity interference with the natural environment, the latter keeping some
Origin of
pollution
source.
Type of pollution source.
Substances with polluting impact.
Impact assessment
Rad
ioac
tiv
e
sub
stan
ces.
Pes
tici
des
Hea
vy
met
als
Bal
last
sub
stan
ces
Oth
er
sub
stan
ces
Agricultural
Fertilization
Plant protection
Irrigation
Zootechnics
− +
−
−
−
−
−
+?
−
+
+
+?
+?
+
−
+
+
+
−
+
+
Low
Low
Low
Low
Industrial
Energy production based on
fossil fuel
Manufacturing industry
Transport
Cast mining
Transboundary
−
−
−
−
+?
−
−
−
−
−
+
−
+
+−
+
++
++
+
++
+
++
++
+
++
+
Moderate local
Moderate local
Moderate
Moderate local
Low
Domestic
Waste storage ramps
Unauthorized dumps
Mud from cleaning stations
+?
+?
+?
+?
+?
+?
+
+
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
Moderate local
Moderate local
Moderate – strong
local
Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari
32
initial characteristics. Human activity bivalence manifests in two antagonistic
directions: destruction of some elements of the natural environment, but also
creation of a new environment. It arises thereby a third dimension of the
environment, namely the social environment, specific for every society.
Tab. 7. Medium content of heavy metals in mineral fertilizers.
Fertilizers The content of heavy metal, mg/kg
Cd Pb Ni Zn Cu Mn Hg As Cr Co
Potassic
Nitrogenous
Phosphatic
Complex
0, 3
0, 3
1,4
30,0
8,0
0,2
13,0
7,5
14,0
19,0
2,0
18,0
23,0
30,0
49,0
59,0
16,0
26,0
33,0
39,0
10,1
76,0
-
194,0
-
-
0,06
-
1,4
2,5
-
3,0
5,7
42,0
46,0
116,0
1,5
1, 3
-
36,0
Therefore, anthropical pedogenetical ambiance implies 4 basic components:
1. natural environment – composed of primary components or abiotic
(lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere), biotic (plants and living creatures) and
pedosphere.
2. anthropizated environment – includes the space influenced or partially
modified by humans: agricultural fields, touristic routes, anthropic lakes etc.
3. anthropic environment represented by the systems created through an
almost total change of the natural environment: human settlements, tourist stations,
amusement parks etc.
4. social environment – which has a sociocultural and psychological sense.
Within such a pedogenetical ambiance, the pedogenetical functional
framework, materialized in pedogenetical regimes, suffers significant changes. The
evaluations based on suction curve bring us to the conclusion that the hydrological
regime develops in the sense of xerophytisation and it is characterized by:
- reduced water reserves at the beginning of vegetation, as a result of
permeability reduction and water capacity reduction, as also hydraulic
conductivity;
- more intensive water consumption within warm periods as a result of
superficial leakage increase and physical evaporation;
- lower moistening and percolation depth;
- a more contrast humidity regime;
- reduction of pedogenetical active water reserves and increase of the inactive
reserves;
The mentioned effects are caused by soil compaction, structure degradation
and pore space modification. Therefore, pedogenetical implications are: reduction
of the chemical and biochemical processes intensity and their share within
Considerations regarding the anthropized pedogenesis
33
pedogenesis and increases the share of mechanical processes; disturbance of the
unidirectional dynamics of the elementary processes in circadian, seasonal and
multi-annual regime.
Tab. 8 - Soil function which suffers modifications within anthropic pedogenesis
Tab. 9 - Evolution processes under conditions of anthropic pedogenesis
The hydrothermal regime evolves in the direction of a more pronounced
instability and a high vulnerability to the climatic conditions. In the natural regime,
the soils go through complicated adaptation mechanisms which attenuate the
Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari
34
fluctuations of the climatic conditions. Within agricultural soils, this mechanism
significantly decreases.
Thermal regime evolves in the direction of basic parameters increase: sum
t0>10
0C, the depth of their penetration within soil profile, their maintenance
duration on different depths. The specified modifications determine the
intensification of the organic remnants mineralization processes and of the humus.
Aeration and aerohydric regime evolves towards the mineralization processes
intensification.
Redox regime evolves towards the oxidation processes intensification.
Tab. 10 - Principial scheme of the anthropic pedogenesis
The specified modification implies a new phase in the soil evolution of the
Carpato-Danubiano-Pontic area (tab. 9, tab. 10).
Bibliography: Jigău Gh. (2009), Geneza şi fizica solului - Chişinău: CEP USM,2009
Docuceaev V.V. (1949), Izbrannâe socinenia.-Moskva.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ТHE CONCEPTUAL PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL AND
ECOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN THE CONTEXT OF MEDICAL
GEOGRAPHY
Vasile Gutsuleak1, K. Nakonechny
2, N. Аndriychuk
3
Key words: medical geogrpahy, ecological research.
Abstract. Nowadays ecological situation and population morbidity is generated
most of all by the high level of anthropogenic effect. That is why the conception of
medico-ecological researches is studied in the system “environment – population
health”. The bases of conception are ecological researches, determination of the
level of intensity of medico-ecological situation, integral index of ecological danger
of landscape, cartographic modeling and geoecological monitoring.
Introduction
Nowadays ecological situation and morbidity of population is generated
mainly by the high level of anthropogenic effect. Clear indications of ecological
crisis are detected at all regions of Ukraine. They are favorable to steady
increasing of oncologic, cardiovascular, infectious, respiratory, allergic and other
diseases.
Medico-ecological researches of the regions of Ukraine are also stipulated by
the necessity of implementation of international and state programs, including
resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine N 182 from February 22, 2006
“Regarding Approval of the Order of Realization of the state socio-hygienic
monitoring”.
1. Outgoing precondition
Medico-ecological researches of the territory are carried out by different
experts – biologists, geographers, ecologist and medicals. Questions of
econosological cartographing and medico-ecological zoning are elucidated in
1 Prof. Ph.D., Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine, [email protected]
2 Assistent Ph.D., Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine
3 Assistent, Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine
V. Gutsuliak, K. Nakonechny, N. Andriychuk
36
works of Baranovskyy W. [1], Shevchenko W. [5]. Ecological aspects of the
assessment of population health are discussed in works of Berdunuyk O [2],
Serdyuk A. [4] and others. Chernivtsi National Y. Fedkovich University and
Department of Medical and Ecological Problems, L.I. Medved’s Institute of
Ecohygiene and Toxicology developed and defended joint scientifically-
dissertational project “Medico-ecological assessment of settling geosystems of
Chernivtsi region” [3].
2. Goal and target of the research
Taking into consideration European tendencies of Ukraine and geoecological
problems, which should be solved on the international level, it is necessary to
create joint transboundary network on medico-ecological monitoring, which will
function with due regard for conditions of constant development. The target of
research is an interpretation of main preconditions of medico-ecological
investigation taking into account geoecological peculiarities of regions of Ukraine.
3. Exposition of main research material
Problems of medico-ecological researches are examined in the system
“environment – population health”, built on the fundamental data of geoecology
and medicine. The bases of the conception are ecological researches, determination
of the intensity level of medico-ecological situation, integral index of ecological
landscape danger, cartographical modeling and geoecological monitoring.
Ecological researches of the territories should be carried out on landscape
base. Landscape complexes (natural and anthropogenic) are saturated with
interacting effusion of materials, energy and information [3]. That is why the
process of pollution of different territories should be studied against a background
of landscape parts. It gives us the opportunity to use methodical receptions of
data’s interpolation and extrapolation in the process of model mapdrawing (that is
relatively reliable and economically beneficial under the condition of project
execution).
The determination of the level of intensity of medico-ecological situation of
landscape parts should carry out on the base of multifactorial analysis of
parameters of anthropogeoecological system, which consists of two subsystems –
“living environment” and “population health”. First subsystem deals with
ecological indices and criterions of such natural components: 1 – atmospheric air; 2
– drinking water; 3 – soil; 4 – biota (vegetation). Mentioned components form
geoecosystem in the result of interconnections and interconditionality. The
geoecosystem may become an object of general scientific ecological assessment.
The subsystem “population health” was examined using next medico-ecological
indices: 1 – death rate, 2 – morbidity (main nosological forms), 3 – medico-genetic
Principles of medical and ecological researches in the context of medical geography
37
indices (the rate of inborn malformations). The complex index of the intensity of
medico-ecological situation (taking into account the effect of harmful factors on
the environment of existence) is determined as the sum of pointed indices. The
definitive conclusion on the real intensity of medico-ecological situation is made
with taking into consideration relationship of cause and effect of any changes of
population health [4].
The integral index of ecological landscape safety may be used for the
assessment of the level of intensity of medico-ecological situation connected with
the environment pollution, taking into account translocal significance of landscape
components and synergism effect of the peculiar elements. The integral index
records migration of harmful chemical substances in the natural chain (soil - water-
individual, soil - atmosphere - individual, soil – agricultural products - individual).
Cartographic modeling is an important stage of the assessment of medico-
ecological situation, especially as to branch and complex maps of medico-
geographical division into districts. Medico-ecological complexes – nosotops are
used in the process of parting and ranging of medico-geographical units.
Geoecological monitoring is based on direct observations over natural and
anthropogenic variations of all ecological indices of geosystem for a definite
period. Created geoinformational computer system of geoecological monitoring
may consist of 4 blocks:
1) assessment of modern ecostate of natural and anthropogenic geosystems
(component and according to natural complex). Cartographical modeling of
geoecological situations of the target territories;
2) formation of the network of medico-ecological monitoring of the
environment and realization of systematized control on the base of created
ecopoints and stations with material and technical provision and skilled staff
(Stations should be located first of all in effected zones of technogenic objects);
3) prognosis of the development of medico-ecological situations in the target
region, depending on different technogenic effects (according to monitoring
results);
4) ecological management aimed on improvement of the environment and
prevention of negative health effects.
Conclusions
Medico-ecological research is based on the analysis of components of the
system “environment – population health”. Main methodological approaches are:
landscape-ecological (geoecological) and sanitry-hygienic approaches. Objective
base of the assessment of medico-ecological conditions of territorial units is the
basic landscape map and its partial variants (landscape-geochemical, landscape-
functional). Usage of such maps allows us to study each nosological form at the
V. Gutsuliak, K. Nakonechny, N. Andriychuk
38
background of landscape complexes taking into account natural environment
factors (the level of technogenic pollution and self-purification, contents of
macroelements and microelements, alkaline-acid and oxidizing- estoration
conditions etc.). The assessment of the level of ecological danger (intensity) should
be carried out on the base of complex analysis of ecological and medico-
demographic dependency of factors. Medico-ecological analysis of the target
territory affirms that the level of population health may serve as the integral index
(indicator) of the environmental quality.
Bibliography: 1. Барановський В.А. Медико-екологічне картографування території України / В. А.
Барановський // Економіка України. – 1993. – № 2. – С. 93-96.
2. Бердинюк О.В. Методологічні аспекти оцінки здоров‘я населення в еколого-
гігієнічних дослідженнях / О. В. Бердинюк, В. Ю. Зайковська // Довкілля та
здоров‘я. – 2005. – № 4 (35). – С.3-5.
3. Медико-екологічна оцінка ландшафтів Чернівецької області: монографія / В.М.
Гуцуляк, К.П. Наконечний. – Чернівці: Чернівецький нац. ун-т, 2010. — 184 с.
4. Сердюк А.М. Здоров‘я населення України: вплив навколишнього середовища на
його формування / А. М. Сердюк, О. І. Тимченко. – К.; Сімферополь, 2000. – 33 с.
5. Шевченко В.О. Теоретико-методичні основи медико-географічного аналізу території
України : автореф. Дис… докт. геогр. наук.: 11.00.11. – К., 1997. – 32 с.
.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA’S ZONATION BY CLIMATIC RISK
LEVEL
Maria Nedealcov1, Valentin Răileanu
2, RodicaCojocari
3, Olga Crivova
4
Key words: climatic risks, vulnerability, Geographical Informational System (SIG),
probability, late spring frosts.
Abstract. Till present neither in the world nor in the Republic of Moldova is there a
unanimously accepted terminology that concerns extreme natural phenomena. At the
same time, UNDP experts have elaborated a unified definition of natural hazards
risk (Disaster Risk Index, DRI), which mentions the negative consequences
probability and foreseen losses that result from interaction with dangerous
phenomena of natural and anthropic origin and from vulnerability conditions.
.
Introduction
Vulnerabilities are conditions determined by natural, social, economical
factors or processes that intensify communities’ exposure to danger’s influence
(Reducing Disaster Risk, global report, 2005).
CRED, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Université
Catholique de Louvain (UCL), Belgium, which is the most authoritative
organization in statistics of calamities of different origin, bases its definition on
criteria that include the following requirements: 10 or more human victims, not less
than 100 affected, international help soliciting, declaration of national emergency
1.
Materials and investigation methods
The necessity of natural risks evaluation at the national level, including
climatic ones, is conditioned by the significant increase in the number and
1 Prof. PhD, Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Moldova/
[email protected] 2 Senior researcher, Ph.D. Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of
Moldova /[email protected] 3 Senior researcher, Ph.D., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of
Moldova/ [email protected]
4 Senior researcher, Ph.D., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of
Moldova /[email protected]
Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova
40
frequency of their manifestation. In this context we should mention that using
mathematical investigation methods of a phenomena or natural process needs first
of all modeling, identifying particular characteristics that would describe integrally
a phenomena or a random event. Their evolution is guided by probabilistic laws
that state a certain chance for respective manifestation to lead to a predefined
result. From this point of view, events or random signals are different from
deterministic ones, the values of which can be estimated with accuracy in any
moment of time. Theoretic support which allows random signals analysis is offered
by the probability theory which is mainly analyzing medium values of physical
manifestations which are produced at larger scale.
The connection point between the multitude of real physical manifestations
and unified mathematical formalism is the random variable expressed by the
function which associates a number per each possible result of a given experiment.
An ensemble of random variables defines a random process.
A central role in the probability theory is the mathematical expectation which
subscribes to a random variable a value resulted from an arithmetic mean of
infinite theoretical numbers of individual realizations of considered physical
manifestations. As a function of discrete or analogue experimental character it is
defined as:
Where X is a random value which presumably has n possible realizations with
pi probabilities in discrete cases, and in analogue cases it is probability density xfx
respectively. Subsequently, climatic risk notion includes the probability of
manifestation of a certain climatic extreme event within the limits of prevention 2,
3, 4.
Thus, the territorial zoning according to climatic risk degree is normally based
on verisimilar risk indexes. The quantitative evaluation of climatic extremes is
based on an interaction which reflects its manifestation frequency’s variability with
different intensity degree.
Taking into consideration the limited number of meteorological stations as
well as the relief conditions of the republic’s territory, we used as initial data for
spatializing, e.g. the factors that determine zonal repartition of climatic elements
the geographic latitude () and longitude (). Azonal factors include absolute (H)
and relative (Δh) altitude, the coefficient of fragmentation (d), slope (k) and
exposition (a). The models of physical and geographical factors influence in
Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level
41
climatic risk elements redistribution was executed using Statgraphics Centurion
XV software and multiple regressions with stepping procedure.
1. Analysis of obtained results
The cartographical models that reflect the probable manifestation (once in 10
years) of climatic risk factors such as extreme seasonal temperatures and late
spring and early autumn frosts were layered with the administrative regions limit,
and territorial climatic risk was calculated. The proposed investigations in our
opinion are extremely important taking into account the agrarian orientation of the
republic’s economy and the need to provide consumers with climatic information
on local level.
Thus for the Republic of Moldova’s agriculture late spring frosts are
substantially dangerous, as they can catch agricultural plants in their first or last
phases of development causing freezes sometimes substantially severe. The
cartographic modeling of dangerous spring frosts layered with the administrative
regions’ limits (fig.1) allowed computing (tab.1) the manifestation of extreme
temperatures – a necessary information for effective measures of prevention and
mitigation of the given risk.
Thus in:
Briceni – once in 10 years on 70% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Ocnita – once in 10 years on 60% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Edinet – once in 10 years on 60% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Donduseni – once in 10 years on 60% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Soroca – once in 10 years on 30-40% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Riscani – once in 10 years on 30-50% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Drochia – once in 10 years on 30-40% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Floresti – once in 10 years on 70% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Soldanesti – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС.
Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova
42
Tab. 1 - Assurance (10%) of late spring frosts on Republic of Moldova’s territory Administrative territorial
units -5...-4 -4..-3 -3...-2 -2...-0 0...1
1 Briceni 70 25 5
2 Ocnita 60 20 10 8 2
3 Edinet 60 30 9 1
4 Donduseni 60 30 10
5 Soroca 40 30 20 10
6 Riscani 50 30 19 1
7 Drochia 60 30 10
8 Floresti 40 30 20 10
9 Soldanesti 30 30 30 8 2
10 Glodeni 50 30 20
11 Falesti 35 35 20 8 2
12 Balti Mun. 70 20 10
13 Singerei 30 30 30 8 2
14 Telenesti 35 20 20 20 5
15 Rezina 30 30 30 10
16 Camenca 50 25 20 5
17 Ribnita 45 25 25 4 1
18 Ungheni 25 40 20 10 5
19 Calarasi 10 40 25 15 10
20 Orhei 25 40 25 8 2
21 Dubasari Transnistria) 50 30 19 1
22 Dubasari 40 30 20 10
23 Nisporeni 15 35 30 15 5
24 Straseni 15 30 25 25 5
25 Criuleni 20 35 35 9 1
26 Grigoriopol 50 30 18 2
27 Hincesti 20 30 30 18 2
28 Ialoveni 25 30 30 14 1
29 Chisinau Mun. 25 35 35 5
30 Anenii Noi 25 30 30 14 1
31 Tiraspol Mun. 100
32 Leova 20 30 30 18 2
33 Cimislia 25 35 30 9 1
34 Causeni 25 35 25 13 2
35 St.Voda 35 30 30 4 1
36 Cantemir 20 35 30 10 5
37 UTA Gagauzia 40 25 25 8 2
38 Basarabeasca 20 55 20 5
39 Taraclia 20 35 25 18 2
40 Cahul 30 35 20 14 1
41 Slobozia 50 40 5 4 1
42 Tigina Mun. 50 45 5
Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level
43
Fig.1 - Late spring frosts (10% - assurance) manifested on Republic of Moldova’s territory
Glodeni – once in 10 years on 30-50% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Falesti – once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Mun.Balti – once in 10 years on 70% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Singerei – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС.
Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova
44
Telenesti – once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Rezina – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС.
Camenca – once in 10 years on 50% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Ribnita – once in 10 years on 45% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Ungheni – once in 10 years on 40% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС.
Calarasi – once in 10 years on 40% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС.
Orhei – once in 10 years on 40% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС.
Dubasari – once in 10 years on 30-40% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Nisporeni – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Straseni – once in 10 years on 25-30% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Criuleni- once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Grigoriopol – once in 10 years on 50% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Hincesti – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Ialoveni – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Mun. Chisinau – once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Anenii Noi – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Mun. Tiraspol – once in 10 years on 100% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС.
Leova – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level
45
Cimislia – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Causeni – once in 10 years on 25-35% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Stefan-Voda – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС.
Cantemir – once in 10 years on 25-40% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Gagauzia – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС.
Basarabeasca – once in 10 years on 55% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС.
Taraclia – once in 10 years on 25-35% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Cahul – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical
temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Slobozia – once in 10 years on 40-50% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Mun. Tighina – once in 10 years on 45-50% of the region’s territory are registered
critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС.
Thus, the inhomogeneous manifestation of climatic risk phenomena on the
example of late spring frosts, would allow in future elaborating adequate measures
for the mitigation of climatic risk factors which can substantially decrease
agricultural ecosystems productivity.
The intensity and frequency of climatic risk factors manifestation is increasing
due to the global warming impact and climatic regional changes, which leads to
society’s increased vulnerability in general and agriculture’s in particular to these
unfavorable phenomena. In this context, climatic risk factors manifestation’s
intensity, duration and area knowledge can contribute to the mitigation of their
consequences for various practical agricultural activities.
Bibiliography: . Nedealcov M. (2010), Climate Risks and Informational database : 2010- 033 Conference
on Water Observation and information sistem for decision support, Ohrid, Republic of
Macedonia www.balwois.com/2010.
Daradur M., Nedealcov M., Monitoring and dynamics of climatic extremes. //Zesz. Nauk.
Uj, Prace Geogr., 108, - P.125-130.
Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova
46
Constantinov T., Nedealcov M., Borta I.(2006), Aspect of using GIS in the complex
analysis of the thermical anomalies and of the type of atmospherical circulation. În:
Geographia technica. Cluj-Napoca: Cluj University Pres, 2006, nr. 2, p. 7-12.
Constantinov T., Daradur M., Nedealcov M., Răileanu V., Mleavaia G., Ignat
M.(2006), Change of climate and risk of climatic disasters (Example for republic of
Moldova). Conference of water observation and information system for decision
support, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia, A-126, 23-26 May, 2006 www.balwois.net.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SOIL PROTECTION OF REPUBLIC MOLDOVA
IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Tamara Leah 1
Keywords: soil, protection, agriculture, erosion, vulnerability.
Abstract. Moldova’s economy is dominated by agriculture. Currently, about 45% of
Moldova’s population is engaged in the agrarian sector and about 21% of GDR is
generated by agriculture. Experience of the most successful agricultural sector
economies has shown that maintaining a prosperous agricultural sector with the
participation of more than 10% of the total population is very difficult. The Republic
of Moldova is a small country, extremely vulnerable to climate risks, and the
processes of soil degradation are increasingly high. The processes and forms of soil
degradation change the hydrological regime, and determine the desertification of the
territory. The current state of the soil cover is unsatisfactory and on about 10% of
the land is critical. Soil protection in Moldova in sustainable development imposes
requirements concerning the implementation of sustainable ecological
agriculture that includes measures to prevent and combat all forms
of degradation and sustainable land protection.
Introduction
In the Republic of Moldova agriculture is the most vulnerable economic sector
to climate change, due to the dependence on weather conditions. Climate
variability is a major cause of oscillating crop yields and one of the inherent risks
in agriculture. However, the state of decline of the agricultural sector is explained
by macroeconomic and structural tendencies: the development of subsistence
agriculture in place of commercial; agricultural exports decline; inadequate
structure of prices; lower food consumption with increasing share of income spent
for food; inefficient system of subsidies to agriculture, focused on short-term goals;
lack of funds for investment; excessive fragmentation of terrains as a result of
privatization; the destruction of irrigation systems.
1 PhD Student, Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection „N. Dimo”,
Chisinau, [email protected]
Tamara Leah
48
An effective sustainable agriculture, based on technologies, can be developed
only through a system of production and long-term preservation of the quality and
production capacity of the soils. Chernozems occupy an area of 2510 thousand ha
or 70% of the total land area and 78% of agricultural land surface (***Cadastrul
Funciar, 2011). The country’s food security depends primarily on the quality and
level of fertility of these soils. From 1970 until 2010 the score of the agricultural
land has decreased from 70 to 63 points. Annual losses as a result of decreasing
soil rate is 330 lei for ha of agricultural land and 7.7 milliard lei for the total area
studied.
Small farms, with an average size of 1.5 ha, divided into 3-4 lots, occupy 28%
of the total area of agricultural land and 34% of the privately owned agricultural
land. As a result of intensive use, without the application of crop rotation,
fertilizers, soil conservation work, soil quality in these households has worsened
considerably; making them vulnerable to climate conditions. The practice of world
agriculture confirms that high biological productivity of soils in very small farms is
impossible to be obtained and kept for a long term. Land reform in Moldova has
not created conditions for increasing soil fertility, sustainable land use, increasing
agricultural production, exercising therefore together with droughts negatively
impact on the economy (***Sistemul informaţional…, 2000).
1. Agropedoclimatic zones Moldova is divided into climatic agro-pedological zones which are
characterized by parameters that favor or limit the use of land for crops. Affiliation
of the greater part of the country at the sub-humid zone with frequent droughts
during the growing season of plant requires a complete adaptation of agriculture to
drought conditions, taking into consideration the particularities of each zone for
sustainable development. Estimates have shown that drought affects up to 50% of
winter crops and up to 80% of spring crops (*** Seceta, 2007). The vulnerability and
adaptation of the crops will depend on the conditions of climatic zones that will
require the use of drought tolerant crops with application of an adequate system of
fertilization and tillage (tab.1).
Soils in Moldova are subject to degradation processes, which increase the
vulnerability of agriculture to climatic conditions. Areas affected by erosion and
landslides, deterioration processes of structure and compaction, dehumification,
alkalization, salinization and soil bogging up continue to extend. These processes
lead to the disruption of biological cycles, the balance of nutrients and humus, soil
profile and decreased damage to their fertility. According to estimates, the damage
caused to economy by degradation processes (direct and indirect annual loss)
consist of 4801 mln. lei.
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development
49
Agricultural land use in accordance with the productive potential of soil
and climate recourses of each climatic zone will increase the chances of survival of
Moldova’s agriculture in drought conditions. It is also clear that climate change
will have dramatic effects on agriculture and the economy of Moldova. New
systems are needed for sustainable management of soil resources to reduce the
risks of climate and anthropogenic causes that lead to climate change.
Tab. 1 - Climatic indexes and degree of vulnerability and adaptation of zones
Climatic
Indexes
Agropedoclimatic Zones Average
North Center South
Precipitation sum, mm 513 488 436 473
Temperature, °C 8,4 9,0 9,7 9,0
Water reserve, t/ha 4010 3620 2920 3517
Hydrothermal coefficient 0,9 – 1,1 0,7 – 0,9 0,5 – 0,7 0,5 -1,1
Drought frequency 1 in10 years 1 in 5-6 years 1 in 3 years -
Reduction of harvest < 20% 20-50% > 50% -
Fall precipitation 70-80%
of norm
60-70%
of norm
< 50% of
norm
-
Increasing, t°C 1-1,5°C 2°C 3-4°C
Vulnerability degree Low Moderate High
Adaptation degree High Moderate Low
The south and south-east of Moldova are most vulnerable to climatic
conditions. Increasing temperatures and changes observed in precipitation already
affect various aspects of agricultural crops, vineyards and orchards, pastures and
meadows. Intensification of erosion degree leads to decreasing of surface of
agricultural cultures and crops, the surface of meadows on the slopes and hillsides.
The degree of vulnerability and adaptation of the crop will depend on agro-
climatic zone conditions that will require the use of drought tolerant crops with an
adequate fertilizer application and soil tillage.
2. Soil erosion
Erosion is the main factor of soil cover degradation and pollution of water
resources. According to soil surveys, soil eroded area increased over a period of 40
years with 280 thousand ha (in 1965 - 594 thousand ha and in 2010– 878 thousand
ha), increasing annually with 7.1 thousand ha. Together with the erosion degree
soil fertility decreases: weakly eroded – 20%, moderately eroded – 20-40%, highly
eroded – 40-60%, and very strongly eroded – 60-80% (*** Eroziunea solului, 2004).
During the period 1911-1965 ravines surface expanded 2 times (from 14,434
ha to 24,230 ha) and ravines number increased 3 times. After 1965 a part of the
Tamara Leah
50
land affected by ravines has been excluded from agricultural use and introduced in
the forest fund. This led to a sudden reduction the number and surface of ravines on
the agricultural land to 8.8 thousand ha in 1999 and 11.8 thousand ha in 2005 ha.
Stopping work of ravines liquidation and irrational management in agriculture
conducted to the increase in the recent years of their number and area (Leah T.,
Cerbari V., 2000). The annual losses of fertile soil are of 26 million tones, which is equivalent to
the destruction of 2000 ha of chernozem with full profile and the loss of humus –
700,000 t, nitrogen – 50,000 t, phosphorus – 34,000 t, potassium – 597,000 t. The
cost of land damaged by regulatory cost of land (1 ha = 926 496 lei) is about 1850
million lei.
Indirect losses, expressed in agricultural production consists stable values
from year to year. Currently, agricultural production lost due to soil erosion is 525
thousand tons nutrients per arable land and 57 thousand tons of fruit and grape on
plantation land. Based on the price of 1.5 lei per nutritive unit and 1 kg of fruits,
the cost of harvest lost due to erosion consists 873 million lei.
Annual direct and indirect losses as a result of erosion processes are 2723
million lei. Indirectly, the damage caused by erosion extends to other spheres of
human activity (*** Instrucţiune, 2004). Soil erosion in the Republic of Moldova has
become a primordial issue that can be solved only at the state level.
Measures to prevent and combat soil erosion:
- Strengthening privatized agricultural land;
- organization and planning of agricultural land (road network, dimension of
field size, soil protection forest belts, exhaust system to control surplus of rain
water from the slopes, etc.);
- implementation of agro-forest-ameliorative measures on agricultural low
productive lands and destroyed by landslides, ravines, very highly eroded soils;
creating green belts and forest plantations;
- implementation phytotechnical measures: crop rotation, cultivation of
alternative crops in strips, grassing space between rows in plantations, etc;
- using the antierosion agrotechnical processes: soil tillage across the general
direction of the slope or contour; implementation of soil conservation works for
keeping waste vegetable; cracking; carrying out drainage performance;
- application of selective hydrotechnical measures.
Deep erosion (ravines) is a complicated and expensive process. Therefore more
effective is preventing erosion by antierosion measures. The most simple and
effective method of their stabilization is forestation and grassing.
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development
51
3. Soil dehumification
Dehumification of non eroded arable soils is a global process, and stopping it
in current system of agriculture is impossible. Humus is one of the main indicators
of fertility, that determines the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.
The soil organic matter contains 95% of the total nitrogen, 45% of the phosphorus
and 65% of the sulfur. The ensurance of agricultural crops and biota with mineral
nutrition depends directly on the amount of organic matter in soil. Experimentally
it was established that an increase of the humus content of 1% ensures 1.0 t/ha of
grain corn or 0.8 t/ha of winter wheat.
According to the data obtained in 1877, Moldova’s soils contain from 5 to 9%
humus (average 5.75%). The humus reserve in the 0-20 cm soil layer was about
200 t/ha. During the 100 years of agricultural use the humus content decreased by
35-45%. In 2007 the average content of humus was 3.2%. During the 130 years
(1877-2007) the content of humus in the arable layer of chernozems agriculturally
used fell by 2.47% or 43% from the initial content of the fallow soil (1877), the
annual humus speed reduction being of 0.019% (tab.2).
To form an equilibrated or positive humus balance it is necessary that during
the average crop rotation to be incorporated into the soil at least 10 tons of manure.
During the agricultural chemical period (1981-1990) were incorporated around 6-7
t/ha of organic fertilizers, 180-210 kg/ha NPK, the rate of perennial grasses
consisted of 180-210 thousand ha, crop rotation was respected.
Tab. 2 - Morphological indices and humus content of typical chernozem
Indexes 1877 1960 2003 2007
- p.42 p.43 - p.22
Horizon,
cm
A 0-61 0-43 0-44 0-50 0-48
B 62-91 44-101 45-92 51-98 49-95
C 92 102 93 99 96
Effervescence 92 65 70 70
Humus,
%
A 0-61 5,718% - - - -
Ahp1 0-22 3,75 3,60 3,32 3,25±0,14
Ahp2 22-36 3,65 3,30 3,15 2,97±0,13
Ah 36-49 - - - 2,60±0,13
Bhk1 49-70 2,34 2,73 1,94 2,13±0,29
Bhk2 70-96 1,59 1,57 1,68 1,35±0,28
Humus balance in this period was almost equilibrated. During 1995-2010,
the amount of organic fertilizers decreased 60 times and consists 0.1 t/ha, the
surface of grasses decreased 4-5 times (***Anuarul Statistic, 2010).
Tamara Leah
52
As a consequence, soil humus balance is negative (minus 0.7 t/ha) and erosion
losses account – minus 1.1 t/ha. Annually the total humus losses consist of 2.4
millions tones on the agricultural land. Forecast calculations show that if the
present scenario is maintained, in 2025 Moldova’s soil humus content will decrease
under the critical level of 2.5-2.8% and cereal crops formed at the expense of
natural fertility will reduce to 2.1 t/ha (tab.3).
Tab. 3 - Prognosis of humus content and cereals crops modification
Year Humus,% Reserves in 0-30 cm, t/ha Nmineral,
kg/ha
Yield prognoses, t/ha
humus nitrogen winter wheat corn
1897 5-6 200 10 135 - -
1950 4-5 150 8 115 - -
1965 3,5-4,0 180 6 105 3,2 4,2
1990 3,0-3,5 110 5 85 2,5 3,4
2025 2,5-3,0 90 4 70 2,1 2,8
Measures for the remediation of agricultural soil fertility:
- minimization of losses of humus by erosion as a result of implementing
antierosion measures;
- restoring and implementation zonal systems of crop rotation with soil
protecting effects, decreasing rate of weeding crops and extending the surface of
perennial grasses;
- using, production and application of organically fertilizers and composts for
an equilibrated humus balance by developing the livestock.
- the rational application of mineral fertilizers in doses of 120-130 kg/ha of
NPK in average for crop rotation.
4. Nutrients deficiency in soils
Moldova’s soils are relatively rich in nutrients that provide yields of 2.5 t of
winter wheat, 3.1 t of maize grain. To obtain higher yields of winter wheat from
4.0 to 4.5 t; corn – 5.0-6.0 t is necessary to apply fertilizers. Experimentally it was
established that soil fertilization provides a yield increase of 30-40%.
Studying the dynamic of applying the fertilizers in agriculture during 1962-
2010 showed the following: during 1961-1965 were applied 19 kg/ha of NPK and
1.3 t/ha of manure. During this period, the nutrients balance in the soils was
negative, and crops accounted to 1.6 t of winter wheat, 2.8 t of maize grain, 19.0
t/ha of sugar beet.
During the period chemicals were used in agriculture (1965-1970) the amount
of mineral fertilizers incorporated into the soil increased 9 times and was 172 kg/ha
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development
53
of NPK, and the quantity of manure increased from 1.3 to 6.6 t/ha. During 15 years
(1976-1990) for the first time in the history of Moldova’s agriculture a positive
balance of nutrients in the soils existed.
As a result, soil fertility increased - the content of mobile phosphorus 2 times
and the content of exchangeable potassium by 2-3 mg/100 g of soil. In the 1970-
1990 period, as a result of intensive technologies implementation; protection,
amelioration and improvement soil fertility measures, the winter wheat yields have
increased significantly – 3.5-3.8 t/ha. Farms with advanced agriculture achieved on
an average 4.0-5.5 t/ha winter wheat, 5.5-7.5 t/ha maize grain, 45-50 t/ha sugar
beet.
Post action phosphorus fertilizers applied in agriculture in the chemical period
show favorable manifestation on the crops up to present. According to the
prognoses, post action of phosphorus residues accumulated in the period 1965-
1990, will manifest up to 2012-2015. Exhaustion of phosphorus residues will lead
to lower contents of mobile phosphorus in the soil up to the natural level (low and
very low) and increasing the productivity of crops.
In 1990-2005 the application of mineral fertilizers decreased 15-20 times.
Currently crops annually extract from soil 150-180 kg/ha NPK. With mineral
fertilizers in the soil is incorporated 15-20 kg/ha NPK, which consists only 10% of
their export crops. The balance of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil
became again negative. In the last six years the amount of fertilizers applied in
agriculture has increased 2-3 times (from 5-10 to 15-20 thousand tones). But these
doses of fertilizers applied are insufficient to form a equilibrate balance of nutrients
in the soils (*** COD, 2007).
Measure to increase the fertility of soils
- agrochemical mapping of agricultural land once in 8-10 years to assess the
actual fertility of the soil and rationally apply the fertilizers.
- implementation of “Complex Program of recovery of degraded lands and
increase soil fertility, Part II. Increasing soil fertility”, which includes: optimizing
crop rotation; accumulation of biological nitrogen in soil in an amount of 25-30
thousand tons annually by increasing the rate of leguminous in crops rotation to 20-
25%; incorporation into soil of 5-6 t /ha manure, total 9-10 million tons; annual
application of mineral fertilizers, inclusively: 190 thousand tons of nitrogen and
phosphorus.
- implementation of action plan and measures of “Program of conservation and
increase soil fertility for 2011-2020”.
- rehabilitation of agrochemical service infrastructure, including State
Agrochemical Service to monitor soil fertility and rational use of fertilizers.
Tamara Leah
54
5.Alkalization and salinization of soils Ameliorative fund includes steppe solonetzes, slope swamps, irrigated and
meadow soils. In 1966-1990 major works were carried out on soil improvement:
irrigation, drainage, gypsum amendment etc. The natural conditions of Moldova
put irrigation among primary tasks, especially in the south part, where the
coefficient of humidity is 0.5-0.6, and droughts frequency is one at 3 years.
Irrigation permits to increase yields by 1.5-2.0 times and even more.
Irrigated soils in the 90’s made up 308 thousand ha. On the irrigated land were
cultivated vegetables (0.8-1.2 millions tons annually), forages and cereals. As a
result of irrational privatization and excessive parceling of land, the surface of
irrigated soils decreased by 7 times and in 2009 was about 46 thousand ha.
Currently the farm land irrigation is performed mainly by local water sources
(rivers, lakes, ponds) which are characterized by a high degree of mineralization,
alkaline and chemically unfavorable reaction. As a result, appear manifestations of
secondary soil alkalization and salinization.
In the 1960-1980 a high volume of ameliorative works was done to improve
meadow soil, such as drainage, irrigation and gypsum amendment. In the
agricultural cycle were included about 180 thousand ha from 230 thousand ha of
flood plain and meadow soils. Recovery of large scale agricultural meadows,
regularization of river leakage, not respecting the technical norms of operating
drainage system have resulted in the intensification of salts accumulation in the
“soil-groundwater”, in progressive soil salinization and swamping, compaction and
gleyzation.
Ameliorative status of alluvial soil is good – 17%, satisfactory – 34% and
unsatisfactory – 49%, the surface consist of 90 thousand ha. Damage caused by the
processes of soil salinization and meadow go up to 50 million lei.
In the north and central part of republic are met soil with excess of moisture
on about 50 thousand ha. In the 1970-1990 have been improved over 40 thousand
ha. In the last 15-20 years the improvement works of soil with moisture excess and
the maintenance of drainage system in the working practice have been conducted
only in small areas. As result, the current improvement status or drained soil is
unsatisfactory (*** Recomandări, 1996).
In the soil cover structure of arable land about 25 thousand ha are occupied by
steppe solonetzes which are characterized by low fertility. In the 1965-1990 were
made a few attempts to improve these soils after a special technology developed by
the Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection “Nicolae Dimo”, their
essence consisting in applied fertilization and gypsum amendment.
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development
55
Ameliorative measures:
- performing quality monitoring of ameliorative fund (irrigated, drained,
chemically amendment soils) to develop forecasts, highlighting vulnerability and
improve them.
- carrying out extension of great irrigation works on an area of 100 thousand
ha;
- resumption of drainage works of swamps soils, restore of soil drainage
system, primary the meadow soil of Lower Prut, gypsum amendment of steppe
solonetzes according to the national programs.
6.Active landslides
Landslides affect 80 thousand ha which are likely, under certain conditions, to
pass into the category of active landslides. Dynamic growth areas of active
landslides on agricultural land is as follows: 1970-21.2 thousand ha, 1980-48.6
thousand ha, 1900-79.3 thousand ha, 2005-85.0 thousand ha. During 1970-1995, as
a result of incorrect human activity, the surface of landslide expanded with 62.6
thousand ha, increasing annually by 2.5 thousand ha.
Measures to stabilization landslides:
- building channels to excess rainwater drain, drainage of land in various ways,
capture the water costal sources; terrains affected by sliding or slopping hazard
forestation;
- recovery of slides land is very expensive, but more expensive is laxity,
abandoning the affected area. The simplest and most effective method of recovery
is forestation, which will contribute in time to the stabilization and improvement of
the ecological status of environment.
7.Secondary soil compaction
The existing system of soil agricultural use leads to compaction of arable
stratum. Recently plowed layer of chernozems are characterized by a rough
structure with compacted massive structural elements. Under the 0-25 cm layer is
highlighted a subarable layer (25-35 cm) very compact, with prismatic, monolithic
structure. The content of valuable agronomic aggregates of chernozems is very low
(30-50%).
The causes of secondary compaction and structural damage are soil intensive
tillage with heavy agricultural aggregates, small share of perennial grasses in crop
rotation on the field. The negative effects of soil compaction and destruction are:
decreased permeability and water retention capacity; worsening of air-fluid
settlement system; increasing resistance to plowing; inhibiting the development of
root system; unsatisfactory plowing quality of soils. Following these effects, the
soil production capacity decreases, intensifies soil droughts.
Tamara Leah
56
Measures to prevent soil compaction:
- implementation of crop rotation with a rate of 20-25% of leguminous plants,
including perennial grasses – 10-15%.
- applying organic fertilizers, vegetable residues, composts, green manure;
- autumn plowing once in 4-5 years at a depth of 35-40 cm, to destroy the
underlying compacted layer, application of organic fertilizers in optimal doses (40-
50 t/ha) once in 5 years, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers in reserve.
- along with the classic work of soil tillage it is necessary to gradually
implement “no-till and mini-till” systems for soil fertility conservation and
“antierosion agrotechnical system”. Application of these systems requires adequate
production of agricultural machines for performing several operations
simultaneously, with minimal effect of soil compaction.
Conclusion
Soil protection in Republic of Moldova requires implementation of sustainable
farming system which includes:
1. Creating farms with large (1000-2000 ha) and medium (400-500) surface in
the climatic zones and testing technologies sustainable agricultural system in these
households and their gradual implementation on the total territory;
3. Creating the necessary infrastructure for technical and material support
sustainable agriculture system (machinery, seeds, fertilizers, fuels, pesticides);
4. Improve the national research and projecting system for the work of
organizing and planning and land reclamation in accordance with the needs and
requirements of sustainable agriculture system;
5. Creating the infrastructure for training, education, extension and
reclamation in sustainable agriculture;
6. Creating a viability mechanism that would provide price policy, tax, credit,
and allow farmers implement sustainable agricultural system technologies;
7. Support state implementation of sustainable farming system for all forms of
ownership and management.
Implementation of elaborated measures and actions will stop soil degradation,
increase crop plants productivity and improve ecological status in the Republic of
Moldova.
Bibliography: *** (2010), Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Moldova . Statistica, Chişinău, p.315-358.
*** (2011), Cadastrul Funciar al Republicii Moldova la 1 ianuarie 2010. Chişinău.
*** (2007), COD de bune practici agricole. Pontos, Chişinău.
*** (2004), Eroziunea solului. Esenţa, consecinţele, minimalizarea şi stabilizarea
procesului. Pontos, Chişinău
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development
57
*** (2004), Instrucţiune privind evaluarea prejudiciului cauzat resurselor de sol, nr.381
din 16.08.2004. MO al RM nr.189-192 (1543-1546), 22.10.2004. Chişinău.
Leah T., Cerbari V., (2000), Eroziunea solurilor – factor de intensificare a consecinţelor
secetelor// Secetele: pronosticarea şi atenuarea consecinţelor. Pontos , Chişinău.
*** (1996), Recomandări pentru prevenirea degradării cernoziomurilor irigate. Chişinău.
*** (2007), Seceta şi metode de minimalizare a consecinţelor nefaste. Pontos , Chişinău.
*** (2000), Sistemul informaţional privind calitatea învelişului de sol al Republicii
Moldova (Baza de date), Pontos, Chişinău.
.
Tamara Leah
58
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA:
EVOLUTION, PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Petru Cocîrţă
1
Key words: forest ecosystems, forests, evolution, status, age and development.
Abstract. This paper describes the findings of the state, evolution and management
of forest ecosystems in the Republic of Moldova during the 200 years. In the
complex study and analysis of the current situation are presented the basic
characteristics of forest ecosystems and their role in environment protection,
preservation and conservation of biological diversity and in the national economy,
human welfare, etc. The basics of forest management activities and problems over
the years and the major tasks to ensure sustainable development of forest ecosystems
are tackled. The final part of the paper includes some conclusions and proposals on
the sustainable development of forests in the Republic of Moldova in accordance
with European and international requirements..
Introduction Enormous changes that have occurred over the past 100 years on Earth were
reflected on all aspects and forms of life on our planet. They show very sharply
during the past 20 years through enormous changes in climate, environment, social
and economic life etc. (GEO4, 2004).
The natural environment of the Republic of Moldova is, in general aspects,
favorable for life. Biological Diversity (State of the Environment in Republic of
Moldova, 2007) in the country is conditioned by its geographical position at the
crossroads of three biogeographical regions: Central European represented by the
Codry’s Central Plateau (54.13% or 18300 km2
of the territory republic), Eurasian
- represented by forest steppe and steppe regions (30.28% or 10230 km2),
Mediterranean - represented by regions of xerophyte steppe of the southern part
(15.59% or 5 270 km2). In terms of fauna, the Republic of Moldova borders the
Balkan region and forms a transition zone between fauna elements of continental
Asian steppe and of European forest steppe. In the past biological diversity in the
Republic of Moldova was well developed and only forest ecosystems covered
about 30%, and according to some opinions they reached to 70% of land area
(Pădurea - rădăcina sufletului, 1992). Currently the situation in the country is
1 Sen. Researcher PhD., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chişinău, Republic of Moldova,
Petru Cocîrţă
60
different: all natural ecosystems (forest, water, steppe etc.) are very fragmented and
modified, and cover a total about 15% of country’s territory.
Currently the Republic of Moldova is in the category of the states with a
low forest cover. At the end of first decade of XXI century the total area National
Forest Fund (FF) was estimated according to statistics, to about 440,000 hectars,
equivalent to about 13% of the territory and the area covered by forests, according
to the Land Cadastre – 396700 ha or 11.7% of the land (Cadastrul funciar al
Republicii Moldova, 2002-2008), which represents a very small hint compared to
the EU average (29%) or to countries in the same biogeographical region -
Romania (28%), Bulgaria (35%) and Hungary (19.5%).
Fig. 1 - Map of Forest vegetation
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions
61
In the present the biodiversity of the Republic of Moldova is specific and
fragmented, of about 5600 species of plants, including about 2000 species of higher
plants and about 17,000 species of fauna from which 16,500 are invertebrate
species (Lumea animală a Moldovei, 2007).
In general the forests ecosystem evolution on the Republic of Moldova
territory, because of climate interference (Central European, Balkan-Mediterranean
and Eastern Europe) and of a protected landscape, has been very beneficial,
especially during periods of lack of significant impact from the human population.
At the present moment the forests do not form a continuous forest area, which
traverse the whole country, but they are grouped into about 800 bodies of forest
with surface from 5 to 1500 ha (Fig. 1).
Afforestation varies in different geographical zone of the Republic of
Moldova: 8.1% in the north, 14.5% in the center and 7.7% in the south. Codry’s
region has the highest concentration of forest vegetation (Starea mediului în
Republica Moldova, 2007).
Currently within the forest fund, the ecosystems have a wide range,
comprising 28 biogeocenotic types and subtypes (according to the degree of
productivity). A number of woody species are found on limit to the area in
Moldova today: Beech, Evergreen oak, Lime, species of Central European origin
who occupy the eastern edge of the geographic area, then Downy Oak, Balkan
Pontic species, which occur in the northeast edge of the area. In the same situations
are species of Carpinus, Euonimus, Prunus etc. (Bindiu, 1992).
This paper is intended to approach the problems of forest ecosystems
development and in particular, the perpetuation and preservation of their biological
diversity. The problems are particularly acute in the Republic of Moldova, a
country with high human population density and predominantly agrarian economy,
with strong traditions in agriculture.
1. Research methods
The research implied the consultation of various archive, statistical and
bibliographic data with many facts and figures on the development of forested
areas in space and time. Attention was drawn mainly by the integrated information
in this domain over about 200 years; forest territories development; bio- and
ecological features of plants from forest ecosystems and major factors impact upon
them.
2. Important tabs in the history and evolution of forest ecosystems
Geographical, geological features, topography and climate have contributed to
the rich and diverse natural vegetation of the Republic of Moldova. Deforestation
Petru Cocîrţă
62
and burning of forests by human population was often an unwanted phenomenon,
but the nature of these actions was different: human settlement, wars,
colonization, poor management etc.
Table 1. The dynamics
of the forests in the
years 1848-1966
Years Forest area,
thou. ha
1848 366,2
1861 330,8
1875 305,2
1893 286,0
1914 249,4
1918 230,0
1966 306,1
It is known that in the 14th-16
th centuries, during the fighting with the Tatars
and Turks, the burning and logging was widely used in national defense. Later, in
the 17-20th centuries, when this territory was then subject to the Turkish and then
the Russian empires, the exploitation of forests became more severe and
unforgiving. Only in the twentieth century to the present have started some
activities to halt total deforestation and restore the green cover, especially forests.
According to a complex study presented in the book "Леса Молдавии"
Table 2. Development indicators of forest ecosystem area.
Years
NF forest area, thous. hectares
Forests areas of first group, thous. hectares
Land affores- tation degree, %
Total Including: area covered by forest
Including: Forests of green areas
1985 386 301 372 102,9 8,9
1990 407 340 407 119 10,2
1995 448 370 448 132 11
2000 489 410 489 146 12,1
2005 530 450 530 160 13,3
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions
63
(Тышкевич, Бордюга,1973), we can find the following: in the 19th century the
forests of this area were used to build ships. For example, during the Russo-
Turkish War (1806-1812), in accordance with the decree of year 1803 for the
construction of ships, the Black Sea fleet was asking annually for 10802 secular
oaks (Врангель В. История лесного хозяйства Российской империи. Санкт-
Петербург, 1841, quoted by Targon, 2008). Another example is the March 1810
report of master Tarusov to head of Russian military administration on the
selection from the forests of Orhei Codry “of 15000 trees of oaks good for ships
and frigates" (Тышкевич, Бордюга, 1973).
Studies have shown that the forests in this area decreased from 1848 to
1918 with over 130 000 ha (Table 1), and the afforestation according to the
Ministry of Agriculture and State Property (Book "О лесах России", СПб., 1900)
by the year 1900 was only 6% (quoted by Тышкевич, Бордюга (1973). Also this
study states that during the period from 1944 to 1971 inclusive, were created more
than 120 thou. ha of forest cultures, including protective strips on 78400 ha. In the
chapter "Forest resources and organizational structure of farm forestry in the
MSSR" it says that on 01.01.1966 the total area of forest with all the protective
forest strips was equal to 306,100 ha, including State forest fund – 266,900 ha and
forests of collective farms (Kolkhozes) – 39,200 ha. But the area covered by forests
was 247,800 ha and the forest’s wood products reserve was calculated at over 20
million m3.
Fig. 2 - National Forest Fund dynamics and future objectives
The next source of information on the surface of forest ecosystems is a
Complex long-term program of environmental protection and natural resource use
in the Moldavian SSR in period until 2005 (Ecology - 2005), developed in the 80s
Petru Cocîrţă
64
of the XX century. A sequence of this document is referring to forestry - pag.81
(Table 2).
After the declaration of independence of the Republic of Moldova in 1991,
measures have been undertaken for the development of forest ecosystems, which
have been included in various legislative-normative acts and documents of the
state. As basic documents serve: National Strategic Action Program for
Environmental Protection (1995), First National Report on Biological Diversity
(2000), Biological Diversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan
(2001), the Sustainable Development Strategy in Forestry Sector (Strategia
dezvoltării durabile a sectorului forestier din Republica Moldova, 2001),
Millennium Development Goals "Ensuring environmental sustainability"
(Asigurarea Durabilităţii Mediului 2003) and others. According to the First
National Report on Biological Diversity, Biological Diversity Conservation
National Strategy and Action Plan, we have the following information regarding
forest development and perspectives in Moldova for a period of 200 years (Fig. 2).
As it can be seen from Figure 2, compared with 1812 forest ecosystems in the
Dniester-Prut area decreased from 450,000 ha to 160,300 ha in 1914: practically
been eliminated over two thirds of the forested area.
Cutting trees in large areas was practiced without taking measures to protect
seedlings installed. In the years following areas of forest ecosystems have started to
increase to 325,400 ha in 1999. As for the future objectives (year 2025) it is
expected that the areas of these ecosystems will increase to 550 thou. ha.
Another document - Sustainable Development Strategy in Forestry Sector in
Moldova, developed in 2001, provides for the extension of the areas covered by
forest with at least 130 thou. ha, which allows to create: - new forest bodies,
extending existing surfaces; - green islands of trees and shrubs; - the
interconnection corridors between forested massifs; - protection curtains along the
rivers, roads and around industrial facilities.
Many other materials available on this issue have been analyzed, but it was
found that many data and sources don’t have a true correlation. That's why we will
refer only to some official statistics.
According to the data of the Land Cadastre of the Republic of Moldova, in
01.01.2010 the total area covered by forest vegetation was 462,700 ha or 13.7% of
the country: forest fund – 410,200 ha (12.1%); surface covered with forests –
365,900 ha (10.8%); forest vegetation outside forest fund – 52,500 ha. It is obvious
that the evolution of land covered with forests, afforestation degree and some of
their structural features are specific for the Republic of Moldova (Tab.3).
In line with the Program “Ecology - 2005”, the activities to increase the Forest
Fund and forest planting have been done in parallel with the maintenance of
forests. By virtue of historical events, USSR existed until 1991, so the performance
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions
65
of the Program"Ecology - 2005", mentioned above, has failed. Mentioned Program
provided that territory of Republic of Moldova to be afforested until 2005 by 13%,
ecological norm being 27-30%. According to estimates made in 1994-1995, by
1994 only 38411 ha were planted, of which 13791 in the State Forest Fund and
18620 on land taken from other owners, for to achieve the figure of 450 thou. ha,
was needed to be planted 154 thousand ha.
Table 3. Characteristic of forest fund of the Republic of Moldova*
Year
Forest Fund
/ wooded
land (Thou.
ha)
Forest
cover %
of FF
Avera
ge age
Class
productio
n
Consistency
Wood
volume Annual growth
(m3/ha) total,
mln.
m3
m3/ha
1957 207,8/179,0 86 30 2,7 0,72 16,61 93 3,2
1985 322,8/271,3 84 40 2,3 0,73 33,53 124 3,3
1999 394,4/325,4 82,5 40 2,3 0,73 35,14 108 3,2
2005-
2009 400,6/362,5 90,5 40 2,3 0,73 45,29 124 3,3
* Source: First National Report on Biological Diversity, 2000; Agenția pentru Silvicultură
Moldsilva, 2010; Galupa, 2008.
Were analyzed many other materials available on this issue but it was
found that many data and sources don’t has a true correlation. That's why we will
refer in continuous only to some official statistics.
According to data of the Land Cadastre of the Republic of Moldova, in
01.01.2010 total area covered by forest vegetation was 462700 ha or 13.7% of the
country: forest fund - 410200 ha (12.1%); surface covered with forests - 365900 ha
(10.8%); forest vegetation outside forest fund - 52500 ha. It is obvious that the
evolution of land covered with forests, afforestation degree and some of their
structural features, is specific for the Republic of Moldova (Tab.3).
Afforestation degree is increasing over the last 60 years and the surface of
forests over the years exceeds 80% of the land of the Forest Fund, which confirms
the general development of Moldova's green carpet. To highlight some specific
characteristics: median age of forests over many years is 40 years, consistency -
0.73 and class of production - 2.3, average annual growth is ranging between 3.2
and 3.3 m3 per hectare etc.
Petru Cocîrţă
66
Fig. 3 - Forest structure in functional subgroup, ha
(Forestry Agency “Moldsilva”, 2010).
In accordance with the views of specialists (Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului,
1992, Forestry Agency “MoldSilva”, 2010) and legislation (Cocîrtă, Clipa, 2008),
the forests in the Republic of Moldova have exclusively environmental protection
functions (class I ) and is divided into the following functional categories (Fig. 3).
Unfortunately, these features of the forests are not fully observed and forest
resources are often misused to solve economic problems. According to the studies (
Fourth National Report on Biological Diversity (2009), ICAS (2010), ecosystems
from FF limits have the following forest types: Oak, downy oak, beech, water
meadows and a number of variations thereof. In the forest ecosystems were
identified 123 associations of which over 25 taxa of phytocenosis, which are
valued as phytocenosis-standard.
According to the data source (Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului, 1992), of the
approximately 40 species of trees and a series of about 60 bushes that grow larger
and spread naturally in Moldova, we mention a few of those of trees more
important in ecological and economic point of view (tab. 4).
In accordance with the data and biological properties, indigenous species in
the past had an optimal evolution and age of most of them exceeded 100 years.
Species of oak (Quercus) and beech (Fagus) reach the age of 500 years
(Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului, 1992), however, it can be meet oak specimens more
older in Cobîlnea village (Şoldaneşti rayon), Căpriana (Străşeni rayon) and others.
There is information that in some countries, specimens of oak reach the age of 700,
1200 and 1500 years (Wikipedia, Quercus). However, a great example, described
in articles on Tree of the Year in Romania (Bătrânul Carpaţilor, 2011), is oak from
Brasov county, called Old of Carpathians (Bătrânul Carpaţilor) or Oak from
Merckeasa (Stejarul din Mercheaşa), whose age exceeds 900 years.
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions
67
Other species of trees, for example, from the genus Acer reach age 100 to 300
years, the genus Tilia (Lime) 200-250 years, respectively, of the genus Salix reach
the age of circa 200 years (Wikipedia, Willow) etc.
Currently the Republic of Moldova also has some very fragmented bodies of
old forest, in our opinion, normal or usual forest of such territory, the majority
being placed in reserve and is approximately 6000 ha, of which oak - 4900 ha, ash -
600 ha, beech - 300 ha, hornbeam - 100 ha (Galupa, 2008). În accordance with
Law no. 1538-XIII of 02.24.1998 (with new amendments) on State Protected Areas
Table 4. The most important genus and species of trees in Moldova, the average age
(years)*
Name Code **) Age
1 Beech – Fagus sylvatica L. Fa 96
2 Genus Quercus L (Oaks):
a) Oaks – Quercus robur L.
St 53
b) Evergreen oak – Quercus petraea (Matt) Liebl. Go
c) Downy oak – Quercus pubescens Willd. Stp
Introducent: Red Oak - Quercus rubra L. Str
3 Genus Tilia L. (Lime): a) Lime – Tilia tomentoza Moench.,
Te 52
b) Sulfur lime tree – Tilia cordata Mill. Tep
c) Large linden tree – Tilia platyphyllos Scop. Tem
4 Hornbeam – Carpinus betulus L. Ca 52
5 Genus Fraxinus (Ash): Common Ash – Fraxinus excelsior L. Fr 52
Introducenți:
Green ash (F. viridis Michx.)
Fluffy ash (F. pubescens Lam.)
Frv
6 Genus Acer L (Maples): Common maple – Acer campestre L. Ju 32
Field maple – Acer platanoides L., Pa 19
Wood species of azonal type
9 White willow – Salix alba Saa 27
10 White poplar – Populus alba Pl 27
Aspen – Populus tremula, Plt 41
Introducents of major importance
13 Acacia (White) – Robinia pseudacacia L. Sa 12
*) – Established in Moldova average age, years ( Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului,
1992, Galupa, 2008).
**) – Code in Romanian.
Petru Cocîrţă
68
Fund, 4.65% of the Republic of Moldova's territory is protected areas, but the
protection of forest ecosystems is only 18.8% of all protected areas. Also this law
is stipulated that 433 old trees in all districts of the country are treated as natural
monuments, subcategory C) Botanic point b) Trees secular /Annex 3 of the law /.
Most of these old trees are of the genus Quercus, arguments in addition to its
dominance in our forests.
Fig. 4 - Information on forest expansion in Moldova during
2002-2008 (Galupa, 2009)
The much smaller number or a few units are represents other native and
azonal species of trees and shrubs of the varios genera or families: Beech, Ash,
Cherry, Maple, Planes, Poplar, Wild Pear, Pine, Lime (Linden), Elm, Hazelnut, Fir,
Chestnut, Cedar, Mulberry, Douglas-fir, Glade, Osage-orange, Spruce, Mountain
ash, European Hackberry. However, these old trees are true witnesses of the tragic
events that happened or spend in the Prut - Dniester space with native forests,
important of points of view biogeographic, ecological etc. This “de facto” means
that now we don’t have in almost the normal native forests, which would be in
optimal development, specific for each species.
In the XX century in forest ecosystems were continued the extensive
exploration of native tree species that is confirmed by decreasing their surface and
the high share of forests in the shoots. In case of Qvercinee that until the XIX
century still represented the main tree species, in the next period is observed the
essential decrease of its from 56.9% of total area in 1925 to 39.6% in 2006. The
major changes also suffered other tree species such as the genera Carpinus, Tilia
and Fagus: share of Carpinus surface was reduced from 11.4% in 1925 to 2.6% in
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions
69
2006, of Tilia from 7.2% in 1925 to 0.9% in 1998, of Fagus from 1.2% in 1925 to
0.2% in 1998. In the same period has crucial increased the share of introducente
species Robinia pseudacacia L. (genus Acacia) from 900 ha in 1925 to 131000 ha
in 2006, or respectively from 0.4% to 36.1%. It has increased the surface of
Coniferous species from 0.03% in 1995 to 2.1% in 2006. Some quantitative
changes have trees species of ash, poplars and others (Fourth National Report on
Biological Diversity, 2009).
As regarding the age of tree species in forest ecosystems, it currently ranging
from 19 years at Field maple to 96 years at Beech ones, as well as the average age
at the tree species in the Republic of Moldova is 40 years (see Tables 3 and 4).
In addition it should be take into account that in the current pedo-climatic
conditions of the Republic of Moldova in the risk zone are found 512 endangered
plant species, which constitute 27.4% of the total number. From all vascular plant
species that are in the risk zone, most independent at current climate or dependent
on region’s weather conditions are plants from zonal forest ecosystem - 126 species
(Fourth National Report on Biological Diversity, 2009). It is known that the losses
of 20% of the total of biological species causes destruction of ecological balance,
but the preservation of 10% of the natural ecosystems areas permit the conservation
of 50% from all species (First National Report on Biological Diversity, 2000).
According to (Bindiu, 1992), the country’s natural conditions with
dominated by hills and plains and without mountains, the optimal afforestation
grade is 25-30%. How far from this goal is the Republic of Moldova, it is
demonstrated by analyzing the current and future activities.
6. Considerations on indigenous forest view
Perspective of forest ecosystems in the Republic of Moldova in terms of
anthropogenic impact is determined mostly by:
• conducting of an environmental management in line with sustainable
development of forestry strategy as part of National strategy of biological diversity
conservation;
• environmental education and active participation of the people in addressing
the forestry sustainable development.
However, the examples below show a different picture and a different
perspective.
1. Activities to extend the forest cover in recent years and implementation of
national strategies and programs, in 2002-2008 have resulted in increasing the
surface area covered by forest with about 60 thou. ha, including 7100 ha in the
Forest Fund and 53thou. ha in degraded land (Forestry Agency ”Moldsilva”, 2010,
Galupa 2008, 2009). However, general spectrum analysis of planting activities in
the years 2002-2008 shows us an amazing picture (Fig. 4): major and absolute
Petru Cocîrţă
70
attention given to planting introducente species (SC - Acacia, GL - Glad, NU -
Walnut, NUN - Black walnut), which together account for 48881 ha, as for the
local forest species (ST - Oak, FR - Ash, CS - Cherry, etc..) - only 11,119 ha.
An important indicator of forest quality is compliance of stands to
stationary growth conditions. It was established that about 40% of them not meet
the growth conditions, including: acacia - 52%, hornbeam - 8%, ash - 15%, other
species - 20%. Most of stands are of vegetative origin: the shoots - 56.5% and
43.5% of the seed (Galupa 2008). One can safely assume that the following future
activities to expand land will implement the same tactics of planting for the next
130 thou. ha - tasks established to run until 2020.
2. Logging is the main problem, which takes place within centuries in this
territory. If the total clearing of forests in XIX century was a clear purpose, then
currently the planned cuts and illegal raising a concern over the fate of the general
evolution of forest ecosystems. Analysis of data from the past 35 years shows that
deforestation in recent years are increasing and in many cases exceed the planting
area (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Moldova, 2002, Moldova Statistics,
2010). An example might be the information of Government Decision no.1381 of
10.12.2007 on the activity of the Agency for Forestry "Moldsilva" in year 2006 and
in nine months of 2007 (Monitorul Oficial, 2007): ... "In 2006 and nine months of
2007 were performed maintenance and care of existing forests on an area of 32126
ha, including: cutting care - 26309 ha; regeneration, conservation and ecological
restoration cutting - 5092 ha; different cuts - 725 ha." The same document states:
"In total, during 2002-2007 (spring), to achieve the above decisions were made
planting works in an area of 45000 ha, including 39387 ha - on degraded lands in
outside the forest fund and 5639 hectares - in its boundaries" (Note: disclosures we
belong - PC). Here we should mention that what is planted not have a full warranty
on plants growth: depending on the circumstances and environmental factors a
large number of seedlings (10-30%, in some cases even more), are cut or not
reaching maturity, and what is cut can not be saved. A difficult problem is also
illegal loggings which ignore the value of trees, but are quite frequent and large.
3. The impact of invasive species. In Moldova specific diversity of invasive
species is of about 460 species, forming 43 communities from class Festuceta,
Brometa, Secalineta, Chenopodieta and other (Fourth National Report on
Biological Diversity, 2009). A great danger is backed invasion of acacia (Rubinia
pseudoacacia), less of pine (Pinus silvestris), of spruce (Picea abies) and invasion
of other species, which in addition to introduced species and those cultivated by
man, occur independently by migration, transportation from other regions and/or
infiltration in forest ecosystems. Since they are: American maple (Acer negundo),
species of nettle (Urtica), hemp (Cannabis), orache (Chenopodium and Atriplex
species), which increasing the secondary succession in ecosystems, contribute to
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions
71
expanding the area occupied by synanthropic and aggressive species and by
secondary phytocenosis with a reduced specific composition.
4. Forest vegetation pests and diseases. The total area of defoliation pest
outbreaks is diverse and varies depending on the conditions and factors from 10000
to 100000 ha. In the past 15 years by pests are affected annually between 15 and
30% of forests (Raport tematic privind ecosistemele forestiere, 2002). There is a
periodic change in the specifical composition of outbreaks and in dominant species
of defoliation pest.
5. Other sources of impact on forest ecosystems can be mentioned: illegal
grazing, forest pollution with household waste, and tourism irregular. Generally,
we note that the obvious increase in the flora of Moldova of the anthropofil
element caused significant changes in the vegetal cover structure. Synanthropic
species invasion into the degraded natural ecosystems impends the processes to
restore natural biocenoses, especially forest ecosystems, and affect their
functionality.
Conclusions and recommendations
1. All trees populations and forest associations, biocenoses and forest
ecosystems generally have supported radical qualitative and quantitative changes
through: defragmentation and impairment of the ability of natural reproduction,
stimulation of the vegetative shoots development, reducing of diversity of the
forms within dominant tree species, erosion of biodiversity in general within the
invasion of alien species, persistent pests and diseases, anthropogenic pollution and
others. However, in these conditions it makes impossible to connect to the
international requirements for solving a basic task as it is "Protection of 50% of the
most important areas in terms of plant diversity".
2. For to establish a true system of the forest patrimony preservation are need
the cardinal efforts to expand local forest area at about 25% of the territory with the
radical changes of the principles in environmental education, public participation in
decision making and management in the relevant field.
3. Restoring the balance in forest ecosystems requires an urgent introduction
of the priority principles to support the development of native species and their
conservation at the biocenoses and ecosystems levels, the creation of a green carpet
of native forests without fragmentation, and the promotion "de facto" of the
sustainable development strategy in forest field of the Republic of Moldova.
Bibliography: Bîndiu C. (1992), Argument pentru mai multe păduri. În: Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului.
Editura Uniunii Scriitorilor, Chişinău, pp.188-194.
Cocîrtă P., Clipa Carolina. (2008), Legislaţia ecologică a Republicii Moldova: Catalogul
Petru Cocîrţă
72
documentelor. Ştiinţa, Chişinău.
Galupa D. (2008), Remodelarea managementului forestier – obiectiv strategic al
dezvoltării durabile a economiei naţionale. Teză de doctor în economie. Chişinău.
Web: http://www.cnaa.md/thesis/8064/. Accesed: 09/03/2010.
Galupa D. (2009), Climate change and the national forest fund. Institute for Forestry
Research and Arrangements. ChangeAndNationalForestFund_EN Galupa.pdf. Web:
www.worldbank.md. Accesed: 10/03/2010.
Tarhon P. (2008), Din istoria pădurilor pe teritoriul Basarabiei. Buletinul Științific a
Muzeului Național de Etnografie și Istorie Naturală a Moldovei. Vol. 8 (21), Serie
nouă, Studiile naturii, Chișinău, pp.35-39.
Тышкевич Г.Л., Бордюга В.Г. (1973) Леса Молдавии. Картеа Молдовенеаскэ,
Кишинев.
*** (2010), Agenția pentru Silvicultură Moldsilva. Web: www.gov.md. Accesed:
05/03/2010.
*** (2002), Anuarul statistic al Republicii Moldova. Editura ”Statistica”, Chișinău.
*** (2011), Bătrânul Carpaților. Web: http://www.facebook.com/Batranul.Carpatilor.
Accesed: 04/10/2011.
*** (2010), Cadastrul funciar al Republicii Moldova. Копия01_fond_func_2002_2008.
Web: www.arfc.gov.md/upfiles/kfm_catalog/Directia...si.../1zem_2008.xls. Accesed:
09/03/2010.
*** (2007), Global Environmental Outlook. GEO4. Environment for Development. United
Nations Environment Programme, Progress Press, ITD, Valetta, Malta.
*** (2010), ICAS. Fondul Forestier
Web:http://www.icas.com.md/index.files/fond_forest.htm.
Accesed: 10/03/2010.
*** (2010), Legea Republicii Moldova Nr. 1538-XIII din 24.02.1998 (cu modificările
ulterioare) privind Fondul Ariilor Protejate de Stat. Web: http://lex.justice.md. Accesed:
09/03/2010.
*** (2007), Lumea animală a Moldovei. Vol.1, Nevertebrate. Î.E.P. „Ştiinţa”, Chișinău.
*** (2007), Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova. Nr. 198-202, art Nr: 1439.
*** (2003), Obiectivele dezvoltării ale mileniului. Studiu preliminar: „Asigurarea
Durabilităţii Mediului”, Chişinău.
*** (1992), Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului. Editura Uniunii Scriitorilor, Chişinău.
*** (1987), Programul complex pe termen lung de protecţie a mediului înconjurător şi de
folosire a resurselor naturale din RSS Moldovenească pe perioada de până în anul 2005
(”Ecologia – 2005”. Cartea Moldovenească, Chişinău.
*** (1995), Republic of Moldova. The National Strategic Action Plan for Environmental
Protection. Publising House of Writer’s Union of Moldova. Chisinau.
*** (2000), Republic of Moldova. First National Report on Biological Diversity. Ştiinţa,
Chişinău.
*** (2001), Republic of Moldova. Biological Diversity Conservation National Strategy and
Action Plan. Știința, Chişinău.
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions
73
*** (2009), Republica Moldova. Al Patrulea Raport Naţional cu privire la Diversitatea
Biologică. Chişinău.
*** (2002), Republica Moldova. Raport tematic privind ecosistemele forestiere. Web:
http://bsapm.moldnet.md/Romana/c_h.html. Accesed: 05/03/2010.
*** (2010), Starea mediului în Republica Moldova în anul 2006. (2007),
Chişinău.Statistica Moldovei. Mediul Înconjurător. Web:
http://www.statistica.md/pageview.php?l=ro&idc=324&id=2302. Accesed: 05/03/2010.
*** (2001), Strategia dezvoltării durabile a sectorului forestier din Republica Moldova.
Hotărârea Parlamentului Republicii Moldova nr.350 din 12.07.2001. Monitorul
Oficial al Republicii Moldova din 8 noiembrie 2001, nr.133-135.
*** (2010), Wikipedia, Quercus. Web: http://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus_robur.
Accesed: 09/03/2010.
*** (2010), Wikipedia, Salcie. Web: http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salcie. Accesed:
09/03/2010.
.
Petru Cocîrţă
74
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
LEARNING GEOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM OR TO
DISTASTANCE?
Helena Maria Sabo1, Ivana Jinjig
2
Key words: school, distance education, capacities, school curricula, plan.
Abstract: This article present the results from classroom learning and distance
learning between the Romanian students , UBB Cluj and the students of Serbia,
University of Novi-Sad.Teaching and learning strategies are central components in
teaching technology. The design and organisation of the lesson is done according
to the strategic of the teacher. Consequently, this approach will follow a
predetermined plan and puts the student in learning in the most favourable situation
in a context of application, conditions and resources enabling skills foreshadowed
by objectives. We will define distance education and we will illustrate the stages of
that form of organization.
Introduction
As E. Planchard shows, the principle of instruction through action asserted
in the practice of modern didactics because' to know means to do and not to recite
". Student's personality is built through action, cooperation, confrontation and
communication. The student must become an active constructor of his intellectual
structures.
One of the main requirements of modern education is a self-study training to
students, which highlight the ability to think, to be creative, to operate freely.
Without underestimate the value of teacher involvement, its stimulatory
interventions, school performance depends directly on the participation of students
both to the absorption and the transmission of knowledge and skills training.
Material and method
The traditional school meant mainly explanatory teaching, reproductive or
responsive genre. Traditional school was and is present both in the teaching system
1 Lecturer, Ph.D., Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, ”Babeş-Bolyai”
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, [email protected]. 2 Lecturer Ph.D., Faculty of Philosophy, Novisad University, Serbia.
Helena Maria Sabo, Ivana Jinjig
76
in Romania and Serbia as well. The main activity was the lesson type, department-
desk, based upon the idea that science is a final result, an amount of knowledge
developed, that education must submit as it builds. Training is limited to the
transmission of ready-made knowledge, exposure of ready-made conclusions.
Learning students to think and act freely was not a concern to the foreground.
Expository forms were predominant and students were thinking exactly like the
teacher . They also weren't encouraged to undertake their own investigations.
Teacher transmits knowledge as an absolute authority and the student receives and
assimilates regardless of creativity and cooperation.
Concluding that inducing students to learn by heart was easier than driving
them to a range of judgment. The teacher has the dominant role and the student
has the role of a spectator and of a reproductive listener. Binomial type education
teacher-student dialogue is done very rarely. Criticism and personal searches are
almost nonexistent, they finally bring tiredness and they have a low formative
efficiency.
According to Piaget, thinking appears as a game not a simple operation and
assimilation of images and concepts. Teaching and learning are based on training
students on independent actions, on their assertion as the subjects of education that
cease to be only receivers of knowledge.
In modern school, the quality of teaching is given by the ability to avoid those
situations learning and memory exercises type. The teacher should not "tame" the
student after his own willing but to determine him to be a part of his own training.
As Berger says (1973, p 32) "the best disciples of a teacher is not the one who
repeats the lessons after him, but those whom he awakened their enthusiasm,
whom he cultivated their lack of quietness , whom he developed their forces to go
alone on their way. "
As a matter of education, the student develops actions by personal activity,
which means familiarizing students with the logic of scientific investigation,
development of cognitive strategies without removing the correct course of
scientific knowledge acquisition. So to take part in a good geography lesson, but
not only, means to cause to be active. The teacher should ask and make the best, to
combine the knowledge, the action and the senses of students.
Teaching is a didactic approach for the establishment and education of
students.
It is not about a simple data mediation it but must be driven to discovery,
demonstration, application, simultaneously with the formation of skills and
abilities, and attitudes.
Through direct teaching a teacher tries to form students a behavior such as
preparing for learning. Teaching involves direct interaction so organized and
Learning geography in the classroom or to distance?
77
regulated that objectives are achieved, there is a cooperation and control of student
efforts.
Teaching and learning. These two components are related to the educational
process. Teaching is defined as the teacher' behavior during the lessons and
learning within the desired response: acquisition, knowledge, skills, abilities,
attitudes and skills.
The professor causes a change in the students behavior.
For the common approach of the teacher and students to be successful it is
necessary to finding a strategy for action. Thus each teacher should put their
questions: How have they worked for the student to learn better? What methods are
the most appropriate?
Due to the new objectives of education is necessary to reconsider teaching
methodology with clear guidance for active-participative strategies.
Acquiring knowledge is better accomplished by personal action directed by
the teacher than by repetition of simple procedures which were received and heard.
Thus we can say that the lesson is the place where you can exploit one or
more teaching strategies, depending on its objectives. The teacher should always be
prepared to be faced with more choices of action, having to choose as: objectives,
content, resources available, .... etc.. most favorable.
Practice shows, both in Romania and Serbia as well, that a large number of
students on courses such as Day-attend courses less, for various reasons (work, not
motivated, they have the course support etc. ..).
Especially for teaching geography students must possess psychological,
pedagogical, logical and geography skills, if they partially lack them, they manifest
difficulties in learning geography as well as in learning and teaching geography in
practice later.
So I conducted an experiment through which we want to check if the form of
day students, through self-study and face to face meetings with the teacher has
better results than those who have ongoing support and attend less courses. Thus
support for distance education course should be noted that it is organized on
several units.
The main elements are: title, content unit, unit objectives, content, test
statements, work verification, synthesis, bibliography.
After Petrescu Iordan, the support for distance education course is divided into
several units. Each learning unit has the following features:
-integrates some specific components,
-the formation of a specific behavior at students
-includes objectives specifying expected learning outcomes,
- In terms of a theme it is unified,
- Is carried out systematically
Helena Maria Sabo, Ivana Jinjig
78
- Ends with the assessment ( Petrescu, Jordan, 2011).
Content is the most important for the process of learning . Content
recommended part for reading and part for memorizing has different texts (ex.
informative, narrative, explanatory, descriptive, which must be written in an
accessible language and structured in small paragraphs.
To facilitate understanding of learning in the text it is recommended to be
included the so-called "learning tasks" related to learning skills of the unit.
Such tasks must be structured as: logical content, the progression from simple
-complex word , teaching methods and used means.
An example is: self- assessment tests.
Quite different is the case of exercises or solving problems. In this case the
student is asked to perform a task more complex than for the tests. This is where
paragraphs with personal views, develop a chart, watching a video, etc. Web
search.
Self-assessment tests and their introduction in the distance course is important
because it helps the student to memorize, while solving exercises is designed to
develop practical skills by application of knowledge covered by the unit.
Check paper found at the end evaluate the level of the skills training the unit is
concerned by.
Finally we find the summary or synthesis of ideas presented in the unit and
bibliography which contains a minimal list that the student should explore in
studying the unit.
For example: Self-assessment Test
Answer the following questions:
1.What is to analyze a map?
2.What is to interpret a map?
3.Specify the differences between the analysis and interpreting a map?
Self-assessment quiz
1.To analyze a map is to study it item by item. Map analysis means to notice
its visible elements on the map and their visible features.
2.To interpret a map means deciphering, understanding and explaining the
reality of a territory or a process with the help of graphics used on the map.
Interpretation of the map is a mental process which is usually visible after analysis
of elements and their identification on the map. It often involves making judgments
based on prior knowledge from various sources (textbook, teacher, colleagues ...
etc) and information extracted from the map.
3.The differences between analysis of the map and interpreting one are:
-to properly interpret a map we need other knowledge obtained and extracted
outside the map.
Learning geography in the classroom or to distance?
79
- map analysis can be achieved without interpretation, but interpretation of the
papers cannot be achieved without an analysis.
Conclusions
In both countries, Romania and Serbia, the research results are almost
identical. Distance education includes all forms of education: both teacher and
students as well are situated at a distance, between teacher and student there is a
bidirectional system of communication. Communication can be done either by
telephone, electronic platform, postal mail or through face to face meetings.
In both countries it is noticed that better results are obtained from those
students who attend classes and adopt a modern teaching strategy that allows the
student to develop himself and get involved in the study and does not focus only on
memorizing.
By analyzing the students support material, argued through a small example,
our research confirms.
Students from the day- courses through self-study and regular face to face
meetings, through a course of Teaching Geography (and others) designed
according to the requirements of distance education will get very good or good
results compared to studying a regular university course.
If the support course is being organized from the powers envisaged to be
formed, they can achieve skills at a medium level.
However, it is recommended restructuring of all education courses for students
from the day- courses in the specific format of distance education.
Bibliography: A. Berger, G. (1970), Modern man and his education, Didactic and PedagogicPublishing
House, Bucharest Piaget, J., (1982), Psychology and Pedagogy, Didactics and
Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest
Petrescu, Iordan (2001) Distance education course instruction, project " The training
of teachers in university education for career development opportunities", Bucharest
Petrescu, Iordan (2001), Guidelines for developing learning resources in distance
education technology, project " The training of teachers
in university education for career development opportunities", Bucharest
Sabo, H. (2010), Elements of Teaching Geography (Elemente de Didactica Geografiei ),
Casa Cărţii Publishing, Cluj-Napoca
www.edu.ro-school programs for classes IX-XII, accesat in data de 10.07.2009.
Helena Maria Sabo, Ivana Jinjig
80
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
AMBIENT WELL-BEING PARAMETERS IN THE INDOOR
SPACES OF OFFICE BUILDINGS. CASE STUDY
Nicoleta Ionac
1, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
2, Paula Tăbleţ
3
Keywords: indoor office space, ambient well-being parameters, hourly and daily
measurements..
Abstract. This study highlights the variation values of several important microclimatic
parameters inside an office building. This way, during one year time period, from
February 2010 to February 2011,, we have recorded the natural wet temperature, the
predicted mean vote – PMV, the predicted percent of dissatisfied people– PPD, WBGT
indoor, WBGT outdoor, the draught risk, the luminous intensity and the sound level.
Then, we could calculate the monthly, daily and hourly variation of these microclimatic
and ambient comfort parameters. The recordings of the data were made by means of a
microclimatic indoor station, a sound level meter and a light meter. The results helped us
understand better how the values of these microclimatic parameters may influence the
working conditions inside an office building, if the microclimate is one of thermal
comfort or discomfort, or if it is beneficial or harmful to the development in good
conditions of working activities within collective environments.
Introduction
The present study aims at assessing the state of well-being as reflected by different
ambient parameters in the indoor space of an office building. This study originates from
the idea of observing the effect of these parameters on work efficiency especially that
there were obvious differences between the data that were recorded inside the office
building and those recorded outside the building in the neighboring surroundings.
Therefore, we wanted to analyze the extent to which the indoor air-parameters were
influenced by the outer climatic factors and also to show the contribution (as reflected by
its positive or negative effects on human body and well-being) of the industrial air-
conditioning facilities existing in the building, to creating an artificial climate which may
be beneficial or, on the contrary, harmful to its inhabitants’ health [2].
Data were recorded for approximately 1 year-long period (from February
2010 to February 2011). Due to unforeseen conditions (such as electric blackouts,
holidays, building closures and impossibility of physical presence in certain
1Prof. PhD., University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
2 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
3 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
82
moments to make analysis) the data of certain parameters could not have been
collected throughout the entire period. However, we have filled the gaps with data
that were calculated on mathematical methods of homogeneity.
1.Location and period of instrumental observations All instrumental records were made in 5, Fabrica de Glucoza Street, Bucharest
sector 2. Here lies an office building (NOVO F) with two underground and 13 ground
floors (Figure 1). Located in the northern part of the capital-city, it makes part of a
modern technology park, in which numerous multi-national companies from various
domains, like IT or banking, are carrying out their activities [4]
. Fig. 1 - NOVO F Office building
Fig. 2 - Office cubicles (11th
floor, NOVO F)
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings
83
The actual measurements were made on the 11th floor of this building and, more
precisely, the measurements with the indoor weather station, were performed in cubicle
no. 18 on this floor (Figure 2), which contains a total of approximately 270 cubicles
(this number increased throughout the period of measurements by adding new cubicles
to the old ones and, thus, by reducing the indoor space of one individual cubicle).
7. Instruments and methods used
Instrumental measurements were made by means of three scientific
equipments of high accuracy: an indoor air weather station, a sound level meter and
a light meter.
The most important equipment we used was the Casella Microtherm
microclimatic indoor weather station which allows the automatic monitoring of
microclimatic parameters (radiant temperature, dew point temperature, vapor
pressure, speed air currents) as well as of ambient comfort parameters (PPD, PMV,
intensity of turbulent exchange) [1]. Thus, we could calculate various other ambient
parameters of distress (human body heat exchange, heat stress index, allowed
exposure time, effective heat load, sweat rate, pulse and blood pressure etc).
The MICROTHERM - INDOOR CLIMATE SYSTEM (Figure 3) is made of a
central unit at which we can connect, through a serial port, a hub with 6 specific
locations for different micro-environmental sensors. This can be installed directly
on the upper surface of the central unit or on a tripod. Each sensor is mounted on a
sustaining arm of the hub, being connected to the corresponding port. The system
also has a power cord and a serial port which can be connected to a PC or laptop. It
also contains an incorporated battery which allows a functioning autonomy of
approximately 2 months.
The main unit allows the monitoring and continuous recording of data, as well
as their calculation by means of an integrated software in its internal memory. This
has a limited capacity so that once the internal memory is completed, the new data
overwrites the old data. The data-logger allows the interruption of records not only
directly through the front panel and the incorporated LCD display, but also with the
assistance of the PC WinIAQ software [3].
We preferred the continuous recording of data for a period of approximately
30 days (the period in which the memory reached almost 100% of its capacity), of
course mentioning that they have been gathered every 30 minutes.
The base sensors of the MICROTHERM – INDOOR CLIMATE SYSTEM
allow the continuous monitoring of some important microclimatic parameters like
radiant temperature, air temperature (both dry and wet), air humidity, speed air
currents, intensity of turbulent exchange, etc., and they consisted of a black globe
thermometer, a probe for measuring the unidirectional air-flows and a sensor of
measuring air temperature and humidity of solid bodies.
Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
84
The measurement programming was possible with the aid of WinIAQ
software installed on Windows Vista operating system (32-bits). The
measurements profiles are pre-established, but the communication parameters
between the central unit and laptop must be defined first for a correct functioning.
After making the connection, the sensors and measurement times are selected and
the command is sent to the main unit. The data are manually downloaded with the
same software.
Fig. 3 - Casella MicroTherm – Indoor Climate System
The parameters recorded and automatically calculated by the indoor weather
station, which are of interest for this study, were the following:
NW Natural wet (0C) – the actual temperature of the surrounding air,
depending on the dry air temperature, effective air speed of the air currents
surrounding the operator, air humidity and medium radiant temperature.
PMV Predicted mean vote (units) – the index which expresses the
medium sensation of thermal comfort/ discomfort of a larger group exposed to
the same type of environment.
PPD Predicted percent dissatisfied (units) – the quantifying index of
the satisfaction/ dissatisfaction state of a certain number of people towards the
thermal comfort of the environment they are located in.
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings
85
WBGT in WBGT indoor (0C) – the effective temperature which a subject
perceives during the period of time in which he undertakes an activity inside a
building which is not directly exposed to solar radiation.
WBGT out WBGT outdoor (0C) – the effective temperature which a subject
perceives during the period of time in which he undertakes an activity inside a
building which is directly exposed to solar radiation.
DR Draught risk (%) – the percent of potentially affected people by the
draught sensation.
The TESTO 545 LUX METER (luminous intensity measuring instrument -
Figure 4) has a silicon photodiode sensor and a resolution from 0 to 100,000 lux
(10 lux) (Fig. 6). The measuring times were daily, at 10, 14, 18 hours, Monday to
Friday. Two measuring locations were chosen, one in the middle of the floor (to
capture the values of artificial light intensity), the other one near the window (to
evaluate the difference from the natural light).
Fig. 4. Testo 545 Lux Meter
Fig. 5 - Testo 816 Sound Meter
Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
86
3.Results and discussions
Variation of monthly means. Significant fluctuations have been recorded for
all observed parameters. However, we can distinguish a pattern of variation for
each one of these, even if the external meteorological and climatic influence is,
nevertheless, obvious.
Natural wet, WBGT indoor and WBGT outdoor indices have a similar trend,
with a maximum in August, of over 26 °C, and a minimum in October, of only 23
°C. October and December 2010 have shown to be the coldest months, due to the
external factors which determined low exterior temperatures all that period. A
progressive increase is observed starting with December, until August, and then a
sharp decrease (Figure 6).
Fig. 6 - Variation of NW (°C) monthly means
Fig. 7 - Variation of PMV (units) monthly means
The same pattern is detected for PMV too. However, values indicate a
neutral to optimum environment (Figure 7), with significant differences between
spring-summer and autumn-winter. Among the external influences, we can also
add the technical ones: intervention of air-conditioning installations which were set
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings
87
to start functioning at a temperature of 22 °C during summer and at 23 °C in winter
(of course these values oscillated depending on daily outdoor air-temperatures).
The predicted percent of thermally satisfied / dissatisfied people (PPD) (units)
measured similar values. A sudden decrease can be seen in September, in contrast
with the gradual increase from March-August, as well as major differences also
appear between the summer months and the autumn and winter ones (Figure 8).
The draught risk has an irregular pattern of evolution throughout the period of
instrumental observations. In this respect, the higher values from September 2010
and lower values of February and December 2010 are relevant (Figure 9).
Fig. 8 - Variation of PPD (% - units) monthly means
Fig. 9 - Variation of DR (%) monthly means
The luminous intensity has values which differ from spring (when values of 200-
250 lux have been measured) to autumn and winter (when the corresponding values
decrease to 100-150 lux), as it is shown in Figure 10. These pretty high differences are
given not only by the atmospheric conditions from the autumn and winter months, but
also by the technical ones, and here we refer especially to the shielding of the windows
Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
88
with vertical blinds which absorb most of the sun-rays, depending on exposure, and the
neon light devices which are most intensely used in winter.
Fig. 10 - Variation of luminous intensity (lux) monthly means
Fig. 11 - Variation of noise intensity (dB) monthly means
Noise is the only parameter with a relatively constant variation throughout the
analyzed period, with values between 52 to 54 decibels (Figure 11). Of course, we
have one exception, August 2010 with a monthly average of little over 50 decibels.
This low value can be explained by the absence of the employees from work, due
to their time off for holidays; from the daily notes we took, we could clearly see
that most of the employees preferred taking their vacation in August.
Variation of daily means. To clearly point out the difference of variation
between the parameters taken into consideration, we have chosen two characteristic
months with continuous data series, February 2011 and July 2010. The
measurements were ended on February 25, 2011; hence the graphical
representation is missing for the last 3 days. However, the evolution trend of each
parameter is clear enough so that the automatic calculation of the missing data was
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings
89
neither necessary nor wanted (this way we wanted to establish a concrete data
series, without any change).
The effective indoor (WBGT in) and outdoor (WBGT out) temperature has a
similar trend for both considered months, with a progressive growth from the
beginning to the end of the interval, for July 2010 (with a slight decrease after the
25th, then a new increase). The automatic station has recorded almost 25 °C in the
first days of the month (5 and 8), then 27 °C (18 and 24) (Figures 12 and 13).
February 2011 has a more irregular evolution with lows below 24 °C (5 and 19),
but for a singular high value which reaches 26 °C (9). Although the values keep
around 25 °C, in three occasions these increased over the values from July, in 8, 9
and 10 (with the maximum in the 9th).
Natural wet shows similar values to those shown above.
Fig. 12 - Variation of WBGT out (°C) daily means
Fig. 13 - Variation of WBGT in (°C) daily means
The predicted mean vote, as well as the predictable degree of thermal
satisfaction or dissatisfaction had a similar trend, with higher values throughout the
interval, especially during the summer months rather than the winter ones.
February had a relatively linear evolution (between 0.3 and 0.5 for PMV, and
Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
90
Fig. 14 - Variation of PMV (units) daily means
Fig. 15 - Variation of PPD (% - units) daily means
Fig. 16 - Variation of DR (%) daily means
around 10 for PPD); the only upward trend has been recorded between days 6 and
9 (when it almost reached the July values), followed by a descending line until the
12th day, after which the same linear path is back again. July has a more
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings
91
pronounced evolution especially for PPD (with values between 20% and 35 %),
while PPD values keep around 1 (with repeated ups and downs), as can be seen in
Figures 14 and 15.
The luminous intensity shows much lower values for February (under 125 lux)
than for July (with values between 175 and 275 lux). Noise intensity has a similar
trend for both months, with values between 50 and 52 dB, the maximum reaching
58 dB.
The draught risk (Figure 16) has the most irregular pattern especially for July,
with sudden increases and decreases from one day to another (usually between 0 to
2%), and in two occasions (days 5 and 9) they even exceeded the 3 % threshold.
February varies a little less, with values between 0 and 1.5%.
Variation of hourly means. Natural wet varied between 25°C and 26.5 °C for
July. We can see a pattern with a temperature decrease from 26°C to 25°C from
midnight to 9 in the morning, then an increase to 26.5 °C until two at midday,
where it keeps constant until 11 late at night, when it starts decreasing again.
Fig. 17 - Variation of NW (°C) hourly means
February has a similar pattern, but for the fact that values decrease from 24°C
to 23.5 °C until 6 in the morning, then again increase over 26°C until 12 at noon,
when the values remain constant until almost 6 in the evening, when they
progressively start decreasing to almost 24°C at 11 pm (Figure 17).
Effective indoor and outdoor temperatures had a similar pattern of evolution for both months.
The predicted mean vote (PMV) had values between 0.9 and 1.1 for July, and from
0.3 to 0.7 for February, much like the predicted mean vote of thermal satisfaction or
dissatisfaction (between 20 to 30% in July, and between 5 to 15% in February).
The draught risk has shown an interesting pattern of evolution especially for the
hours 6-10 in the mornings of July, with a sudden increase from 0 to 5%, then a sudden
decrease until 12 at noon to 2%, when it continued to drop after 5 pm, reaching 0 at 11
pm. February had a similar evolution with a constant growth from 6 in the morning (0%)
Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
92
until 2 in the afternoon when it reached the maximum of 3%, when it began to decrease
from 6 until 8 in the evening when it reached 0% (Figure 18).
Fig. 18 - Variation of DR (%) hourly means
Fig. 19 - Variation of luminous intensity (lux) hourly means
Fig. 20 - Variation of noise intensity (dB) hourly means
However the noise intensity had much higher values for all the three intervals
in February, when we have recorded approximately 54 dB in the 10th day, 52 dB in
day 14, and 52 dB in day 18. It’s interesting to notice the high difference between
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings
93
the two months for this last interval, when we recorded an average value below 47
dB, mainly because most employees were off for their holidays and few still
remained at work (Figure 20).
The luminous intensity had higher values in July for all the three measurement
intervals. So, for July, the values kept constant around 200 lux, while for February,
around 150 in days 10 and 14, and below 120 in the 18th day (Figure 19).
Conclusions
Following the preliminary data gathered in this study, we have noticed similarities
for certain periods of the study for 8 measured parameters. If analyzing the monthly
variation, we may notice high differences of values between October and September,
but especially in August (for air-temperature parameters, these differences were higher
than 3 degrees). The daily and hourly variations have similar patterns which overlap at
the hours when employees come to and leave the location, but with a general trend of
increase in the morning, stagnation at midday, and decrease in the evening. This is
highly visible especially in summer, for the draught risk in particular.
Bibliography: Ciulache S. (2005), Măsurarea parametrilor microclimatici şi fiziologici cu ajutorul
echipamentului Casella Indoor Climate, „Comunicări de Geografie”, vol. VIII,
Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucureşti, p. , ISSN 1453-5483
Ionac N., Ciulache S. (2003), Influenţa microclimatului spaţiilor închise asupra
confortului şi sănătăţii umane, “Comunicări de Geografie” vol. VII, Editura
Universităţii din Bucureşti, p.129-134; ISSN 1453-5483.
*** (2002), Microtherm Indoor Climate System & WinIaq Application Software – User
Manual, Casella Cel Limited, Bedford, UK.
*** (2011), Wikimapia.
Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
94
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND THE PROTECTION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS – FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES
OF THE MARRAKECH AGREEMENT CONCERNING THE
CREATION OF THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION
Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ
2
Key-words: sustainable development, international relations, environmental
protection, natural resources.
- Abstract. One of the objectives of the multilateral international trade system
created within the World Trade Organization is the sustainable economic
development, taking into account the need to protect the environment. For this
purpose, the lawful rules created through the Marrakech Agreement and its annex
agreements allow WTO member states, in certain situations, to derogate from the
general obligations referring to trade, to which they have to adhere, by adopting
measures meant to protect the exhaustible natural resources. This article analyzes
the conditions in which such measures can be adopted, through derogation from
the general obligations concerning international trade.
1. Creation and Objectives of the World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization was created by the Marrakech Agreement,
which came into effect on January 1, 1995 (Macovei, 2010; Sută, 2002). Romania
is an original member of the World Trade Organization, and the agreement was
confirmed by Law no. 133/1994, for the ratification of the Marrakech Agreement
concerning the creation of the World Trade Organization, of the international
Agreement concerning beef, and of the international Agreement concerning dairy,
all signed in Marrakech, on April 15, 1994. WTO is a relatively young
international organization, but it has a considerable influence in the sphere of
international relations (Carreau and Juillard, 2005).
WTO is practically the continuator of the institutional structure created in
order to apply the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade – GATT 1947. WTO
insures the institutional frame for the application of the main multilateral
agreements that govern international goods trade, international services trade, and
Ph.D. Professor, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iasi, [email protected]
2 Teaching Assistant, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iasi, [email protected]
Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ
96
commercial aspects concerning intellectual property rights, the system for solving
international trade disputes, and the evaluation system for commercial policies. All
these agreements and procedures are annexes to the Marrakech Agreement
regarding the creation of the WTO (Narlikar, 2005).
The reason for creating the World Trade Organization and the policy of
this organization are established through the Preamble to the Marrakech
Agreement, according to which the parties agree on its provisions and decide to
create the WTO, aiming at the following main objectives:
- raising standards of living;
- ensuring full employment;
- increasing real income and demand;
- expanding the production of and trade in goods and services.
Therefore, the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement states: “Recognizing
that their relations in the field of trade and economic endeavor should be conducted
with a view to raising standards of living, ensuring full employment and a large
and steadily growing volume of real income and effective demand, and expanding
the production of and trade in goods and services, while allowing for the optimal
use of the world’s resources in accordance with the objective of sustainable
development, seeking both to protect and preserve the environment and to enhance
the means for doing so in a manner consistent with their respective needs and
concerns at different levels of economic development.
Recognizing further that there is a need for positive efforts designed to ensure
that developing countries, and especially the least developed among them, secure a
share in the growth of international trade commensurate with the needs of their
economic development”.
However, meeting these objectives must take into account the need to protect
the environment as well as the special needs of the developing countries. The
Preamble also stresses the importance of a sustainable economic development,
respectively of a development that takes into account the natural and social
environment (Charnovitz, 2007) and the integration of the developing countries,
especially those that are less advanced in the world economic system (P. Sampson,
2005). The values promoted through the preamble to the WTO Agreement come
therefore to contradict a series of critical opinions concerning the fact that the
WTO exclusively promotes the liberalization of trade, without taking into account
the dangers on the environment or the poverty level existing in certain parts of the
world (Jones, 2004).
The Preamble also establishes the manner in which the objectives presented
above can be reached. For this, The Preamble to the WTO Agreement states:
“Being desirous of contributing to these objectives by entering into reciprocal and
mutually advantageous arrangements directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs
Sustainable development and the protection of environmental factors
97
and other barriers to trade and to the eliminations of discriminatory treatment in
international trade relations,
Resolved, therefore, to develop an integrated, more viable and durable
multilateral trading system encompassing the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade, the results of past liberalization efforts, and all of the results of the Uruguay
Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations,
Determined to preserve the basic principles and to further the objectives
underlying this multilateral trading system”.
The main two instruments for reaching the objectives stated in the preamble
are the reduction of the tariff and non-tariff barriers in trade and the elimination of
the discriminatory treatment from international commercial relations. At the same
time, these were two of the main instruments provisioned by GATT 1947, but,
unlike them, the WTO aims to set the bases of an integrated system of international
trade, more viable and sustainable.
In the Ministerial Declaration of Doha, of November 14, 2001, the WTO
member states established, in relation to the objectives of the Organization and to
the instruments for attaining these objectives: “We therefore strongly reaffirm the
principles and objectives set out in the Marrakech Agreement Establishing the
World Trade Organization, and pledge to reject the use of protectionism.
International trade can play a major role in the promotion of economic
development and the alleviation of poverty. We recognize the need for all our
peoples to benefit from the increased opportunities and welfare gains that the
multilateral trading system generates. The majority of WTO members are
developing countries. We seek to place their needs and interests at the heart of the
Work Programme adopted in this Declaration. Recalling the Preamble to the
Marrakech Agreement, we shall continue to make positive efforts designed to
ensure that developing countries, and especially the least-developed among them,
secure a share in the growth of world trade commensurate with the needs of their
economic development. (...) We strongly reaffirm our commitment to the objective
of sustainable development, as stated in the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement.
We are convinced that the aims of upholding and safeguarding an open and non-
discriminatory multilateral trading system, and acting for the protection of the
environment and the promotion of sustainable development can and must be
mutually supportive.”
2. Legal Measures Concerning the Preservation of Exhaustible Natural
Resources
Concretely, the general objectives referring to protecting the environmental
factors and sustainable duration are met through a series of measures that, although
Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ
98
infringing other general obligations that result from the status of WTO member, are
justified by the need to protect values or interests considered primary.
Therefore, Art. XX of GATT 1994 regulates the general exceptions from the
principles applicable to international trade in goods. They refer, among others, to
protecting important non-economic values, such as public health or the
environment.
Generally, Art. XX is relevant and can be invoked by a WTO member only if
it is considered that a measure adopted by the respective member infringes an
obligation regulated by GATT 1994, in order to justify that measure (the GATT
panel in the lawsuit US – Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930). However, the
general exceptions to the rules applied to international trade are, on the one hand,
limited, their listing in Art. XX of GATT 1994 being exhaustive, and on the other
hand, they are conditioned, being able to operate only to the extent in which the
situations and circumstances to which the text of the agreement refers can be found
in reality. Giving member states the possibility to adopt measures that promote or
protect other important values or social interests, Art. XX practically allows states
to derogate from the engagements they had taken as WTO members, which has
lead to numerous disputes concerning the interpretation and application of this
article, both under the auspices of GATT 1947 and after the adoption and
application of the Marrakech Agreement (Petros C. Mavroidis, 2007).
Although the general exceptions provisioned in Art. XX of GATT 1994 are
limitative and conditioned, and according to the general interpretation regulations,
exceptions are strictly related to interpretation, in practice it was considered that
such an interpretation would still be inappropriate in what concerns the exceptions
referring to the application of restrictive measures to protect public health and the
environment, and that an interpretation that considers a balance between the
liberalization of trade and other social values is more appropriate (The Report of
the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Gasoline).
Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994 regulates the measures referring to the
preservation of exhaustible natural resources. This exception allows the WTO
member states to adopt measures that contravene to the general rules concerning
trade in goods and that aim to protect the environment (C. Mavroidis, 2007).
In order to be under the incidence of this exception, a measure adopted by
a member state must fulfill two conditions: refer to the preservation of exhaustible
natural resources and be applied with restrictions on internal production or
consumption.
In what concerns the former condition, in order to determine if a measure is
under the incidence of the exception stated in Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994, it is
necessary to establish the meaning of the term “preservation of exhaustible natural
Sustainable development and the protection of environmental factors
99
resources”, and then to establish whether the respective measure refers, reports, or
is related to this purpose.
Exhaustible natural resources are not necessarily non-regenerative, so that this
phrase should be interpreted in a broad sense, as including not only mineral natural
resources, but also living resources. While most natural resources are non-
regenerative, although plants or animals are able to reproduce, this does not
necessarily mean that the measures mentioned in Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994
cannot be taken into account, especially in the case of endangered species. This
interpretation is all the more grounded that, as mentioned above, one of the
objectives stated in the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement concerning the
creation of the World Trade Organization refers to sustainable development, an
objective that necessarily includes environmental protection. As a result, for a
correct interpretation, which would be close to the current needs and expectations
of the international community, we must take into account the dynamics of the
international regulations, both in what concerns trade and in what concerns
environmental protection (Constantin, 2010). Although Art. XX has not been
modified in the Uruguay Round, the preamble to the WTO Agreement proves that
the signing parties of these agreement were, in 1994, perfectly aware of the
consequences and legitimacy of environmental protection as an objective of their
national and international policy. The preamble to the WTO Agreement – which
applies not only to GATT 1994, but also to the other multilateral agreements –
explicitly mentions the objective of sustainable development (...). From the
perspective included in the preamble to the WTO Agreement, we consider that the
general term of “natural resources” mentioned in Art. XX let. g) is not static, but
rather evolutional by definition. It is therefore pertinent to acknowledge that the
modern international agreements and declarations frequently refer to natural
resources as including both living and mineral resources (The Report of the
Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Shrimp).
In what concerns the condition for the measure to “refer to” the preservation
of exhaustible natural resources, Art. XX let. g) does not mention the extent to
which the measure must be relative to the purpose aimed. In comparison to the
dispositions comprised in the other paragraphs of Art. XX, which refer to the need
or essential nature of the measure, there results that in the case mentioned in let. g),
the relation between the adopted measure and the purpose aimed can be less tight
than in other cases. However, a too broad interpretation may contravene to the
purpose to which the general exceptions from the rules concerning the international
trade in goods have been expressly regulated, respectively that to establish limits
within which the member states may derogate from the obligations they must
comply with, as WTO members, in order to defend important social values.
Considering these aspects, although, in order to be under the incidence of Art. XX
Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ
100
let. g), a measure must not be necessary or essential for the preservation of
exhaustible natural resources, it must be however directed, first of all, to meeting
this objective (The Report of the GATT Panel in the lawsuit Canada – Herring and
Salmon). In other words, there must be a tight and real relation between the
measure and the objective, that is, the measure should be reasonably connected to
the objective (The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Shrimp).
The second condition that a measure must fulfill in order to be under the
incidence of Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994 refers to its being adopted together with
restrictions concerning internal production or consumption (Van Den Bossche,
2008). This condition states that the measures adopted on imported products to the
purpose of protecting exhaustible natural resources must be appropriately imposed
on domestic products or production as well. This does not mean, however, that
imported and national products must necessarily benefit from equal treatment, but
an equitable way of applying these measures, both on imported and on internal
products, should be taken into account, and which would serve the same common
purpose. In case that the treatment applicable to imported products is actually equal
to that applied to national products, then the problem of applying a general
exception would no longer be posed, as the rules concerning the application of the
national treatment according to art. III par. 4 of GATT 1994 are met (The Report of
the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Gasoline). Nevertheless, in case no
restriction applies on national products, either, not only would the second
requirement of Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994 not be complied with, but it would
also be impossible to state that the measure is mainly directed towards protecting
the exhaustible natural resources, and it would be nothing more than a case of
discrimination of the imported products, to the purpose of protecting the national
industry (Luff, 2004).
Conclusions
In the end, we consider that there must be an equitable relation between the
restrictive measures imposed on imported products and those imposed on domestic
products, so that both sets of rules mainly lead to achieving the purpose of the
environmental protection policy, and especially of exhaustible resources. An equal
treatment would make the need to invoke an exception become useless, while the
lack of a measure applied to national products, although less restrictive, but mainly
imposed in order to meet the same objective, would lead to the inapplicability of
this exception.
Sustainable development and the protection of environmental factors
101
List of cases:
The Report of the GATT Panel in the lawsuit US – Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930,
par. 5.9., available on the site
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/87tar337.pdf.
The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Gasoline (Appellate Body - United
States - Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline), p. 16 – 17,
available on the site
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds4_e.htm.
The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Shrimp (United States - Import
Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products), par. 121, available on the site
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds58_e.htm.
The Report of the GATT Panel in the lawsuit Canada – Herring and Salmon (Canada –
Measures Affecting Exports of Unprocessed Herring and Salmon), par. 4.5 – 4.6,
available on the site http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/87hersal.pdf.
References: Carreau, Dominique and Juillard, Patrick (2005), Droit International Économique, 2
e
Edition, Dalloz, Paris, p. 54.
Charnovitz, Steve (2007), The WTO’s Environmental Progress, in “Journal of
International Economic Law”, Vol. 10, Nr. 3/2007, p. 685.
Constantin, Valentin (2010), Drept internaţional, Universul Juridic, Bucharest, pp. 492
and next.
Jones, Kent (2004), Who’s Afraid of the WTO, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 15.
Macovei, Ioan (2010), Tratat de drept al proprietăţii intelectuale, C.H. Beck, Bucharest, p.
21.
Mavroidis, Petros C (2007), Trade in goods, Oxford University Press, p. 254.
Narlikar, Amrita (2005), The World Trade Organization, A Very Short Introduction,
Oxford University Press, pp. 22 and next.
Sampson, Gary P (2005), The WTO and Sustainable Development, United Nations
University Press, Tokyo, pp. 54 and next.
Sută, Nicolae –coord- (2002), Comerţul exterior şi politica comercială a României în
perioada de tranziţie la economia de piaţă, Strategii de dezvoltare, Editura
Economică, Bucharest, p. 202.
Van Den Bossche, Peter (2008), The Law and Policy of World Trade Organization, Text,
Cases and Materials, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 637.
Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ
102
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
THE BIOCLIMATIC STRESS DUE TO OVERHEATING
IN THE SOUTHERN DOBRUDJAN TABLELAND AREA
Nicoleta Ionac1, Elena Grigore
2
Key words: bioclimatic indices; space and time variation; bioclimatic stress due to
overheating; Southerrn Dobrudjan Tableland area.
Abstract. The present study, regarding the extent and intensity of bioclimatic stress
due to overheating in Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, is based on the analysis of
the geographical distribution and of time variation of some relevant bioclimatic
indices for the summer period: The Summer Scharlau Index (ISE), The Relative
Strain Index (RSI) and the Summer Simmer Index (SSI). In order to highlighten the
areas of bioclimatic discomfort, we have processed the air-temperature and humidity
data from six weather stations in the area of reference, for 30 years (1971-2000).
The results we have obtained, fully concordant with world-wide approaches,
emphasize that the bioclimatic stress due to overheating gets more intense in the
central-continental and eastern sea-side parts of the territory under study, in July and
August.
Introduction
The development of more detailed researches based on the analysis of
bioclimatic indices proved quite necessary to modern society, in our modern times,
especially because no matter how complex the studies on the influence of the
climatic factors on physiological, psychological or behavioral reactions of humans
might be, they don’t fully reveal its state of comfort or dicomfort, but their
continuous action and permanent change really make human body do great efforts
to adapt to ever-changing weather and climatic parameters.
The analysis of spatial and temporal actions and variations of bioclimatic factors
is generally approached from a wholistic perspective, referring to all environmental
factors that might differently influence human health and well-being. And this present
type of analysis, dealing with the bioclimatic stress due to overheating, offers credible
information about the intensity of physiological comfort or, on the contrary, of
discomfort, that people living in a specific geographical area actually feel day by day,
during the warm season, in the long run of their lives.
1 Prof. PhD., University of Bucharest, [email protected]
2 Assistant Ph.D., University of Bucharest, [email protected]
Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
104
The subjective perception of the bioclimatic comfort that human body really
feels under certain environmental conditions may quantitatively be expressed by
some biometeorological and/or bioclimatic indices, which can reflect the weather’s
or climate’s effect on human health either from the point of view of each individual
factor’s specific way of action on human body (such as air-temperature, humidity,
air pressure, solar radiation , wind etc.) or from the perspective of a combined
action between two, three or more such factors of influence.
The detailed analysis of the space and time variation of such bioclimatic
indices on a unitary scale of reference is extremely useful to identify the main areas
and periods of bioclimatic stress or risks which the people in the region of study
are exposed to. In this respect, we must also add that we have specifically chosen
the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area mostly because of its greatest thermal and
wind potential in Romania [2] and consequently, because of its risk potential to
human health and well-being.
Therefore, we have analyzed the space and time distribution of some relevant
bioclimatic indices specific of the warm season: the Summer Scharlau Index (ISE),
the Relative Strain Index (RSI) and the Summer Simmer Index (SSI) and we have
accordingly identified the areas of bioclimatic risk due to overheating in the
Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, showing that the dynamics of the bioclimatic
factors depend both on the periodical (namely annual climatic changes) and on the
unperiodical (depending on weather contexts) variations of climate’s
characteristics.
To be more convincing, our analysis visually renders information, in the form
of accompanying tables and maps, not only about the extent of the potential
harmful bioclimatic areas, but also about their intensity, which may represent
useful items of assessment when appreciating the climatic and touristic potential of
the region under study.
1. Input data and methods
The present study was basically developed by computing the air-temperature
and humidity monthly means for a 30 years’ period (1971-2000). These weather
data were collected from all the six weather stations functioning in the region of
reference (Cernavodă, Medgidia, Adamclisi, Constanţa, Mangalia and Hârşova).
Then we have calculated the corresponding values of three relevant
bioclimatic indices specific of the warm season (ISE, RSI and SSI) and, by taking
into account their characteristic limits of appliability, we could ultimately contour
the bioclimatic areas of risk due to overheating in the region of study. However,
according to their specific ranges of application, we could validate as correct only
the values falling within the June-August interval for the RSI and SSI indices and
June-September for the ISE index [6].
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area
105
2. Results and discussions
The Summer Scharlau Index (ISE), experimentally derived by K. Scharlau
[11] in order to calculate the critical temperatures, which represent the
corresponding air-temperature values above which, according to the actual values
of air-humidity, the human body feels physiologically uncomfortable because of
the heating processes, clearly reflects that the hot-humid climatic conditions may
be harmful, by greatly increasing the radiation and evaporation exchange rates of
the human body. Therefore, this index may be calculated only for air-temperature
values ranging from + 170C to +39
0C and for air-humidity values higher than 30%.
By strictly observing these limits, the corresponding values of the ISE index on
the Southern Dobrudjan territory could be relevantly validated only from June to
September and their spatial distribution during these four summer months, visualised in
a coloured scale of grades [7] clearly shows the prevalence of the comfort area all over
the region of study (Fig 1).
Fig. 1 – Spatial distribution of the ISE index (units)
in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland Area (1971 – 2000)
Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
106
However, one may notice that both June and September are wholly
characterized by comfortable bioclimatic conditions, allthough these are weaker to
the eastern seaside areas and stronger to the western Danubean and inner-
continental areas. The corresponding values of the ISE index accordingly range
from a maximum of 3,76 units in September, to a minimum of 0,37 units in June
[3]. In June, the lowest ISE value reached 0,37 units at Mangalia and its highest value
exceeded 1,87 units at Adamclisi, while in September, the lowest ISE value maintained
around 2,18 units at Constanţa, and its highest value reached 3,95 units at Adamclisi.
In July, the area of bioclimatic discomfort due to overheating extends well
from the eastern seaside areas to the central-continental areas of the region under
study, mostly due to the increase of the evaporation rates over the Black Sea, while
the western areas, bordering the right banks of the Danube River, still maintain
under comfortable bioclimatic conditions from Adamclisi to Cernavodă.
The area of bioclimatic heat stress extends widely to the central, southern and
northern rims of the region under study and gets more intense to the sea-shore
areas, where the ISE values go as low as – 1,18 units at Mangalia.
In August, the area of bioclimatic comfort, characteristic of the south-western
and central tableland areas, extends gradually to E, becoming dominant all over the
western (Adamclisi, Cernavodă, Hârşova) and central areas (Medgidia). In the
same month (August), the ISE values range from -1,23 units at Mangalia and 0,83
units at Adamclisi. We must also notice that, both in July and August, the heat-
stress area is milder in the central parts of the Dobrudjan territory and more intense
on the seaside strip along the Black Sea [4].
In September, the whole Dobrudjan territory is under the influence of
comfortable bioclimatic conditions again, mainly due to the general yearly trend of
air-temperature decrease towards fall.
By analyzing the ISE values from June to September for the whole period of
reference (1971-2000), one may easily notice that they range from -1,23 units at
Constanţa and Mangalia (on the Black Sea shore) in August, to +3,95 units at
Adamclisi, in September. For reference, the actual values of the ISE index are
shown in Table 1, for each weather station and summer month.
The mean multiannual value of the ISE index for the whole period of reference
(1971-2000) roughly range from +0,005 units at Mangalia to +1,73 units at Adamclisi.
The yearly variation of the ISE values reveal: neutral bioclimatic conditions
(comfort) in June and highly different conditions from July to September, as
follows: bioclimatic comfort in 61,1% cases (for all the three summer months at
Adamclisi; in August and September at Hârşova, Cernavodă and Medgidia; in
September only at Constanţa and Mangalia), overheating conditions of bioclimatic
stress in 38,9% cases (starting with warm sensations at Hârşova, Cernavodă and
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area
107
Medgidia in July, leading to overheating risks at Constanţa and Mangalia, in July
and August).
Tab. 1 – The annual variation of the ISE index (units)
on the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, 1971 – 2000
Period /
month
WESTERN DANUBEAN
AREA
CENTRAL CONTINENTAL
AREA
EASTERN SEASIDE
AREA
HARŞOVA CERNAVODĂ ADAMCLISI MEDGIDIA CONSTANŢA MANGALIA
1971
-
2000
VI 1,21 1,42 1,87 1,03 0,88 0,37
VII -0,23 -0,08 0,27 -0,13 -1,07 -1,18
VIII 0,15 0,44 0,83 0,34 -1,23 -1,23
IX 3,76 3,73 3,95 3,51 2,18 2,26
1. Mean 1,22 1,37 1,73 1,18 0,19 0,05
The periods and areas of bioclimatic overheating stress, characteristic of the
warm season (June-August), could also be highlighted by means of the Relative
Strain Index (RSI), whose values may quantitatively be derived from air-
temperature (0C) and vapour pressure (hPa) according to Kyle’s formula [8]. As the
RSI could only be applied for air-temperatures values higher than +260C, even if
relative humidity values were highly variable, we could compute its corresponding
values solely for the three specific summer monts: June, July and August. If air-
temperatures maintain below +26,0°C, then the RSI values automatically indicate
only comfortable bioclimatic conditions and, as far as the Southern Dobrudjan
Tableland Area is concerned, we could see that air-temperatures kept below
+23,0°C all over the summer months, meaning that the corresponding values of the
RSI index point to generalised conditions of bioclimatic comfort all summertime.
However, by taking a closer look at the spatial distribution of the RSI values on the
Dobrudjan territory, we can notice a slight increase of values from its south-
western to its north-eastern areas.
The precise values of the RSI index actually range from -0,002 units to +0,005
units. In June, the RSI values are negative and the value difference between
weather stations hardly reaches 0,02 units, with a slight increase northward. In July
and August, the RSI values become positive, being higher in July (when they reach
almost 0,05 units at Cernavodă) and lower in August (when they get as high as
0,03 units at Cernavodă too).
The maps presented in Fig. 2 confirm the spatial direction of increase of the
RSI values during both summer months (July and August), from SW to NE. The
analysis of the monthly values also confirms this tendency of warm sensations
Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
108
increase from June to July, shortly followed by a corresponding gradual decrease
from July to August.
Fig. 2 - Spatial distribution of the RSI index (units)
in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland Area (1971 – 2000)
By analyzing the RSI values from June to August for the whole period of
reference (1971-2000), we can notice variations from -0,02 units at Adamclisi and
Mangalia, in June, to +0,05 units at Cernavodă, in July; the actual values computed
for each weather station and month being given in Table 2.
The mean multiannual (1971-2000) values of the RSI index, which could be
computed on condition that air-temperature values exceeded +26,0O C, range from
+0,00 units at Adamclisi, Medgidia and Mangalia, to +0,02 units at Cernavodă.
The annual variation reveals that all summer months are characterized by
comfortable bioclimatic conditions, with positive values of the RSI index in July
and August, and negative values in June. The maximum values were recorded in
July all over the Southern Dobrudjan territory.
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area
109
Tab. 2 - The annual variation of the RSI index (units)
on the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, 1971 – 2000
Period /
month
WESTERN DANUBEAN
AREA
CENTRAL
CONTINENTAL AREA
EASTERN SEASIDE
AREA
HARŞOVA CERNAVODĂ ADAMCLISI MEDGIDIA CONSTANŢA MANGALIA
1971
–
2000
VI -0,00 -0,00 -0,02 -0,01 -0,01 -0,02
VII 0,03 0,05 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,02
VIII 0,01 0,03 0,00 0,00 0,02 0,02
Mean 0,01 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,01 0,00
The Summer Simmer Index (SSI), presented by W.J. Pepi [9, 10] at the 80th
AMS Conference, which took place in 2000, best describes the bioclimatic stress
due to overheating, especially on condition that air-temperature values range from
+220C to +53
0C and, since the analysis of this bioclimatic index shows little
variation in the area of reference in June, we could therefore compute its values
only for some of the weather stations taken into consideration (namely: Hârşova,
Cernavodă, Medgidia şi Constanţa) in July and August, when air-temperatures
maintained higher than the threshold required (+ 22,0°C).
The spatial distribution of the SSI values shows that in June, unlike the
previously-mentioned bioclimatic indices, the bioclimatic stress due to overcooling
becomes dominant over most of the Dobrudjan territory, but for an island-area of
comfort around Cernavodă city (Fig. 3). However, the cooling bioclimatic
conditions are quite intense in the south-western parts of the tableland area, where
the SSI index reaches its lowest value (23,69°C at Adamclisi) and get milder to the
north-eastern parts, where the SSI index reaches its highest value (25,01°C at
Cernavodă).
In July, the SSI values are more differently distributed in space, approximately
75% of the tableland area of study being characterised by comfortable bioclimatic
conditions (especially the central-continental, south-western and north-eastern
parts), while the remaining 25% of the territory (namely a rather narrow strip
stretching from Cernavodă in the NW to Constanţa in the SE), keeps under the
influence of bioclimatic stress due to overheating, responsible for warm
physiological perceptions all day long.
In August, due to the general cooling trend of air-temperatures, all the
Dobrudjan territory falls back under the influence of comfortable bioclimatic
conditions, with the SSI values ranging from 25,64°C at Adamclisi to 27,60°C at
Constanţa. Nevertheless, the corresponding physiological sensations are closer to
comfort in the south-western parts, and get weaker and weaker, that is comfort
turns into a rather temporary state, to the north-eastern parts, mainly because the
Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
110
climatic continentalism gets more intense to the drier central parts of the Dobrudjan
territory [5].
Fig. 3 - Spatial distribution of the SSI index (0C)
in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland Area (1971 – 2000)
Tab. 2 - The annual variation of the SSI index (0C)
on the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, 1971 – 2000
Period /
month
WESTERN
DANUBEAN AREA
CENTRAL
CONTINENTAL AREA EASTERN SEASIDE AREA
HARŞOVA CERNAVODĂ ADAMCLISI MEDGIDIA CONSTANŢA MANGALIA
1971
–
2000
VI 24,86 25,01 23,69 24,35 24,40 23,88
VII 27,61 28,47 26,71 27,16 28,04 27,25
VIII 26,42 27,38 25,64 25,82 27,60 27,29
Mean 26,29 26,95 25,34 25,77 26,68 26,14
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area
111
If analyzing the results obtained by computing the corresponding values of the
SSI index during summer months (June-August), for the whole period taken into
consideration (1971-2000), we may notice that it ranges between +23,69˚C at
Adamclisi (in June) and +28,47˚C at Cernavodă (in July). The actual values of the
above-mentioned bioclimatic index, as they have been calculated for each weather
station and summer month, are given in Table 3.
The mean annual value of the SSI index for the same period of reference
ranges from +25,34˚C at Adamclisi to +26,95˚C at Cernavodă. The annual
variation proves that the comfortable bioclimate dominates over almost all of the
Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, but for some small island-areas of bioclimatic
discomfort due to overheating which become evident during midsummer (July),
around the Constanţa and Cernavodă towns. However, we must also notice that this
warming trend is very slow, since, at the beginning of summer (June) the central
and eastern parts of the territory under study are characterised by a discomfortable
bioclimate due to overcooling.
Conclusions
The main conclusion of this study is that the bioclimatic risk due to
overheating generally depends not only on the variation of radiative and dynamic
climate-inducing factors, but also on the local physical, geographical factors which
play an important role in diversifying the climatic and, consequently bioclimatic,
conditions of the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area. Human comfort directly
depends on weather and climate as long as their ever-changing spatial and time
changes require a permanent effort of adaptation from all physiological systems of
integration and control.
Therefore, during summer, that is more precisely between June and July,
when the advections of hot, dry tropical air from the southern and south-western
parts of Europe get more intense [1], a general state of bioclimatic strain due to
overheating becomes dominant in the south-eastern parts of the country, unlike the
rest of the territory, thus generating stressful reactions of response. The state of
well-being that human body actually perceives in certain conditions of air-
temperature and humidity greatly depends on the heat exchange processes between
the human body and the surrounding environment, especially on hot and humid
days , when the heat loss of the human body is increased by the intense evaporation
of sweat at skin surface.
Bibliography: Ciulache S., Ionac Nicoleta (2004), Main Types of Climate in Romania, Analele
Universităţii din Bucureşti, seria Geografie, LIII, pp. 15-23.
Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
112
Ciulache S., Torică V. (2007) Clima Dobrogei, Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti, seria
Geografie, Anul LII/2003, p. 81-103, Bucureşti.
Grigore Elena (2011) Potenţialul bioclimatic al Podişlui Dobrogei de Sud -Teză de
doctorat susţinută public, Bucureşti.
Ionac Nicoleta (2007) Main Bioclimatic Characteristics of the Romanian Shore on the
Black Sea, Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti, seria Geografie, Anul LII/2003,
Bucureşti, p. 119-130.
Ionac Nicoleta (2007) Stressul bioclimatic în Dobrogea, vol. Lucrările Seminarului
Geografic “Dimitrie Cantemir”, nr. 27/2007, Editura Universităţii “Al.I. Cuza” din Iaşi,
pag. 128-134, Iaşi.
Ionac Nicoleta, Ciulache S. (2008) Atlasul bioclimatic al României, Editura Ars Docendi a
Universităţii din Bucureşti.
Kyle W.J. (1992) Summer and winter patterns of human thermal stress in Hong Kong in:
Kyle W.J. and Chang C.P. (eds.). Proc. of the 2nd Int. Conference on East Asia and
Western Pacific Meteorology and Climate, Hong Kong. World Scientific, Hong Kong,
557-583.
Pepi W.J. (1987) The Summer Simmer Index, Weatherwise, Vol 40, No. 3, June.
Pepi W.J. (2000) The New Summer Simmer Index. International audience at the 80th
annual meeting of the AMS at Long Beach, California, on January 11.
Scharlau K. (1950) Einführung eines Schwülemasstabes und Abgrenzung von
Schwülezonen durch Isohygrothermen, Erdkunde, v.4, p.188-201.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
PRESENT PROBLEMS REGARDING URBAN ROAD TRAFFIC
NOISE AND MITIGATION POSSIBILITIES
Theodora Ardeleanu1, Theodor Ghindă
2
Key words: noise, road traffic, urban, protection.
Abstract: Noise level measurements performed in several locations in Bucharest for
high road traffic conditions are presented with relevant details. Calculation methods
give comparable data sets for the different studied locations. Some applicable
measures for noise mitigation are analysed, comparing estimated results and looking
for significant effects.
Introduction
Studies for inhabited areas protection against road traffic noise became
important because of the continuous increase of the number of road vehicles.
Road traffic noise comes from a permanently variable combination of
different sources: cars, buses, trucks, trolleybuses, trams, motorcycles. Noise is
generated by motion over the pavement, by engines and exhaust pipes. Noise level
depends on speed, specific features of the vehicles, their technical condition, local
characteristics of the traffic flow.
Noise attenuation depends on distance from the source, but it is also
influenced by roadway, buildings and obstacles (including the neighbor cars).
Structures reduce or block noise propagation behind them, and increase noise
level in front of them due to reflection phenomena, depending on geometrical
features and surface characteristics. There are many factors that influence noise
level on streets and permanent changes, so that field studies are absolutely
necessary in order to get noise data for real traffic and urban road conditions.
1. Present noise levels measured on main streets
Noise level was studied in several locations in Bucharest, looking for high
traffic conditions.
1 Sen. Res. Ph.D., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection,
Bucureşti, Romania [email protected] 2 Sen. Res. PhD., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection
Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
114
Location 1 is in the area where Şoseaua Virtuţii crosses Calea Apeductului.
These streets have vehicle traffic in both directions, as usual for most streets.
Şoseaua Virtuţii can be considered a U-shaped street, having P+8 high buildings on
each side. There are tramways along Şoseaua Virtuţii, with concrete plate support,
in the middle of the street, and vehicles pass along side ways.
The buildings have complex front shapes as can be seen in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 - Morning traffic near the area where Şoseaua Virtuţii crosses Calea Apeductului
Lujerului
Passage Tram 41
9m
3m
7m
6m
7m
3m
55m
5m3m
Calea
Apeductului
Calea
Apeductului
Soseaua Virtutii
green area
green area
P+8
building
P+8
building
green area
P+8
building
P+8
building
green area
Crangasi
1
3
2
4
5
76sidewalk
sidewalk
sidewalk
sidewalk
Fig. 2 - Location 1: Cross area of the streets Şoseaua Virtuţii and Calea Apeductului, and
measurement points
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities
115
Road traffic in one direction on Calea Apeductului in the morning was
congested, with slow velocity; stop at the cross area and intermittent flow at about
30 seconds intervals. 87 vehicles passed in 10 minutes, including 3 minibuses.
On the other direction, 10 vehicles were observed, including 1 bus, 1 minibus
and 3 trucks. Vehicles stop before the cross area.
Şoseaua Virtuţii is considered street of 1st technical category, main street,
according to STAS 10009-88 regarding Urban Acoustics. Therefore, allowed limits
for equivalent noise level Leq are 75…85 db(A).
For Calea Apeductului, considered street of 3rd technical category, collecting
street, according to STAS 10009-88, allowed limit for equivalent noise level is 65
db(A).
Tab.1 - Measured noise levels in points of location 1 in the morning
Crt.
No.
Noise
measurement
points
Measured
noise levels
[dB]
Equivalent
noise level
(Leq)
[dB(A)]
Allowed limit for Leq
[dB(A)]
1 Point 1
hour 740
64.4 – 83.5
71.0
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
2 Point 2
hour 750
62.3 – 77.5
69.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
3 Point 3
hour 800
65.7 – 73.4
70.3
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
4 Point 4
hour 815
60.6 – 73.2
68.0
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
5 Point 5
hour 820
65.3 – 83.9
76.3
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
6 Point 6
hour 825
66.3 – 95.4
83.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
7 Point 7
hour 830
61.3 – 81.6
71.2
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
Noise level was measured in 4 points in the evening (Tab. 2) between hours
2015
-2035
, counting also the number of passing road vehicles. Along one direction
on Şoseaua Virtuţii, road traffic was fluent and comprised 218 vehicles in 10
minutes, including 4 trams, 2 trucks, 10 minibuses.
In the opposite direction, road traffic on Şoseaua Virtuţii was fluent, 287
vehicles passing in 10 minutes, including 4 trams, 2 buses, 4 trucks, 12 minibuses
and 3 motorcycles.
Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
116
Road traffic on Calea Apeductului in the evening was reduced. 10 vehicles
(including 2 minibuses) passed in one direction in 5 minutes, and 6 vehicles
(including 1 minibus) passed in the other direction in 10 minutes.
Tab. 2 - Measured noise levels in points of location 1 in the evening
Crt.
No.
Noise
measurement
points
Measured
noise levels
[dB]
Equivalent
noise level
(Leq)
[dB(A)]
Allowed limit for Leq
[dB(A)]
1 Point 1
hour 2015
63.1 – 72.4
67.3
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
2 Point 3
hour 2020
66.3 – 83.6
77.9
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
3 Point 4
hour 2025
58.6 – 74.2
68.5
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
4 Point 5
hour 2030
65.0 – 78.2
73.6
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
Fig. 3 - Location 2: Cross area of the streets Turda, Ion Mihalache Avenue and Alexandru
Averescu avenue, and measurement points
Grant
BridgeTram 41
3m
3m
7m
6m
7m
3m
5
3m3mDomenii Market
Victoriei Square
Turda Street
green area
P+7 building
P+10 building
BCR; Sensiblu
P+10
building
Galla shop
P+10
building,
Ana Gabriela
shop
Triumphal
Arch
12
sidewalk
sidewalk
sidewalk
sidewalk
Tram 20,24,
42,45
Avenue
Ion Mihalache
Avenue
Alexandru
Averescu
50 m
8m
8m
10
011
13
14
0
15
0
9
8
17
16
0
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities
117
Noise levels were measured in 10 points numbered from Point 8 to Point 17,
in the morning, at noon and in the evening (Fig. 4, Tab. 3). The number of vehicles
was also observed.
Fig. 4 - Cross area of Turda Street, Ion Mihalache Avenue and Alexandru Averescu
Avenue
The measured values are generally within the allowed limits for the streets.
The highest noise values were observed in the morning, when road traffic is most
congested.
Similar noise measurements were carried out in many other locations on
streets with high road traffic.
Location 2 is in the area where Turda Street crosses Ion Mihalache Avenue
and Alexandru Averescu Avenue (Fig. 3). These are U-shaped streets, having P+10
or P+7 buildings on their sides.
Noise level was measured in 7 points shown in Figure 2, in May between the
hours 740
-835
in the morning and between the hours 2015
-2035
in the evening
(Tab.1). Traffic flow rate was also counted during the measurements on Şoseaua
Virtuţii and Calea Apeductului.
Road traffic in the morning was congested. 290 vehicles were counted passing
with slow velocity along one direction on Şoseaua Virtuţii in 10 minutes, including
3 trams, 4 buses, 5 trucks, 7 minibuses, 5 motorcycles and 1 ambulance. Traffic in
the opposite direction was normal, with average velocity. 250 vehicles were
observed in 10 minutes, including 4 trams, 3 buses, 5 tractors with trailer and a
loader of Fadroma type, 6 trucks, 10 minibuses and 6 motorcycles.
Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
118
Tab. 3 - Measured noise levels
Crt.
No.
Noise
measuremen
t points
Measured
noise levels
[dB]
Equivalent
noise level
LQE
[dB(A)]
Allowed limit for Leq
[dB(A)]
1 Point 8
hour 900
hour 1230
hour 1900
63.0 – 77.2
62.6 – 74.2
62.6 – 74.4
69.7
68.9
69.4
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
2 Point 9
hour 905
hour 1235
hour 1905
64.3 – 78.8
62.7 – 73.6
65.7 – 82.3
70.8
66.9
73.7
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
3 Point 10
hour 910
hour 1240
hour 1910
62.8 – 73.0
65.8 – 75.5
61.5 – 71.3
67.7
70.6
65.9
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
4 Point 11
hour 915
hour 1245
hour 1915
66.6 – 83.1
62.6 – 73.6
64.0 – 79.7
74.1
67.9
71.2
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
5 Point 12
hour 920
hour 1250
hour 1920
63.9 – 78.3
65.9 – 78.7
59.7 – 78.7
70.3
70.5
69.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
6 Point 13
hour 925
hour 1255
hour 1925
66.5 – 87.4
66.5 – 81.0
67.5 – 78.9
73.5
74.5
73.0
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
7 Point 14
hour 930
hour 1300
hour 1930
64.0 – 79.3
63.5 – 78.5
62.1 – 76.5
72.7
71.0
67.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
8 Point 15
hour 935
hour 1305
hour 1935
64.5 – 83.7
65.3 – 85.9
65.6 – 74.9
74.2
73.5
70.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
9 Point 16
hour 940
hour 1310
hour 1940
65.5 – 74.6
61.6 – 72.3
61.0 – 70.4
69.5
67.8
65.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
10 Point 17
hour 945
hour 1315
hour 1945
63.1 – 81.6
64.7 – 74.7
61.5 – 77.6
71.1
71.9
70.7
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
75…85
75…85
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities
119
Location 3 is in the cross area of Ion Mihalache Avenue and P. I. Pavlov
Street, where there are also other streets. There are green areas with trees and
shrubs in front of the buildings on one side. Ion Mihalache Avenue can be
considered L-shaped street in this area (Fig. 5). Buses and trams pass along Ion
Mihalache Avenue, together with other vehicles.
Clabucet
Street Tram 20,24,42,45
30m
3m
7m
6m
7m
5
5mP.I. Pavlov
Street
Avenue Ion Mihalache
green area
P+7
building
P+1
building
green area
P+1
building
P+7
building
green area
Piata
Domenii
30
sidewalk
sidewalksidewalk
sidewal
k
sidewal
k2m
31
37
36
33
32
Bus stop
Aviator
Popisteanu
Calea Grivitei
I. Emanoil
Street
34
35
P building
Av. Vasile
Fuica StreetBus stop
C.S. Aldea
Tram stop
Aviator Popisteanu
sidewalk
P
building
A. Pappia
Street
green area green area
Fig. 5 - Location 3: Cross area of Ion Mihalache Avenue and P. I. Pavlov Street
Noise levels were measured in 8 points, numbered from 30 to 37, on Ion
Mihalache Avenue, and in 2 points (numbered 38 and 39) on P. I. Pavlov Street
(Tab. 4), and also the number of road vehicles was observed, in the afternoon.
Noise levels on Ion Mihalache Avenue are generally within allowed limits and
are higher than on P. I. Pavlov street.
The noise levels measured in the different locations, even if within the
allowed limits for roads, are in some points 20-30 dB higher then the limits
allowed in the standard for the inhabited building faҫade. This fact also resulted
from the monitoring of exterior noise in Bucharest [1].
Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
120
Tab. 4 - Measured noise levels
Crt.
No.
Noise
measurement
points
Measured
noise levels
[dB]
Equivalent
noise level
(Leq)
[dB(A)]
Allowed limit for Leq
[dB(A)]
1 Point 30
hour 1530
60.8 – 77.8
71.6
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
2 Point 31
hour 1535
64.2 – 76.3
71.2
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
3 Point 32
hour 1540
60.3 – 71.8
67.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
4 Point 33
hour 1545
61.2 – 79.0
71.8
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
5 Point 34
hour 1550
58.8 – 74.3
64.6
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
6 Point 35
hour 1555
58.3 – 78.0
70.7
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
7 Point 36
hour 1605
57.5 – 62.6
60.5
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
8 Point 37
hour 1610
57.1 – 77.2
70.4
according to STAS 10009-88
75…85
9 Point 38
hour 1645
49.1 – 72.0
62.2
according to STAS 10009-88
60
10 Point 39
hour 1655
49.1 – 72.5
61.1
according to STAS 10009-88
60
2.Estimations of noise level on streets with high road traffic
Taking into consideration the presence of buildings on both sides of the streets
where noise was measured, a simple formula was used, having the following
structure [2]:
klBQQAL VGVUech log10log10
where QVU is the representative flow of light vehicles per hour
QVG is the representative flow of heavy vehicles per hour
B is a noise equivalence factor between light vehicles and heavy vehicles
l is the total street width between opposite high buildings
k is a correction term (e.g. for height, velocity, etc.)
A is a calibration parameter.
Noise level estimation using this method for the studied locations gives results
that are generally close to measured values for most of the observed traffic
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities
121
situations. However, the range of measured values is influenced by the
heterogeneity of the light vehicles flow, and also of the heavy vehicles.
Moreover, different results occurring sometimes at comparable traffic flow
values can be explained by differences of other data (especially various velocities
during time intervals when vehicles start or stop), because the method was tested
for conditions that are difficult to be characterized, with traffic pulses, sometimes
far from a fluent traffic situation (Fig. 6, 7, 8).
It is important to remark that traffic velocities in the studied locations are
highly variable.
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
dB
(A)
Leq estimated
Leq measured
Fig. 6 - Measured and estimated noise in points of Location 1 – Şoseaua Virtuţii
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
dB(A
)
Leq estimated
Leq measured
Fig. 7 - Measured and estimated noise in points of Location 2 – Ion Mihalache Avenue at
crossing with Turda Stree
Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
122
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80d
B(A
)
Leq estimated
Leq measured
Fig. 8 - Measured and estimated noise in points of Location 3 – Ion Mihalache Avenue
3. Analysis of some possibilities to reduce noise level from urban road
traffic
Field measurements and observations show that there are some noisier
sources, e.g. some motorcycles, or some trucks. They are important for the noise
level. For example, a source with 10 or 15 dB(A) higher noise level dominates the
traffic noise (Fig. 9).
Maintenance and finally guiding the noisiest vehicles to other streets can
reduce noise level on main streets of inhabited areas.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
No
ise l
evel [d
B(A
)]
Traffic noise
Traffic noise with additionalhigh noise source
Fig. 9 Effect of a high noise source
Noise level depends on the total traffic flow (Fig. 10). There are some possible
measures to reduce the traffic flow: guiding some incoming vehicle flows to other
streets, time schedule of traffic lights so that to avoid simultaneous traffic in both
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities
123
directions, guidance towards the use of vehicles with lower noise, increase of
public transport capacity and coverage.
0 1 2 3 4
Flow of vehicles [fraction]
Noise difference
Flow of vehicles
Noise difference [dB(A)]
Fig. 10 - Differences of noise level for fractions of the total number of vehicles
If vehicles are guided to move along a larger street, noise level is lower at the
buildings because of the distance increase (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11 - Reduced noise levels on wider streets
In some locations with high noise from road traffic, noise barriers can be used.
They can result in significant noise reduction as observed in locations with such
existing protection (Fig. 12).
40 50 60 70 80 90 Noise level [dB(A)]
Noise for a wider street with 100% Noise for a wider street with 50% Noise
Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
124
According to the formula, reducing the total traffic flow on a main street leads
to an estimated noise level decrease of up to 5 dB(A). Guiding road traffic to larger
streets, noise level decreases by 2 – 5 dB(A).
40
50
60
70
80
90
Niv
el d
e zg
om
ot
[dB
(A)]
Road traffic noise
Reduced by noise barriers
Fig. 12 - Effect of noise barriers
Guiding the noisiest vehicles to other streets results in significant decrease of
noise, even with 10 dB(A) or more. Noise barriers are very effective, with
generally more than 10 dB(A) decrease of noise level.
Conclusions
The results of noise level measurements in several locations in Bucharest
show that the highest values are comparable for many main streets.
Noise levels from urban road traffic are high for inhabited areas and for
people walking along the streets, even if noise is within the allowed limits for
streets with high road traffic. Application of calculation methods also results in
comparable data sets for the different studied locations.
Calculation methods can be used for analyzing possibilities of noise level
mitigation at receptors because the calculated results are generally in agreement
with most of the measured data sets of road traffic noise. Among possibly
applicable measures, guiding the noisiest vehicles to other streets and introducing
noise barriers where necessary can result in obvious decrease with 10 dB(A) or
more, significantly lower in comparison to the present noise levels.
Bibliography: Virginia Ciobotaru, Ana Maria Socolescu (2006), Priorităţi ale managementului de
mediu. (Priorities of environmental management). Meteor Press, Bucureşti.
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities
125
J. Quartieri, N. E. Mastorakis, G. Iannone, C. Guarnaccia, S. D’Ambrosio, A. Troisi,
T.L.L. Lenza (2009), A Review of Traffic Noise Predictive Models, Recent
Advances in Applied and Theoretical Mechanics, WSEAS Press.
Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
126
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CURENT TRENDS OF FOREST AREAS DESIGNED TO PROTECT
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL AND REGIONAL
Eugen Rusu1
Key words: forest biodiversity, conservation, protected area.
Abstract. The forest biodiversity provide many ecosystem services, such as
protection of plant, water and soil ressources. Forest biodiversity has also important
to maintenance of natural ecosystems, contribution to climate stability and social
benefits. In forests, biological diversity allows species to adapt to the continuously
evolving dynamic environmental conditions, to maintain and improve breeding
opportunities for species and to promote ecosystem functions. The long evolution of
the primary forest in a relatively stable and undisturbed by human impact
environment, biodiversity has been preserved properly. According to FAO
estimations, forest area for protection and biodiversity conservation in the last
decade has increased by approx. 96 million ha, with an accelerated pace in the last 5
years. These forests represent about 12% of the total area, or 386 million hectares,
and are located mostly within national forest parks and protected areas.
Introduction
Forests are dynamic systems, subject to cyclical changes under the influence
of periodic disturbances, senescence and ecological succession. Their genetic
diversity, particularly in forest formations relatively complex, due not only to the
number of species present in a given area, but also the stages of succession
(Kemp,1997). Forest biodiversity can be considered at different levels including
the regional forest, ecosystem, species and interactions occur within and amongst
levels.
The forest is the most eloquent example of biodiversity, which includes a
variety of existing life forms, their ecological role and their genetic diversity. In
forests, biological diversity allows species to adapt to the continuously evolving
dynamic environmental conditions, to maintain and improve breeding opportunities
for species and to promote ecosystem functions. Forest biological diversity and
complexity is maintained naturally by changing generations of trees and shrubs. In
1 Prof. PhD., University “Al.I.Cuza” of Iasi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, [email protected]
Eugen Rusu
128
a forest, an old tree that collapses makes other trees fall and creates a major
breakthrough. The open space is quickly occupied by pioneer species of all kinds,
taking advantage of new light, growing fast and vigorously.
Biological diversity is illustrated particularly in the equatorial forests, which
hold over 70% of all known plant species in the world (with many endemism) and
their inventory is far from complete.
1. Global review
According to the Convention of biological diversity, “we can no longer see the
continued loss of biodiversity as an issue separate from the core concerns of
society: to tackle poverty, to improve the health, prosperity and security of present
and future generations, and to deal with climate change. Each of those objectives is
undermined by current trends in the state of our ecosystems, and each will be
greatly strengthened if we finally give biodiversity the priority it deserves”.
The mechanisms and the most important factors associated with the decline of
forest biological diversity are of human origin. The forest biodiversity are in
danger by the conversion of forest to agricultural use, unmitigated shifting
cultiuvation, overgrazing, introduction of invasive plant and animal species,
unsustaineble forest management, pollution an climate change, anthropogenic
forest fires, infrastucture development are all negative impacts to the biological
variety. Bidiversity loss and forest degradation its weakening resistance to natural
and human agression.
The rapport of WWF 2010 shows the incredibile an amazing biodiversity in
the Amazon. In the decade 1999 – 2009 more than 1200 new species of plants and
animals were discovered in the Amazon forest biome. The new species include 637
plants, 257 fish, 216 amphibians, 55 reptiles, 39 mammals and 16 birds. The
Amazon is now a vulnerable region because of the progressive disappearance of
large areas of forest and biodiversity loss.
Primary forests, or forests composed of indigenous species, where
anthropogenic interference is not visible and where ecological processes have not
been disturbed sensibly, occupy approx. 36% of the total global forest cover loss.
The long evolution in a relatively stable and undisturbed by human impact
environment, biodiversity has been preserved properly. These forests have lost over
40 million ha in the last decade, mainly by selective cutting trees with high
economic value and forest conversion into agricultural land.
A positive aspect in the evolution of forest area is the increase in the number
of protected areas by creating new national parks and reserves. From 1990 to
present, area parks and forest reserves have increased by over 90 million ha,
representing 13% of the total number of forests in the world. This slight
improvement of the overall situation of forests in the past decade was made
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
129
possible by joint efforts, both locally and regionally and internationally or globally.
For the first time in modern society, the pace of deforestation has decreased
considerably. All states have contributed to this success by improving forest
policies and by giving forest management to local communities or local
populations.
Fig.1 - Evolution of primary forest surface at regional and global level (mil.ha, data source
FAO)
Fig. 2 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation at regional and global
(thousand ha, data source FAO)
Eugen Rusu
130
Forest area for protection and biodiversity conservation in the last decade has
increased by approx. 96 million ha, with an accelerated pace in the last 5 years.
These forests represent about 12% of the total area, or 386 million hectares, and are
located mostly within national forest parks and protected areas. National parks,
wildlife reserves, natural areas and other protected areas currently occupy over
13% of total forest area. Besides having the main function for biodiversity
conservation, they also fulfill the role of protection for the soil, water and cultural
heritage (Forest of Fontainebleau).
2. Regional review
Between 1990 and 2010, according to the FAO, forest area of Europe region
increased continuously, with rates varying from 989.5 million to 1005 million ha
ha, with an average annual addition of approx. 800 000 ha. Expanding forest areas
is primarily the result of new plantations, and natural expansion of forests into
agricultural areas abandoned. This increase is due almost exclusively to the
contribution of the old continent, with a net total of 15 million ha in the range
mentioned. In the Russian Federation, the increase was not significant (1 million
ha) in relation to the total forested area and it was made in the decade from 1990 to
2000. Among the countries that recorded important additions to their national
forests in the decade 2000 – 2010, we include Spain (118 000 ha / year), Sweden
(81 000 ha / year), Italy, France, Norway and Bulgaria. Countries with low forest
blanket, such as Iceland and Moldova have registered the highest rates of addition
relative to the total area. Instead, Estonia, Finland and the Russian Federation
recorded a reduction in forest cover in the last decade.
Tab.1 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Europe (thousand ha, data source FAO)
1990 2000 2010
Russian Federation 808 950 809 269 809 090
Europe without RF 180 521 188 971 195 911
Europe 989 471 998 239 1 005 001
In Europe, the primary forests occupy about. 26% of the total area, being
located mostly in the Russian Federation, due to vast empty spaces or with poor
human presence in Siberia. On the old continent only 3% of the forests are
considered primary, the rest of them being affected by anthropogenic activities to
varying degrees. Forest areas are located in inaccessible areas of the northern
continent and in the mountains with rugged terrain.
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
131
In the developed countries of Europe, primary forests were mostly converted
into or secondary forests. Some fragments of primary forests are also found in
inaccessible mountain areas.
Tab. 2 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Europe (mil.ha, data source FAO)
1990 2000 2010
Russian Federation 235 220 260
Europe without RF 5 6 6
Europe 240 226 266
Global efforts to allocate increased proportions of Forest Biodiversity
Conservation Area, have found a positive echo in the European Region, where,
according to FAO assessments, the area reserved for this purpose increased to over
37 million ha, between 1990 and 2010. This means that the areas affected by this
type of protection increased by 35%. During that period, the old continent, the area
of forest to preserve the biodiversity doubled and now represents 10% of forests. In
the Russian Federation, designated area increased less in the same period, reaching
2.2%, which represents an absolute of 17 million ha.
Tab. 3 - Evolution of forest area for biodiversity conservation in Europe
(thousand ha, data source, FAO)
1990 2000 2010
Russian Federation 11 815 16 190 17 572
Europe without RF 6 840 13 203 19 407
Europe 18 655 29 393 36 979
Forest spaces included in the various types of European protected areas in the
region occupy about 40 million hectares, which means about 4% of the total. The
highest proportion is found still throughout the old continent, which introduced
12% of its forests into protected areas. Forest areas to protect soil and water have
increased in the last two decades, currently reaching 9% of the total forest in this
region, Russian Federation contributed substantially to this share (7%).
In Africa, according to the data provided by FAO, forests and other wooded
areas, occupied in 2010 approx. 675 million ha (23% of the total area of the
continent), which represents 17% of the total global forest area.
At regional level there are differences insofar areas occupied by forests are
concerned, as well as differences in terms of their use and management. Central
African Continental represents 37% of the continental forest, Southern Africa 29%,
Eugen Rusu
132
12% North Africa, East Africa 11% and West Africa 11%. Uneven distribution is
determined, on the one hand, by natural conditions and, on the other hand, by the
human densities and by the type of forest recovery.
African Forest area has decreased continuously in recent decades. FAO
recorded that only between 1990 and 2000 in Africa, there disappeared about. 60
million ha of forest, which means an annual loss of approx. 0.7% of the forest.
Between 2000 and 2010, losses were diminished to approximately 35 mil.ha, which
represents an annual decrease of approx. 0.5%. The reduction rate of disappearance
of forests is more evident in northern Africa, where measures to reduce cutting and
planting annual net loss decreased from 540 000 ha, 41 000 ha. Countries with
large forest areas have had the greatest losses: Cameroon, Nigeria, Tanzania, and
Zimbabwe.
To these states with smaller areas of forest are added, but the massive
disappearance of forest area has been registered in: Togo, Uganda, Mauritania, etc.
At the opposite end, there is a series of states where forest areas have increased
considerably, due to planting and efficient administration of the forest: Ivory Coast,
Tunisia, Morocco, Rwanda, etc.
Fig. 3 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Africa (thousand ha, FAO data source)
Primary forest represents about. 10% of the total forest areas in Africa, a
figure probably underestimated due to the lack of statistics in some countries in the
central continent. The highest percentage, characterized R.D. Congo, Gabon,
Madagascar, Central African Republic, Sudan, etc
Of the total African forests, 14% are for biodiversity conservation and 3% for
soil and water protection. Areas affected by the forest biodiversity protection have
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
133
increased over the past decade in most African states, through the integration of the
growing areas in this category.
Fig. 4 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Africa Region (mil.ha, data source FAO)
However, the same forest areas with multiple functions are sometimes
declared and recorded several times statistically. If these areas have increased by
27 mil.ha, at global level, in Africa there has been a loss of approx. 1 million ha, in
the last decade.
Fig. 5 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation in Africa (thousand ha, FAO
data source)
Eugen Rusu
134
North and Central America is a forest region in which forests occupy 34%
of the territory, representing a share of 17% of the world total. In 2010 the total
forest area was estimated by FAO at 705 million ha. Canada and the U.S. record
sensitive areas equal (310 and 304 respectively mil.ha) and Mexico participate in
the regional total to 65 million ha, followed far away from the rest of Central
America and the Caribbean with 19 million ha with 7 million ha . The evolution of
forest between 1990 - 2010 puts in opposition a substantial increase in forest cover
in the U.S. to the significant decreases in the forests of Mexico and the rest of
Central America, while Canada maintains a balance between exploitation and
plantings. Central America reported the disappearance of 54 000 ha of primary
forest per year in the decade from 1990 to 2000 and 74 000 ha / year in the decade
from 2000 to 2010.
Fig. 6 - Evolution of total areas of forest in North America and Central (thousand ha, FAO
data source)
North American States have large areas of forests located in remote areas of
human habitats, allowing the operation of many forest ecosystems in their natural
state. Forests occupy 41% of the total continental primary forest, which is approx. a
quarter of the world's primary forests. In Canada and Mexico more than half of the
forests are classified in this category, and in the U.S., a quarter of the forests are
considered without visible traces of human activity.
The smaller areas for this purpose in Canada are not to be explained by the
lack of concern, but by the Canadian boreal forest relative monotony and status of
primary forest in the north, which is very sparsely populated, and where protection
is intrinsic.
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
135
Forests designated as biodiversity conservation areas, adding up 15% of the
total, but with major regional differences, are to be found: 25% of U.S. forests,
13% in Mexico and 5% in Canada.
Fig. 7 - Evolution of primary forest areas in North and Central America region (mil.ha,
FAO data source)
Fig. 8 - Surface Evolution for biodiversity conservation in North America and Central
Region (thousand ha, data source FAO)
In Canada and the U.S., the concern for the preservation of natural values of
ecosystems has become a modern generalized one. There are countries with high
Eugen Rusu
136
financial potential that can afford to allocate substantial funds to the designation
and management of large protected areas.
More than 31 million ha (8%) of forest or other wooded land in Canada are
within protected areas, and 30 million ha are considered strictly protected
(industrial activities such as forest harvesting, mining and hydroelectric
development are prohibit).
They have established a functional legal system in this field and provided an
education, mass awareness and effective monitoring of the functioning of forest
parks and nature reserves. Over 8% of Canadian forests, 10% of the U.S. and 13%
of Mexican forests have currently protected forest area status, which is about one
tenth of the continental forest.
South America. Forest resources of this region are richer from a quantitative
point of view, but they stand out especially in terms of biological diversity. From
this perspective, Amazonia is to be mentioned, a region with a remarkable and
relatively compact forest biodiversity.
In 2010, almost half (49%) of South American territory was covered by
forests, in absolute numbers as assessed by FAO, the forest area occupied 864
million hectares, the equivalent of 22% of the world total. This distribution reveals
the dominance of Brazil states, the state which has the largest equatorial and
tropical forests, almost 13% of global forests. Other well-forested countries are
Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia, which together with Brazil have 84% of
forest area.
Tab. 4 - Evolution of total areas of forest in South America Region
(thousand ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010
South America 946 454 904 322 864 351
The forest area of South America continues to decrease. At the regional level,
the forest lost approx. 88 million ha between 1990 - 2010, having an average loss
of 4.2 million ha annually. These reductions represent 64% of the total concern
worldwide and although losses have taken place at a slower pace, they are still at a
high level.
Primary forests of South America are located in difficult-to-reach areas or in
protected areas. They are remarkable due to the Amazon rainforest biodiversity and
to the long evolution in natural regime reaching the stage of biostazie and due to
the enormous area they occupy in the same morphological-pedological-climatical
conditions. According to FAO data, the overall percentage of primary forest region
is very good, representing 75% of the forests of South America and about. 57% of
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
137
the world total. But in recent decades, especially in Amazonia, large areas of
primary forest have been converted to other uses or have been cleared for timber
exploitation. Central America in turn reported the disappearance of 54 000 ha of
primary forest per year in the decade from 1990 to 2000 and 74 000 ha / year in the
decade from 2000 to 2010.
Tab. 5 Evolution of primary forest areas in South America Region
(mil.ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010
South America 690 670 630
Integrating general current understanding of the necessity of preserving the
forest as a guarantee of maintaining the environmental planetary balance South
American states have adopted effective measures to protect forest areas of high
interest in terms of biological diversity and soil and water protection. In this
context, areas totaling approx. 18% of total regional forest were declared protected
areas of different types. Areas of biodiversity conservation occupy about. 14% of
forest area and these areas recorded during 1990 to 2000 an annual increase of
approx. 1 million ha and since 2000 an annual increase of approx. 3 million ha,
according to FAO assessments.
Tab. 6 - Surface Evolution for biodiversity conservation in South America Region
(thousand ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010
South America 40 683 52 548 84 222
Asia is presented at a regional level without Siberia, which is included in FAO
statistics presented in the Russian Federation and Europe region.
Asia is the continent with the largest expansion latitude and longitude,
occupying nearly one hemisphere in both directions. This progress has helped to
install the world in all climates known latitudinal direction (longitudinal and
multilevel nuanced altitude) and accordingly, all forest formations. The forest
diversity depends on the diversity of physical and geographical conditions,
displaying from the equator to the Arctic Circle equatorial forests and mangrove
forests as well as deciduous tropical moist, subtropical forests, temperate forests
and mountain forests, each having different local composition imposed by local
conditions.
According to the data provided by FAO in 1990, the Asian forests occupied
576 million ha, and in 2010 the area increased to approx. 592 million ha.
Eugen Rusu
138
Regionally, the most spectacular growth has been in East Asia, which has added
nearly 50 million ha in the last two decades. By contrast, in Southeast Asia there
were quantitative losses of over 30 million ha. In each country, major discrepancies
are found in the area occupied by forests: China (206 million ha), Indonesia (95
million ha), India (95 million ha) Myanmar (31 million ha) and Japan (24 million
ha) have the largest forest areas. At the opposite pole there lies the states on the
Arabian Peninsula (Quatar, Oman, Bahrain) with minor areas of forest. Highest
proportions of forests in national territory are recorded in some member monsoon,
with a favorable climate for forest ecosystems: Brunei (72%), Bhutan (69%), Japan
(69%), Laos (68%) and Malaysia (62%).
Fig. 9 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Asia (thousand ha, FAO data source)
Primary forest is about 130 million ha, namely a proportion of 22% of the
total forest in the region. The general trend of the last two decades has been to
reduce the area occupied by this type of forest. Significant losses were recorded in
Southeast Asia, amounting to about 8 million ha, followed by East Asia with
approx. 3mil. ha. In other sub-regions there are low variations. At regional level,
protected forest areas occupy large areas, representing about 24% of all forests.
The highest rates are recorded in Southeast Asia, which represents 32% of the total.
Biodiversity protection areas affected have increased from about 60 million ha in
1990 to over 78 million ha in 2010.
According to the data provided by FAO in 1990, the Asian forests occupied
576 million ha, and in 2010 the area increased to approx. 592 million ha.
Regionally, the most spectacular growth has been in East Asia, which has added
nearly 50 million ha in the last two decades. By contrast, in Southeast Asia there
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
139
were quantitative losses of over 30 million ha. In each country, major discrepancies
are found in the area occupied by forests: China (206 million ha), Indonesia (95
million ha), India (95 million ha) Myanmar (31 million ha) and Japan (24 million
ha) have the largest forest areas.
At the opposite pole there lies the states on the Arabian Peninsula (Quatar,
Oman, Bahrain) with minor areas of forest. Highest proportions of forests in
national territory are recorded in some member monsoon, with a favorable climate
for forest ecosystems: Brunei (72%), Bhutan (69%), Japan (69%), Laos (68%) and
Malaysia (62%)
Primary forest is about 130 million ha, namely a proportion of 22% of the
total forest in the region. The general trend of the last two decades has been to
reduce the area occupied by this type of forest. Significant losses were recorded in
Southeast Asia, amounting to about 8 million ha, followed by East Asia with
approx. 3mil. ha. In other sub-regions there are low variations.
Fig. 10 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Asia (mil.ha, FAO data source)
Region Oceania includes Australia, New Zealand, Papua - New Guinea and
archipelagos scattered in the warm Pacific. Except for reef and volcano-origin
islands, the large continental fragments were part of Gondwana and southern mega-
continent had a common trend until late Mesozoic. The evolution policy and
subsequently in other isolated systems have favored preservation of the Gondwana
ecosystems, flora and fauna elements, which are unknown on other continents.
According to FAO statistics, in the entire region, the loss of forest areas, in the last
two decades, have decreased from about 200 million ha in 1990 to 191 million ha
in 2010. Losses due to logging and land use change to forestry vocation, especially
Eugen Rusu
140
in Australia (0.5 million hectares lost between 2000 to 2010) and Papua - New
Guinea (loss of 300 000 ha between 1990 - 2010).
Fig. 11 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation in Asia (thousand ha, FAO
data source)
Tab. 7 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Oceania Region (thousand ha, FAO data
source)
1990 2000 2010
Oceania 198 744 198 381 191 384
Primary forests are still to be found in significant proportions in Oceania and
occupy approx. 38% of the total forest of the region. In the last two decades,
however, there was a decrease in natural forests from 41 million ha in 1990 to 37
million ha in 2010. The decrease occurred by changing the use of forest land and
practiced selective exploitation into commercial purposes. The most affected one
was the Papua - New Guinea, where some primary forest were consumed by wild
instant fires and deforestation by fire was applied.
Tab. 8 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Oceania Region (mil.ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010
Oceania 41 38 36
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
141
Mainly affected areas of biodiversity conservation have increased in the
decade 1990 - 2000, from 7.1 million hectares to 8.4 million ha, but in the last
decade, these types of forests have contracted slightly by the passage of land use
category or by assigning multiple other functions. The same thing happened to
forests to protect soil and water, which after a slight increase between 1990 -2000,
had a significant decrease in the last decade, from 1 Mil. ha to 890 000 ha, due to
mining in accessible areas.
Tab.9 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation in Oceania Region (thousand
ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010
Oceania 7 196 8 412 8 234
L and and s oil protection
Water protection
E ndomaged fac torsprotection
R ecreation fonction
P rotected and s c ientificinteres ting area
Fig. 12 - Structure of forest surfaces included in the Functional Group I
(%, data source: MADR)
Protected forest areas in Oceania reach a proportion of 22% of the total in the
last decades due to the attention given to preserving natural forests in the state of
functionality. The top country in the region is New Zealand, where almost a third
of the forests are protected through general awareness and environmental
imperatives of subordination of all activities.
In Romania, in accordance with current guidelines in the European and world
forestry, biodiversity conservation function has become extremely important, given
that this feature is threatened by the expansion of vital forest habitat and human
activities. In Romania, this function is performed by “protected and scientific
Eugen Rusu
142
interesting area” in Functional Group I. These forest areas occupy 10% of this
group (0.350 million ha) and are spread all over the country.
Located in the temperate continental moderate climate, having the interference
of different types of other climates, the flora and fauna elements are preserved in
Romania in a different way, Ponto-Caspian, Mediterranean and Western Europe,
which gives a greater biodiversity than in European regions affected by typical
climates. Its territorial diversity, from the delta and steppes, the deciduous forests,
boreal and alpine meadows Carpathian, favors the presence of many elements of
biodiversity, some of which are endemic, in the Romanian space.
The forests in functional Group II, production and protection forests, account
for 47% of the total forest area of the country. According to FAO assessments,
Romanian has a different functional structure, with 48% of forests for the
production function, 39% allocated to soil and water protection, 5% to biodiversity
conservation and 6% is designated to cover social function.
P roduction
S oil and waterprotection
B iodivers ityc ons ervation
S oc ial fonction
Other function
Fig. 13 - Functional structure of forest surfaces in Romania (%, data source: FAO)
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation is achieved primarily in legislative
protected territories such as national parks, natural parks, protected areas and
nature reserves. This function is also fulfilled by other forests belonging to Group I
function. In Romania there were established over 20 national parks and natural
protected areas and more than 1,000 nature reserves, some of which are of world
importance, included in UNESCO. All these territories include protection forest
areas of great scientific importance for biodiversity conservation. According a
2003 inventory, the Carpatian Mountains are home of the wider of virgin forests in
Europe, with more 250.000 ha.
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional
143
Evaluation and forest certification ensures responsible management of forests
and social and economic benefits for local communities. In Romania is developing
projects to protect forests and promote forest certification as a tool for their
efficient management. By 2010, over 700,000 hectares of private and state forest
FSC were in Romania. This guarantees that forests are managed responsible, based
on social, economic and environmental.
References: Birot Y, Lacaze J.F. (2006), La forêt, Ed. Flamarion, Paris.
Briant G. et al. (2010), Habitat fragmentation an the desication of forest canopies. A case
study of eastern Amazonia. Biological conservation.
Butler, R. (2011), Rainforests, Create Space.
Kemp, R.H, Palmerg-Lerche C., (2007), Conservation des ressources genetiques
forestieres, Dossiers FAO, Rome.
Kemp, R.H. (1992), La conservation des ressources génétiques des forêts tropicales
aménagées. Unasylva, 43(169).
Lawrence et al., (2000), Forest loss and fragmentation in the Amazon : implications for
wildlife conservation, Oryx, 34
Radu Stelian (2002), Inventar preliminar al pădurilor virgine şi cvasivirgine din teritoriul
arondat şi învecinat Parcului Naţional Retezat, APNR
Stănescu, V. (1997), Flora forestieră lemnoasă a României. Ceres, Bucureşti
Whitmore, T.C. (1990), Tropical rain forests. Oxford, Clarendon
*** MADR, 2007 – Raport privind starea pădurilor României, Bucureşti
*** FAO, 2011 -Situation des forets du monde 2011, Rome
*** FAO, 2010 – Evaluation des ressources forestières mondiales 2010, Rome
*** WWF – Ecoregion Carpatian montane coniferous forests
*** WWF – Raport anual 2010 WWF Romania
*** WWF – Amazon alive. A decade of discovery 1999-2009.
Eugen Rusu
144
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SELENIUM IN SOILS OF THE DANUBE DELTA NORTH-
WESTERN PART
Radu Lăcătuşu
1,, Mihaela Monica Stanciu-Burileanu
2, Ion Rîşnoveanu
3, Anca-
Rovena Lăcătuşu4, Nineta Rizea
5, A. Vrânceanu
2, Rodica Lazăr
6
Key words: selenium, Danube Delta.
Abstract. Soils from the dyked precincts Sireasa and Pardina of the Danube Delta
were analyzed, belonging to the Calcaric Fluvisol, Calcaric Gleyosol, Mollic
Calcaric Gleyosol, Mollic Fluvisol, Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozem, and Calcaro-Calcic
Chernozem7 types. The soils are slightly alkaline, with a moderate carbonates
content, low up to average humus and total nitrogen ones, and diverse, from very
low to very high, of mobile phosphorus and potassium. Some of them have a
salinization level up to 688 mg soluble salts per 100 g soil. The mobile and total
selenium contents are high, superior to the average general content of the World’s
soils and to the contents of the South-Eastern Romanian Plain and Central and South
Dobrogea soils. In fact, they are the highest values registered so far in Romania’s
soils. In general, the soils within the built-up area have higher values than those of
the outside built-over one both for selenium and other chemical elements. Direct
proportionality relations were established between the total selenium content and
some of the agrochemical soil properties (indirect with the pH), all of them
statistically ensured, and also between the total and mobile selenium contents, on
one hand, and the micro elements (heavy metals) contents on the other hand. The
ensuring degree of the selenium’s correlations with some heavy metals increases by
depth which shows the geogenic origin of the chemical elements in the Delta soils.
Although the Danube Delta is a deprived area the selenium content of the analyzed
soils is high without reaching, though, toxicity levels.
Introduction
Selenium is a micro element with numerous qualities in animal and human
nutrition, with an anti-infections and anti-oxidant effect as a component of the
glutation-peroxidase enzyme, and anti-tumor effect (Deélstra et al., 1982; Gissel-
1 Prof.Ph.D., “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
2 Researcher Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania
3 Senior researcher Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania, [email protected]
4 Sen res. PhD, Romania
5 Senior researcher Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania [email protected]
6 Sen. res. Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania [email protected]
Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
146
Nielsen et al., 1985). Its physiological and biochemical role in plant nutrition was
also outlined (Läuchli, 1993; Turakainen et al., 2005), and yield increases were
obtained when selenium was administered on the seed, in soil, or on plant
(Lăcătuşu et al., 2002).
Selenium abundance in the environment components is low. Thus, the average
content oscillates between 50 and 90 g·kg-1
in the lithosphere, between less than
100 and 2,000 g·kg-1
in the pedosphere, from less than 50 up to 15,000 g·kg-1
in
the biosphere, and around 0.2 g·l-1
in the hydrosphere
(Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001).
Selenium abundance in soil depends on a series of chemical and physical
factors such as reaction, organic matter and macro and micro elements contents, the
parent material nature. The content interval of the total selenium content in the
upper horizon of the World’s soils is 5-3,500 µgkg-1
, with an average value of
383 ± 255 µgkg-1
(Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001). The extreme values of the
content interval belong to selenium deficiency, respectively toxicity areas.
Selenium deficiency leads to the occurrence of some diseases in living beings such
as: ovine myodystrophy, hepatic necrosis with swine, white muscle disease with
horses, exudative diathesis with poultry, and the excess determines the alkaline
disease occurrence with animals and people (Gissel-Nielsen et al., 1985). Selenium
deficiency with people is implied in a series of Cardiovascular and Digestive
Systems diseases and in many tumor diseases. Its major role for human health lies
in the anti-oxidant effect of its compounds (Reilly, 2006).
The fact is known that large areas of the North (Finland, Sweden, Norway;
Hartikainen, 2005), Central (Germany; Hartfiel and Bahners, 1988), South-Eastern
European countries (Serbia; Maksimovic, 1992), and from Russia (Ermakov, 1992)
are affected by the selenium deficiency. Romania also lies in a World’s area with
deficient selenium contents registered with animals and even with people. Thus,
Salanţiu, even since 1970, highlighted the selenium deficiency in calves, lambs,
sucking pigs, and young buffalos in large areas of the Transylvania Basin. More
recently, Serdaru and Giurgiu (2007) analyzed 1,548 fodder samples, 1,175 cattle
blood serum samples, 1,030 sheep blood serum samples, and 600 human blood
serum samples collected from the Ardeal area and concluded that only 3.7% of the
fodder samples, 5.0% of the cattle blood serum samples, none of the sheep blood
serum samples, and only 3.3% of the human blood serum samples have normal
contents, while the differences belong to the deficiency domain. Alike, Serdaru et
al. (2003) analyzed 185 fodder samples from 41 Dobrogea localities and concluded
that only 6.5% of them belong to the normal content domain, and the difference
belongs to the deficiency domain. This situation required the introduction of
selenium in the animal feed premixes. The deficiency level mostly occurs because
of some low soil selenium contents.
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part
147
Among the first data regarding total selenium content in Romania’s soils there
are those concerning the Oriental Carpathians Mountain soils and some river
sediments (Ababi and Dumitrescu, 1973; Lăcătuşu and Ghelase, 1992). The
authors found 640 µgkg-1
, respectively 380 µgkg-1
average values, the latter in
hematurigenous areas. Determinations carried out in Dobrogea soils highlighted
total selenium concentrations between 211 and 585 µgkg-1
, with an average value
of 314 µgkg-1
, and mobile selenium concentrations, soluble in ammonium acetate
lactate solution (AL) at pH = 3.7, between 0.9 and 74 µgkg-1
, with an average
value of 10 µgkg-1
(Lăcătuşu et al., 2009, 2010 a,b). In the Central-Eastern part of
Dobrogea, in the Sibioara area, where cases of ovine myodystrophy have been
registered, the average total and mobile selenium contents, soluble in AL, were
140 µgkg-1
, respectively 5 µgkg-1
(Lăcătuşu et al., 2002). Total selenium
determinations carried out in samples of the upper horizon of the soils from the
South-Eastern part of the Romanian Plain, predominantly Chernozems, highlighted
higher values than those of the Dobrogea soils, with 64%, on an average (Lăcătuşu
et al., 2010). Unlike these ones, in the Solonchaks and Solonetz of the Buzău and
Călmăţui Valleys Lăcătuşu et al. (2011) determined total selenium contents with
values around 800 µgkg-1
, twice as much as the average of the selenium contents
from many non-halomorphic soils of the World and three up to five times more
than the total selenium content of the upper horizon of the South-Eastern Romanian
Plain or Dobrogea soils.
Continuing the researches regarding selenium abundance in the Romania’s
soils the present paper highlights this chemical element’s contents in some of the
most recent soils of the Country, namely in the Danube Delta North-Western part.
1.Materials and methods
The researches had an expeditionary character, and soil samples were
collected by the 0-20 and 20-40 cm depths, from the Danube Delta North-Western
part, more precisely from the Sireasa and Pardina dyked areas (Figure 1).
60 samples were collected from outside the built-over area and 16 from within the
built-up one. The latter from the localities: Tudor Vladimirescu, Ceatalchioi,
Pardina and Chilia Veche.
The soil samples were analyzed in the laboratory from the general chemical
characteristics (pH, humus, total nitrogen, mobile forms of phosphorus and
potassium, soluble salts, carbonates, total an mobile micro elements forms) and of
the total an mobile selenium contents point of view. The general chemical
characteristics were determined by standardized (STAS and ISO) methods: pH –
potentiometrically, with double glass and calomel electrode, in aqueous solution
with the soil:water ratio 1:5; humus content by the Walkley-Black method
Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
148
modified by Gogoaşă; total nitrogen contents by the Kjeldahl method; mobile
forms of phosphorus and potassium, soluble in ammonium acetate-lactate, after
Ègner-Rhiem-Domingo. Total an mobile micro elements contents were determined
by atomic absorption spectrometry in the hydrochloric solution obtained after soil
digestion with a concentrated mineral acids (HNO3 and HClO4) mixture
respectively solubilization in extractive EDTA-CH3COONH4 solution at pH = 7.
Fig. 1 – The localization of the soil sampling points on the soil map elaborated by
Munteanu and Curelaru (1996)
For the determination of the total selenium content the samples were digested
with a strong mineral acids (nitric and perchloric) and peroxide (H2O2) mixture.
The selenium content was determined then by atomic absorption spectrometry
using the natrium boron hydride (NaBH4) reduction procedure and the analyze of
the hydrogen selenide which forms.
The mobile selenium of the samples was extracted in an 1 n ammonium
acetate (CH3COONH4) and 0,01 m etilen-diamino-tetraacetic (EDTA-H2) solution
at pH = 7.0 (after Lăcătuşu et al., 1987), and was measured by the already
described method.
The analytical data were statistically computed and spreading parameters (xmin,
xmax, cv,) and the grouping centre parameters ( x , xg, Me, and Mo) were
determined as well as the mobile selenium content correlation with several soil
chemical characteristics.
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part
149
2.Results and discussions
2.1. The investigated soils and their general characteristics
The 38 investigated soils belong to the Calcaric Fluvisol (12), Calcaric
Gleyosol (9), Mollic Calcaric Gleyosol (7), Mollic Fluvisol (7), Calcaro-Calcic
Kastanozem (2), and Calcaro-Calcic Chernozem (1) types. They have a
predominantly loamy, clayey-loamy up to sandy-loamy texture, sometimes clayey,
especially the Gleysols. The statistical parameters of the main chemical
characteristic of the dominant soils are presented in Table 1.
Tab. 1 – Statistical parameters of the main chemical characteristics of the soils from the
Danube Delta North-Western part
Statistical
parameter OH2pH
CaCO3 Humus Total N PAL KAL
% mgkg-1
Calcaric (mollic) gleyic Fluvisol, n = 42
Xmin 7,3 0,6 0,5 0,025 3 60
Xmax 8,5 11,3 6,3 0,584 23 656
X 7,9 7,2 2,9 0,144 14 200
σ 0,2 2,5 1,7 0,119 10 118
cv (%) 35 35 58 83 76 59
Xg 7,8 7,0 2,8 0,138 12 189
Calcaric (mollic) fluvic Gleyosol, n = 30
Xmin 7,4 1,0 1,7 0,097 5 64
Xmax 8,1 10,5 7,9 0,525 235 620
X 7,8 6,3 4 0,23 39 224
σ 0,2 2,3 1,8 0,117 53 137
cv (%) 3 36 44 51 136 61
Xg 7,7 6,1 3,7 0,224 36 220
The soils have alkaline reaction, no exceptions, and belong to the slightly
alkaline domain, with pH (measured in aqueous solution) values ranging from 7.3
to 8.5. The calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content is medium, almost no exception,
with values ranging between 4.2 and 11.3%. The exception is represented by eight
values ranging from 1.0 to 1.9%. The humus, assessed depending on the texture,
has a large values domain, significant for very low, low, and medium contents out
of which low and medium contents are equally dominant. The total nitrogen
contents vary alike, in the low and medium values zone. As regards the mobile
phosphorus and potassium forms supply, soluble in the ammonium acetate lactate
solution at pH 3.7, they belong to large values intervals, between 3 and 7 mg·kg-1
Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
150
in the outside built-over areas and between 9 and 235 mg·kg-1
in the soils within
the built-up area for phosphorus and between 6 and 656 mg·kg-1
in the outside
built-over areas and between 92 and 620 mg·kg-1
in the soils within the built-up
area for potassium. Practically, these values cover the whole supply domains both
for phosphorus and potassium.
Some of the analyzed soils (6) contain soluble salts beyond the 100 mg per
100 g soil limit, considered to be the threshold between non-salinized soils and the
saline ones. The latter’s salinization level reaches 688 mg/100 g soil. The dominant
salts are: calcium sulphate (CaSO4), with values up to 66.1%, magnesium sulphate
(MgSO4), with values up to 15.8%, and natrium sulphate (Na2SO4), with values up
to 24.7%. Calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2), with values up to 23.7%, magnesium
bicarbonate (Mg(HCO3)2), with values up to 9.6%, and different proportions of
natrium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium chloride, reaching maximum values
of 19.6; 50.8; 13.5; respectively 6.1% occur secondarily. The mentioned maximum
values belong to different samples.
Therefore the Danube Delta analyzed soils, mainly located in the Sireasa
and Pardina dyked areas, are made up of Fluvisols and Gleysols, both calcaric, with
a slightly alkaline reaction, with a medium carbonates content, with low and
medium humus and total nitrogen contents, and diverse levels of mobile
phosphorus and potassium supply, from very low to very high. Some of the soils
are salinized, reaching up to 688 mg/100 g soil. The soluble salts consist mainly of
sulphates, mostly calcium, and bicarbonates and chlorides follow in a decreasing
order.
2.2. Total and mobile selenium contents
The statistical parameters of the total selenium content in the analyzed soils
highlight a value interval between 0.307 and 1.776 mg·kg-1
, with medium values of
0.600 mg·kg-1
for the arithmetic mean ( x ) and 0.576 mg·kg-1
for the geometric
mean (xg), median (Me), and module (Mo). Separately by the two geometric
horizons (0-20 and 20-40 cm) one can notice that the first one contains more
selenium than the underlying one (Table 2).
If these values are compared to the average total selenium contents in the
World’s soils (from Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001), of 0,383 0,255 mg·kg-1
,
one can notice that the Danube Delta analyzed soils contain 1.6 times more
selenium in the 0-40 cm layer and 1.7 times more in the 0-20 cm layer.
As compared to the Romania soils from the South-Eastern Romanian Plain
and Central and Southern Dobrogea (Lăcătuşu et al., 2010), the Danube Delta
analyzed soils contain, on an average, 2.5, respectively 4.2 times more total
selenium. The phenomenon can be easily understood if the fact is taken into
account that the Danube Delta soils are formed by the Danube alluvia which
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part
151
consist, in their turn, of diverse natural materials transported by the river in its
course and of anthropic materials discharged in its waters by the riverside
countries’ inhabitants.
Tab. 2 – Statistical parameters of the total selenium content (mg·kg
-1)
Statistical
parameter
Depth, cm
0-40 0-20 20-40
n
xmin
xmax
x
xg
cv (%)
Me
Mo
78
0,307
1,776
0,600
0,201
0,576
34
0,576
0,575
39
0,377
1,776
0,648
0,239
0,619
37
0,584
0,538
39
0,307
0,980
0,552
0,141
0,536
26
0,552
0,552
Analyzing and comparing the statistical parameters of the mobile selenium
content (Table 3) with the average mobile selenium content in the South-Eastern
Romanian Plain and Central and Southern Dobrogea (Lăcătuşu et al., 2010), the
same conclusion is reached: the analyzed Delta soils contain more mobile
selenium, 1.7 times, than those of the South-Eastern Romanian Plain and 6 times as
compared to the Central and Southern Dobrogea ones. The phenomenon’s
explanation is the one mentioned above.
2.3 Selenium correlations in the analyzed Delta soils
Proportionality relations were established between the total selenium content
of the Delta analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth, and the main soil agrochemical
characteristics (pH, humus and total nitrogen content, mobile phosphorus and
potassium, soluble in the ammonium acetate lactate solution at pH = 7, supply
level), entirely statistically ensured (figures 2-6).
The total selenium content – reaction (pH) correlation is reverse, and the
correlation coefficient has a negative value (r = - 0,465**). The real pH domain in
which the correlation is significant is 7.2-8.5. Therefore, in the alkaline reaction
domain the total selenium content decreases as the pH value increases, at least for
the mentioned reaction interval.
The other total selenium correlations, with humus, total nitrogen, and mobile
phosphorus and potassium forms, are direct and have high, distinctly significant
values both for the correlation coefficient (r) and ratio (). The correlations with
Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
152
humus and total nitrogen stand out as being tighter as compared to those with
mobile phosphorus and potassium. In the latter case most of the values are
distributed in smaller content intervals, otherwise normal for such soils.
Fig. 2 – Correlation between the total selenium content and soil reaction (pH) in the
analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth
Fig. 3 – Correlation between the total
selenium and the humus contents in the
analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth
Fig. 4 – Correlation between the total
selenium and the total nitrogen contents in
the analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part
153
Significant correlation ratios and coefficients were also computed between the
total and mobile selenium contents, on one hand, and the micro elements (heavy
metals) ones, on the other hand (Tables 4 and 5). High values are noticed, of over
0.500, both for the correlation ratios () and coefficients (r), most of them
distinctly significant, except for the correlation ratios and coefficients of the
manganese and cadmium (Table 4) which are insignificant in the case of the total
selenium correlations.
Fig. 5 – Correlation between the total
selenium content and the mobile phosphorus
one, soluble in ammonium acetate lactate at
pH = 7 in the analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm
depth
Fig. 6 – Correlation between the total
selenium content and the mobile potassium
one, soluble in ammonium acetate lactate at
pH = 7 in the analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm
depth
Tab. 4 – Correlation ratios (r) and coefficients () of the total micro elements (heavy
metals) and selenium contents in some soils of the Danube Delta
Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ni Co Cr Cd
0,566** 0,745** 0,721** 0,279 0,389* 0,693** 0,467** 0,681** 0,296
r 0,525** 0,739** 0,721** 0,100 0,371* 0,719** 0,466** 0,681** 0,160
The correlations of the mobile selenium with these chemical elements (Table
5) have much lower values of the correlation ratios and coefficients and are
insignificant for some chemical elements (copper, iron, manganese, chromium on
the 0-20 cm depth and zinc, copper, iron, manganese, nickel on the 20-40 cm
depth). Obvious and distinctly significant are the mobile selenium correlations with
the heavy metals (in the true meaning of the word) lead and cadmium both on 0-20
and 20-40 cm depth. It is clearly
Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
154
Tab. 5 – Correlation ratios (r) and coefficients () of the total micro elements (heavy
metals) and mobile selenium contents in some soils of the Danube Delta
0-20 cm
Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ni Co Cr Cd
0,334* 0,259 0,120 0,164 0,395** 0,317* 0,285* 0,406 0,557**
r 0,308* 0,169 0,114 0,163 0,314** 0,204 0,276* 0,401 0,463**
20-40 cm
Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ni Co Cr Cd
0,311 0,322 0,317 0,228 0,472* 0,208 0,553** 0,417* 0,603**
r 0,306 0,321 0,258 0,199 0,456** 0,191 0,551** 0,384* 0,533**
noticed that the correlation intensity is stronger at the 20-40 cm depth for the
statistically ensured correlations. This mainly certifies the geogenic origin of the
chemical elements, including selenium, in the analyzed soils.
Conclusions
The analyzed Delta soils of the Sireasa and Pardina dyked areas belong to the
following types: Calcaric Fluvisol, Calcaric Gleyosol, Mollic Calcaric Gleyosol,
Mollic Fluvisol, Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozem, and Calcaro-Calcic Chernozem. They
are slightly alkaline, have a moderate carbonate content, low up to medium humus
and total nitrogen contents, and diverse, from very low to very high, of mobile
phosphorus and potassium.
Some of the soils have a salinization level up to 688 mg soluble salts per 100
g soil. The salts are predominantly calcium, magnesium, and natrium sulphates.
The analyzed Delta soils have high mobile and total selenium contents,
superior to the general average content of the World’s soils and to the South-
Eastern Romanian Plain and Central and South Dobrogea soils contents.
The higher selenium values were registered out of the Romania’s soils
analyzed so far.
Generally, in the soils within the built-up area higher values were registered
than in the outside built-over areas ones both for selenium an other chemical
elements.
Between the total selenium content and some of the soils agrochemical
features direct proportionality relations (reverse with the pH) were established,
entirely statistically ensured.
Between the total and mobile selenium contents, on one hand, and micro
elements (heavy metals) contents, on the other hand, direct proportionality relations
were established, mostly statistically ensured.
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part
155
The increase of the insurance degree of the selenium correlations with some
micro elements (heavy metals) with the soil profile depth certifies the geogenic
origin of the chemical elements in the Delta soils.
Although the Danube Delta is a deprived area the selenium content of the
analyzed soils is high without reaching, though, toxicity levels.
Bibliography: Ababi V., Dumitrescu M. (1973), Selenium distribution in soils and river sediments from
the Valea Moldoviţei, Dărmăneşti and Leşul Ursului regions, Analele Şt. ale Univ. Al.
I. Cuza Iaşi (serie nouă), Secţ.1c - Chimie, tomXIX, fas1, 89-95 (published in
Romanian).
Deélstra H. (1982), Sélénium et cancer, la situation en Belgique, Med. Biol. Environ, 10,
29-34.
Elrashidi M. A., Adriano D. C., Workman S. M., Lindsay W.L. (1987), Chemical
eqiulibria of selenium în soils; a theoretical development, Soil Science, 144, 141-152.
Ellis D. R., Salt D. E. (2003), Plants, selenium and human health, Current Opinion Plant
Biolo., 6, 237- 279.
Ermakov V. V. (1992), Biogeochemical regioning problems and the biogeochemical
selenium provinces în the former USRR, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 33, 171-185.
Gissel-Nielsen G., Gupta V. C., Lamand M., Westermareck T. (1984), Selenium în soils
and plants and its importance în livestock and human nutrition, Adv. Agron., 37, 397-
461.
Hartikeinen H. (2005), Occurence and chemistry of selenium în Finnisch soils, în Proc.
„Twenty Years of Selenium Fertilization”, Helsinki, 8-9 .9.2005, 18-24.
Hartifiel W., Bahners N. (1988), Selenium deficency în the Federal Republic of Germany,
Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 15, 1-12.
Kabata Pendias A., Pendias H. (2001), Trace Elements în Soils and Plants, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, London, New York, Whashington D. C.
Kabata Pendias A., Mukherjee A. B. (2007), Trace Elements from Soil to Human,
Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York.
Kadrabova J., Madaric A., Ginter E. (1997), The selenium content of selected food from
the Slovak Republic, Food Chemistry, 58, 1-2, 29-32.
Lăcătuşu R., Kovacsovics B., Gâţă Gh., Alexandrescu A. (1987), Utilisation of
ammonium acetat-EDTA by simultaneous extraction of Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe from soil,
Pub. SNRSS, 23B, 1-11 (published in Romanian).
Lăcătuşu R., Ghelase Il. (1993), Selenium în the areas of hematuria by cattle în the
eastern Carpathian, Bul. Inf. ASAS, 22, 9-32 (published in Romanian).
Lăcătuşu R., Tripăduş I., Lungu M., Cârstea S., Kovacsovics B., Crăciun L. (2002),
Selenium abundance în some soils of Dobrogea (Romania) and ovine myodistrophy
incidence, Trans. 21-th Workshop „Macro and Trace Elements”, Jena, 114-119.
Lăcătuşu R., Kovacsovics B., Lungu M., Cârstea S., Lazăr R. (2002), Enriching alfalfa
în selenium, Trans. 22-th Workshop „Macro and Trace Elements”, Jena, 1-st vol.,
309-304.
Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
156
Lăcătuşu R., Aldea M. M., Lungu M., Rizea N., Stroe V. M., Lazăr R. (2009), Selenium
în rock-soil-plant system, Trans. Of Symp. „Environment and agriculture în arid arias”,
3-4 9. 2009, Constanţa, 119-124 (published in Romanian).
Lăcătuşu R., Oancea F., Stanciu-Burileanu M. M., Lăcătuşu A. R., Lungu M., Stroe
V. M., Manole D., Sicuia O., Iliescu H., Jinga V., Lany S. Z. (2010a), Selenium în the
soil-plant system from the south-eastern part of Romania, Proc. Of the 15-th World
Fertilizers Congress, Bucharest, 29.8.-2.9.2010, 67-78.
Lăcătuşu R., Lungu M., Aldea M. M., Lăcătuşu A. R., Stroe V. M., Lazăr R. D., Rizea
N. (2010b), Selenium în the rock-soil system from south-eastern part of Romania, Pres.
Env. and Sustainable Development, 4, 145-158.
Läuchli A. (1993), Selenium în plants: uptake, functions and environment toxicity, Bot.
Acta, 106, 455-468.
Lin Z., Zayed A., Terry N. (1999), Role of selenium volatilization în the management of
selenium-laden agricultural drainage water, Trans.of 5-th Intern. Conf. Biogeochem.
Trace Elements, Vienna, 878-879.
Maksimović Z. J., Djujić I., Jović V., Rsumović M. (1992), Selenium deficency în
Yugoslavia, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 33,187-196.
Munteanu I., Curelariu Gh. (1996), Soil map of the Danube Delta, anexa la lucrarea
Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (I. Munteanu).
Poll E. (1968), Contribuţii la rolul seleniului în patologia puilor de găină, Doctor’s degree
dissertation, Inst. Agronomic Bucureşti.
Pourbaix M. (1963), Atlas d’équilibres électrochimiques, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 554-559.
Reilly C. (2006), Selenium în food and health, Springer Science + Business Media, New
York.
Salanţiu V. (1970), Carenţele în seleniu la viţei, miei, purcei şi malaci, Doctor’s degree
dissertation, Inst. Agron. Cluj-Napoca.
Schrauzer G. N. (2004), Selenium, în „Elements and their compounds în the environment”
(Ed. Merian, Anke, Ihnat, Stoeppler), Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim.
Serdaru M., Vlădescu L., Avram N. (2003), Monitoring of feed selenium în a southeast
region of Romania, J. Agric., Food Chem., 51(16), 4727-4731.
Serdaru M., Giurgiu G. (2007), The selenium status assessment în the trophic chain
plant-animal-human în Ardeal, Bull. USAMV-CN, 64(1-2), 576.
Turckainen M., Hartikainen H., Seppänen M. (2005), Selenium în plant nutrition, Proc.
„20 Years of Selenium Fertilization”, Agrifood Research Reports, 69, 53-60.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IMPROVEMENT
POSSIBILITIES FOR SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANT PROJECTS
Theodor Ghindă
1, Theodora Ardeleanu
2
Key words: small hydropower plant, environment, water intake
Abstract.The existing solutions for small hydropower plants were considered
convenient from the technical point of view over a long period, while general
environmental concerns of society increased in all directions during the last decades.
This paper refers to how to include environmental protection measures during the
selection of the sites for a small hydropower plant and its water intake, during the
preparation of the project, and then during operation. Investments for modernization
of old small hydropower plants have to also include improvements regarding
especially the protection of the river ecosystem.Specific environmental training for
those who will be designers of small hydropower plants can be useful for
environmental protection improvement in such projects.
Introduction
River hydropower potential is an important resource in many countries and
various technical solutions and specific equipments were developed for its use. A
large number of hydropower plants having very different total powers, according to
local conditions, were built in several European states, and also in Romania [12].
In the last decades, the hydro-energy producers with smaller installed power
have been called small hydropower plants, the present limit for this category being
generally up to 10 MW.
Small hydropower plants, which produce clean energy, allow the avoidance of
fossil fuels consumption increase, and therefore act towards environment
protection.
However, this does not result in automatic compliance with environmental
protection requirements, because many of them need constructions in river
1 Sen. Res. PhD., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental
Protection [email protected] 2 Sen. Res. Ph.D., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental
Protection, Bucureşti, Romania [email protected]
Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu
158
channels and on river banks and they influence water flow [2][3][4][8], with
various effects [5] that have to be analyzed for each case.
Actually, the existing solutions for large hydropower plants and small
hydropower plants were considered convenient from the technical point of view
over a long period, while general environmental concerns of the society increased
in all directions in the last decades, in order to avoid long term degradation of some
environment factors or components, with serious effects, caused by the whole
range of human activities.
Environmental legislation of the European Union and Romania comprises
now high environmental requirements for economic activities, with the purpose of
orienting economy and society towards sustainable growth models, environment
protection becoming one of the main concerns.
Hydropower plant projects, technically very good, have to follow
environmental procedures that are more complicated than stakeholders expected,
with public discussions and sometimes encountering difficulties in the approval by
environmental protection authorities.
That is why it is necessary, even in the preparation phase of a small
hydropower plant project, to know the applicable environmental requirements and
to develop solutions in order to comply with them and avoid important difficulties
and delays in the subsequent phases.
The need to provide support and orientation in environmental problems to
those who prepare small hydropower plant projects has been recognized by groups
of specialists concerned with sustainable development in hydro-energy use.
The present paper shows some more frequently applicable requirements, and
some approaches towards complying with these demands.
1. Consideration of environmental protection during the selection of the
sites for a small hydropower plant and its water intake, and during the
preparation of the project
A project for a small hydropower plant has to be prepared step by step, taking
into consideration the environmental legislation (Fig. 1).
From the point of view of designing hydropower plants, the most important
change of environmental legislation has been generated by the Water Framework
Directive, implemented in the Law of Waters in Romania.
According to these new legal provisions, water bodies, e.g. rivers or lakes,
have to be protected, enhanced and restored with the aim of achieving good surface
water status by 2015, or, for artificial and heavily modified water bodies, to be
protected and enhanced with the aim of achieving good ecological potential and
good surface water chemical status in a certain period.
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant
159
This means achieving an adequate quality of the biological elements (for
rivers: aquatic flora, benthic invertebrates, fish fauna), hydro-morphological
elements (hydrological regime, river continuity, morphological conditions),
chemical and physical-chemical elements (thermal conditions, oxygenation
conditions, salinity, acidification status, nutrient conditions, priority pollutants,
other specific pollutants).
Some impacts of small hydropower plant projects are related to fish fauna and
hydro-morphological conditions.
Modifications of water bodies may be hardly accepted under the provisions of
this directive, and only if several conditions are met: adverse impact mitigation,
explanation of reasons, overriding public interest, lack of other significantly better
environmental options because of technical feasibility or disproportionate cost.
The main problems faced by small hydropower plant projects (Fig. 2) are
related to:
water flow quantity
longitudinal continuity
migration possibility for some fish species.
Another important change in environmental legislation is due to the Habitats
Directive and the development of the corresponding network of natural protected
areas.
Direct impact on natural protected areas can be prevented or limited by
avoiding to locate the constructions of the project or the access roads in such areas
or near them.
For projects and their auxiliary constructions that are proposed to be located in
such areas, it is necessary to carry out a very detailed assessment of potential
adverse impacts on every protected habitats and species of that area. In order to
improve environmental protection in a small hydropower plant project, it has to be
in agreement with the management measures for the protected area.
Therefore, it would be better to select a site for a small hydropower plant
outside the natural protected areas and so that to avoid as much as possible the
potential impacts on such areas. Such an approach saves time in the environmental
impact assessment procedure for the project.
If a site within a natural protected area is taken into consideration, it is
absolutely necessary to discuss with the specialists who take care of that protected
area, so that to know if they can agree to the proposed project with some technical
requirements, or if they cannot agree because of specific features of the natural
protected area.
Actually, the site for a small hydropower plant and its auxiliary constructions
has to be selected so that it is both technically convenient and environmentally
acceptable, as for other types of investments [11].
Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu
160
The really usable hydropower potential results after taking into account the
necessary flow to the downstream river sector for the protection of the water body
ecosystem and for other uses.
Sufficient downstream flow is necessary for avoiding modifications of some
habitats and this is very important for the protection of biodiversity [6]. The
downstream water flow can be specified as a minimum value, or by a set of values,
taking into consideration some hydrological conditions.
Preparing a small
hydropower plant
project Design the scheme
and components so
that to answer to the
environmental
legislation
requirements
Ensure an
adequate flow to
the downstream
sector of the
river
Selection of a
technically and
environmentally
adequate site
Fig. 1 – Project preparation steps considering environmental legislation
Requirements
related to the water
body where a small
hydropower plant is
located
River continuity
Fish migration
possibility
Quantity and
dynamics of
water flow
Fig. 2 – Main requirements for water body protection
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant
161
To select the site, it is advisable to start from a classification of river sectors,
taking into account their ecological importance for the whole river and the
hydropower potential.
It is also necessary to know that the project can be compatible with the river
basin management plan, which has in view certain objectives regarding the state of
the water body, according to the environmental legislation.
During the selection of the site and preparation of the project, it is necessary to
take into account the users of water from the respective river.
Where it is the case, the correlation with the background elements of the
management plans for natural protected areas and with the provisions of these
plans is useful.
The preferable zones are those where activities are possible in order to prepare
the access roads and the water intake, and for construction, with an impact on the
environment as low as possible.
Therefore, site selection criteria that take into account only technical and
economical aspects can lead to difficulties and a longer duration for going through
with the procedure to obtain the environmental agreement.
Under the present environmental legislation, for preparing a project for a
small hydropower plant that can be approved without many modifications, it is
absolutely necessary to take into consideration the environmental criteria, besides
the technical and economical aspects. Actually, this leads to schemes that include
some costs for the environment.
This approach is in agreement with the policy of orientation towards
sustainable development, preparing medium-term and long-term sustainable
projects without unacceptable effects on environment and society.
Finally, selecting with care the site for a small hydropower plant and its water
intake and auxiliary constructions, it is possible to reduce as much as possible
present and future potential environmental costs, which would consist of:
-environmental monitoring contracts
-environmental reports to authorities
-discussions with the public
-modifications of constructions and components in order to answer to some
requirements that will appear later
-eventually, compensation measures if the project is located in a natural
protected area.
Moreover, there are more chances to comply with future requirements of
environmental legislation and to have long operation duration.
Adequate selection of the site and of technical and construction solutions for a
small hydropower plant is decisive for environmental effects, because only
management is flexible in the operation period.
Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu
162
In comparison with the projects for new water intakes, the impact is smaller in
case of modernization of old small hydropower plants where repairs or replacement
of equipments have to be done.
The investments for such old production plants have to also include
environmental protection improvements, for example fish passes and the
specification of the needed flow towards the downstream river sector taking into
account the conclusions of specialists with regard to the ecosystem.
During the operation period of a small hydropower plant, some project
proposals can be useful for the environment, for example referring to:
- Measures for correction of negative effects, immediately after they are
observed.
- Modernization from time to time, taking into account the present
requirements and the expected ones, on the basis of existent or proposed
environmental legislation and best practices.
Consideration of environmental protection while designing a small
hydropower plant and its auxiliary constructions has to be based on experience
regarding good technical solutions, looking also for possible answers towards
complying with present environmental requirements.
Besides technical and economic aspects, optimization of solutions for each
case has also to be guided by reasonable limitation of the environmental impact.
There are different types of small hydropower plant schemes:
Small hydropower plant with water intake and water supply canal, then
energy generation and water discharge.
Small hydropower plants on the river.
Small hydropower plants located at man-made lakes with multiple uses.
Small hydropower plants set in action by water for irrigation or by water
discharged after use in some industrial installations. A small hydropower plant
does not contribute to the impact on the water use in such cases.
A proposed scheme for answering to the requirements of longitudinal
continuity and protection of migrating fauna, presented in the figure below (Fig. 3),
keeps a free flow part of the river cross-section.
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant
163
Fish passLongitudinal continuity
Water flow to the small
hydropower plant
Downstream
sector
Fig. 3 – Local scheme for keeping longitudinal continuity in a part of the river
cross-section and protection of migrating fauna
For diminishing the impact of the constructions of a small hydropower plant
on the natural environment, it is recommended to integrate them into environment
as much as possible, taking into account local landscape features and using local
materials: cover with location - specific materials, e.g. stone from that zone, use of
wood for some auxiliary constructions.
The water intake installations provide water for electric energy production and
can also be useful for some environmental problems:
- Cleaning the river by removing some wastes that do not have to go farther in
the environment (PET bottles, other plastic materials, packages, etc.), collecting
them from the water intake grid.
- Additional point for observing and communicating some accidental
pollution.
The mentioned ideas can also be taken into consideration for modernization
and adaptation of some existing small hydropower plants to environmental
requirements for the next period.
Modernization can improve environmental protection and offer higher energy
production from a renewable source (river water flow) using more efficient
generators.
It is advisable to take into account environmental aspects as much as possible
in a small hydropower plant design, following notes from the authorities or the
public, and to take into consideration the requirements of the existing or planned
water users. Proceeding in this way, it will be possible to go through the procedures
in a shorter time for obtaining the necessary approvals for construction, putting into
service and operation of a proposed small hydropower plant. Moreover, the
Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu
164
approvals will probably specify less obligations regarding environmental protection
if the project answers better the environmental requirements.
2. Environmental protection improvement during construction and
operation of a small hydropower plant
Environment protection measures during the construction of a small
hydropower plant with its water intake and all the other components are especially
important for preventing and limiting effects on the natural environment. Various
measures are needed (Fig. 4).
Measures for environmental
protection during the necessary
activities for implementing a small
hydropower plant project
Measures for
environmental protection
during the activities for
water intake preparation
and auxiliary
constructions
Environmental
protection during
the construction
and installing
activities at the
small hydropower
plant
microhidrocentrală
Dismantling of the
buiding site, fulfiling
the regulations and
obligations
regarding
environmental
protection
Environmental
protection
measures during
the field
preparation
activities
Measures for
environmental
protection during
activities for
installing electric
lines
Fig. 4 – Project implementation steps that need measures for protecting the environment
Environmental protection during
the operation period of a small
hydropower plant
Important documents for
environmental protection during
the operation
Monitoring relevant
elements for
environmental protection,
during the operation
period
Maintaining adequate
state of constructions
and equipments, for
avoiding negative effects
on environment
Environmental
management
Fig. 5 – Measures for ensuring protection of the environment during the operation period
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant
165
Specific environmental training for those who will be designers of small
hydropower plants can be useful for environmental protection improvement in such
projects. Environment protection measures are also necessary during the operation
period of a small hydropower plant (Fig. 5).
Conclusions
New projects of small hydropower plants have to comply with the
environmental legislation, and the most difficult steps refer to the Water
Framework Directive and to the legislation for natural protected areas.
The decisive steps for preparing a small hydropower plant project to meet
environmental requirements are: selection of a technically and environmentally
adequate site, design the scheme and components so that they answer to the
environmental legislation requirements, ensure an adequate water flow to the
downstream sector of the river.
Selection of a site in a natural protected area has to be in agreement with the
management plan and conservation objectives of the protected area. For projects
proposed in natural protected areas, more detailed studies are needed because the
main subjects are habitats and species for which the areas have been delimited.
Small hydropower projects can be prepared and implemented faster for sites
outside natural protected areas.
Projects of small hydropower plants have to be compatible with the objectives
for water bodies. Especially fish migration, river continuity and downstream flow
are the problems of a hydropower plant project in relation to the river state.
Environmental protection improvement possibilities focus on fish pass and
water intake design, which are very important for answering to these requirements.
Water intake solutions proposed to allow the natural river flow through a part
of the cross-section would be good for preserving river continuity and fish
migration.
To have a well-argued value of an adequate flow to the downstream sector of
the river, it has to be identified on the basis of a specialized study after examining
the specific fauna and conditions of the river. The needed downstream flow can be
specified as a minimum value, or by a set of values for different periods of the year
and different hydrological conditions.
Modernization of old small hydropower plants offers the possibility to include
positive environmental actions for improving the state of the water bodies where
they are located.
Following the objectives of the Water Framework Directive, investments for
modernization of small hydropower plants can also contribute to:
- improvement of river continuity and migration possibility for some species
of aquatic fauna
Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu
166
- ensure adequate flow values (ecological flow) for the downstream aquatic
ecosystem according to a specialized study.
Construction of a fish pass has to be included in such projects where it is the
case, as concluded by a specialist in biodiversity after examination of the river state
and fauna.
Replacement of old equipments by new more efficient ones results in clean
energy production increase, which is a contribution to environmental protection,
and also covers costs related to environment protection.
Small hydropower plants can be better integrated in the natural environment
by using natural materials specific to the zone where they are located.
In addition to energy production, small hydropower plants can contribute to
environmental protection by collecting wastes (e.g. plastic materials) brought by
the river to the water intake, and also by observation and communication of
unusual effects on the river that may be due to an accidental pollution from
upstream.
Environment protection measures during the construction of a small
hydropower plant with its water intake and all the other components are especially
important for preventing and limiting the effects on the natural environment. There
are various necessary measures and their application can be supervised
periodically.
Specific environmental training for those who will design a small hydropower
plants can be useful for environmental protection improvement in such projects.
Environment protection measures are also necessary during the operation
period of a small hydropower plant. Especially the water flow to the downstream
river sector and the state of the fish pass are important.
References: Virginia Ciobotaru, Ana Maria Socolescu (2006), Priorităţi ale managementului de
mediu. (Priorities of environmental management). Meteor Press, Bucureşti.
Dumitru Cioc (1983), Hidraulică. (Hydraulics). Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti.
Simion Hâncu, Gabriela Marin (2007), (Theoretical and applied hydraulics). Hidraulică
teoretică şi aplicată. Cartea Universitară, Bucureşti.
Simion Hâncu, Mihail Popescu, Didi Duma, Paul Dan, Emil Rus, Eugen Zaharescu,
Alexandru Danchiv, Alexandru Constantinescu (1985), Hidraulică aplicată –
Simularea numerică a mişcării nepermanente a fluidelor. (Apllied hydraulics –
Numerical simulation of unsteady fluid flow). Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
Ioniţă Ichim, Dan Bătucă, Maria Rădoane, Didi Duma (1989), Morfologia şi dinamica
albiilor de râuri. (Morphology and dynamics of river channels). Editura Tehnică,
Bucureşti.
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant
167
Ildiko Ioan, Florina Bran, Carmen Valentina Rădulescu (2009), Dimensiunea
managerială a conservării naturii. (Managerial dimension of nature conservation).
Editura Universitară, Bucureşti.
Octavian Luca, Theodora Ardeleanu (2000), Relaţii dintre un lac de acumulare cu
folosinţă complexă şi mediul înconjurător. (Relationships between a man-made lake
with complex use and environment). Lucrările primei Conferinţe a
hidroenergeticienilor din România, 26-27 mai 2000, Universitatea Politehnica
Bucureşti, Facultatea de Energetică, p. 799-807.
Octavian Luca, Gabriel Tatu (2002), Environmental impact of free surface flows:
evaluation and protection. Editura Orizonturi Universitare, Timişoara.
Ion Pişota, Liliana Zaharia, Daniel Diaconu (2005): Hidrologie. (Hydrology). Editura
Universitară, Bucureşti.
Richard B. Primack, Maria Pătroescu, Laurenţiu Rozylowicz, Cristian Iojă (2008), Fundamentele conservării diversităţii biologice. (Foundations of biological diversity
conservation). Editura AGIR, Bucureşti.
Maricica Stoica (2005), Investiţiile şi dezvoltarea durabilă. (Investments and sustainable
development). Editura Universitară, Bucureşti.
Petru Şerban, Viorel Al. Stănescu, Petre Roman (1989), Hidrologie dinamică. (Dynamic
hydrology). Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu
168
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
DISPARITIES IN MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
ACROSS EU-27. A GEOGRAPHICAL APPROACH
Florin-Constantin Mihai
1, Liviu Apostol
2
Key words: territorial disparities, municipal waste, spatial-temporal analysis
Abstract. Inadequate waste management leads to many environmental issues and
the adoption of an efficient and sustainable waste management has become a
priority objective of the EU. However, besides the demographic factors, the various
socio-economic and geographical conditions of this complex space lead to major
disparities in municipal waste management between North and South, East and
West. This paper aims to do a spatial-temporal analysis of the Eurostat indicators
using ascending hierarchical cluster analysis that divides the member states into five
typological classes. The resulted maps highlight territorial disparities among
Member States on municipal waste management and also reveal the evolution of
environmental policies between 2003-2009 related to the EU acquis.
Introduction
Municipal waste and similar are the waste generated in urban and rural areas
respectively: in households (household waste), commerce and trade, small
businesses, offices and institutions, (similar waste), yard and parks waste, bulky
waste, street waste, construction and demolition waste. As far as municipal waste is
concerned, the differences between countries arise for two main reasons: the
differences found in specific categories to be included in this stream (the most
relevant being 'household' and ‘similar’ waste, from shops, offices, etc.) and the
differences found in the collection system applied in each country. (Eurostat, 2001)
The share of waste from households ranges for most countries between 60 % and
90 % depending on the amount of other waste collected under the responsibility of
the municipality, the percentage of commercial waste in municipal waste ranges for
most countries between 10 % and 35 %. (EC, 2005).
Europe has more experience with waste prevention than other regions, and
recycling and materials recovery are well supported in Northern Europe. This is
much less true in the southern EU countries and in the transition economies of the
1 PhD student ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, [email protected]
2 Prof.PhD ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, [email protected]
Florin-Constantin Mihai, Liviu Apostol
170
Eastern Europe (UNEP, 2005). Household waste management schemes adopt
economic, regulatory or incentive based instruments that are widely acceptable
across Europe (Husaini et al., 2007). One person’s waste can be a resource to
others, particularly in different geographical, temporal and cultural contexts
(Davies, 2003). Though waste prevention is at the top of the EU waste hierarchy,
waste management (separate collection) and landfill limitation policies have
prevailed, if not dominated the field (Mazzanti and Zoboli, 2008).
Improving household waste management behaviour has been identified as an
important component of reducing the volume of the produced waste. (Fahy and
Davies, 2007)
1. Materials and methods
This article proposes a geographical approach to highlight territorial
disparities in the EU-27 on municipal waste generation, municipal waste disposal
(landfilling and incineration), recycling and composting. Changing methodologies
concerning waste statistics since 2001 and the implementation of the EU acquis in
the new EU member states have led to a progressive improvement of quality data
on municipal waste management. However, a spatial-temporal analysis requires
caution because the relevance of these data is questionable and leads to difficulties
in interpreting the results. Thus, the period chosen for such an analysis is 2003-
2009, although the Eurostat database contains available data since1995. We have to
take into account that in the new Member States, on the one hand the population is
not fully covered by sanitation services and on the other hand, the reported values
are estimated. Often these data are calculated according to the volume of waste or
applying general indicators of waste generation for the population unserved by
sanitation services. Moreover, the differences among countries on waste fractions
that are included in the category of municipal waste slow down the geographic
analysis of waste management. The introduction of weight systems in waste
management facilities and the increasing access to sanitation services lead to
improved waste indicators.
In this context, the spatial-temporal analysis takes into account the following
indicators: municipal waste generation (kg / inhabitant / year), landfilled waste (kg
/ inhabitant / year) incinerated waste (kg / inhabitant / year). For each indicator,
statistics are processed using ascending hierarchical cluster analysis that divides the
member states in five typological classes that are mapped. Each class has different
values (standard deviations) related to the EU-27 average, allowing deduction of
qualitative conclusions. The charts are designed to support the maps obtained and
to facilitate the interpretation of results. In order to assess the current systems of
municipal waste management, an ascending hierarchical cluster analysis regarding
the share (%) of landfilled, incinerated, recycled and composted waste of the total
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27
171
municipal waste generated in 2009 (the last Eurostat available data, updated in
2011) is achieved.
2. Results and discussion
2.1 Spatial-temporal analysis of municipal waste generation
The indicator of municipal waste generation per capita is particularly
important in planning actions for a sustainable waste management. It is also the
basis of references for forecasting and modeling future waste generation in
correlation with different economic and socio-demographic parameters (Beigl et
al., 2008). Applying ascending hierarchical cluster analysis, the EU-27 members
were divided in the following typological classes:
Fig.1 – Disparities in the municipal waste generation in the EU-27
Class 1- includes most new member states of the EU, municipal waste
generation per capita is significantly lower (300 kg/per capita/yr) than the EU-27
Florin-Constantin Mihai, Liviu Apostol
172
due to increased disparities on the economic situation and standard of living. The
multi-annual average of GDP per capita <100 (in PPS EU27 = 100); urban
population is lower and life expectancy as well. Low values for these countries are
explained by the fact that the population is only partially served by sanitation
services and waste quantities are usually estimated and not weighed due to the lack
of infrastructure in this regard.The trend of a slight increase in waste generated
since 2004 is due on the one hand to the improvement of waste statistical
methodology and development of waste collection services and on the other hand
to the economic growth, which stimulates the consumption patterns.
Fig.2 – Municipal waste generated – the annual average of classes
compared with the EU-27 average
Class 2 – France and Italy have waste generation values very close to the EU
-27 average (over 500 kg/ per capita/yr) and a chronological evolution
approximately constant from 2003 to 2009. This shows that the primary waste
management measures were oriented to waste disposal and less to recovery or
prevention of waste generation.
Class 3- per capita waste generation is lower than the EU-27 average (400-
500 kg/ per capita/yr); the data for Hungary, Slovenia and Bulgaria have improved
since 2002 with their harmonization with the EU legislation; however, precautions
are necessary in their interpretation. Also in Portugal, since 2001, conditions have
been created to obtain more reliable data at national level (Magrinho A et al. 2006).
Prevention and waste reduction policy is poorly implemented and recycling has a
low efficiency.
In Estonia, the share of similar (commercial) waste is higher than household
waste (EC, 2005). The quantity of solid waste generated in Greece continues to be
somewhat lower than in other European countries, reflecting less intense
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27
173
consumption patterns (Papaioannou and Economopoulou, 2004). In the Northern
Europe countries (Sweden and Finland), although they generate less waste than the
EU-27 average, the values are high compared to low population densities. So far, in
Finland, the national targets on MSW reduction have been set fairly low. (Sokka et
al 2007)
Class 4-. Includes on the one hand the states with the highest living standards
in Europe (Denmark and Luxembourg) and on the other hand Ireland and Cyprus
where consumption growth in recent years have led to significant increasing of
waste generation, higher than the EU 27 average (over 700 kg / per capita /yr) with
a continuous ascending trend. Denmark policies focused on changing the method
of waste disposal from land filing to incineration with energy recovery,
supplemented by recycling programs measures and less on instruments which
encourage waste prevention or reduction. Municipal waste management policy in
Ireland has stimulated the increasing quantities of waste generated, far beyond EU
average, due to the growing consumption. Opposition to charges on waste
treatment and landfilling and low prevention and recycling programs have led to
this situation.
(Davies, 2005). Cyprus, with a population of 949 000, generates waste far
above the average of the EU-27, including waste from tourists, having only a 3%
recycling rate. (Athanassiou and Zabaniotou, 2007)
Class 5-This class is represented by high-income countries Netherlands,
Germany, Austria, above the EU 27 average (GDP> 100 in PPS for EU 27 = 100),
public access to waste collection services is 100%, (OECD, 2008) waste
management systems are based on incineration, recycling and waste recovery. In
the UK, waste management is changing from waste disposal to recycling. After
2003, there has been a slight decrease in waste generation that is due to economic
instruments (charges on landfills or on the amount of waste generated), financial
incentives for the private sector, the legal framework which aims to reduce waste
generation. Unlike these countries, waste management policy in Spain was more
oriented towards waste disposal in landfills. The high values are due to the
progressive growth of the economy favoring consumption growth.
2.2 Spatial-temporal analysis of municipal waste landfilled
Waste landfilling is still an important option in waste management systems,
but its share varies across the EU -27, emphasizing the following categories:
Class 1 - EU high-income countries, which can afford to dispose the
municipal waste generated in incinerators equipped with facilities which ensure
energy recovery and limit the environmental impact. Furthermore, the lower
proportion of biodegradable waste and also the cooler climate favor the
incineration and not the landfilling for Northern Europe (Denmark, Sweden).
Florin-Constantin Mihai, Liviu Apostol
174
Landfill of waste is diminished due to legal regulations and economic instruments
adopted (high charges for waste disposal facilities), waste incineration, biological
and mechanical treatment and recycling programs being economically viable
alternatives for Germany, Austria, Netherlands and Belgium. In Germany, waste
disposal decreased significantly in recent years due to the improved recovery and
recycling programs (Dongqing et al, 2010). The amount of waste landfilled per
capita continuously decreases, suggesting the performances of waste management
systems implemented in each state.
Fig.3 – Disparities in municipal waste landfilled
Class 2- Includes the new Member States where most of the generated waste
is landfilled (Romania, Lithuania, Estonia), the southern states where the landfiling
still has an important role in waste management options along with waste recycling
and composting (Italy and Portugal) and Finland, where incineration is not as well
developed as in Denmark or Sweden.
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27
175
Fig.4 – Municipal waste landfilled – the annual average of classes compared with EU-27 average
Class 3 - Landfill of waste significantly above the EU-27 average with double
values (over 600 kg / inhabitant / year) for the island states Malta and Cyprus with
an ascendant trend since 2006. This is caused by the increased municipal waste
generation, far above the EU average (fig.1), due to consumption growth and
tourist inflows and on the other hand to the lack of measures to minimize their
generation.
Class 4 - Most of the waste generated and collected is directly disposed in
landfills (Bulgaria, Hungary, Slovenia, Lithuania) and recycling is poorly
developed. Grecce depends strongly on sanitary landfills, although the need for
increased recycling and new waste management facilities is recognized by the
authorities in the Regional Plan. (Perkoulidis et al, 2010). The adoption of the
acquis communautaire leads to an improvement in waste management. The focus is
on alternative solutions regarding disposal of waste, for example replacement of
non-compliant sites with sanitary landfills, construction of transfer stations or
incinerators with energy recovery. The waste prevention measures implemented so
far are not significant and the amounts of waste generated and landfilled are
expected to increase in the future.
Class 5 - Landfill of waste is done under the EU-27 average (respectively
200kg/per capita/yr), but it has the largest share in the treatment of waste generated
for the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland. In Poland, the registered quantities of
waste collected and disposed of are often deliberately underestimated, as a result of
informal trading between the involved companies. (Den Boer et al., 2010).
In France, the need of landfills decreases because the waste management plans
support the development of incineration plants and recycling facilities.
Florin-Constantin Mihai, Liviu Apostol
176
2.3. Spatial-temporal analysis of municipal waste incineration
The incineration of municipal waste is often more expensive than waste
landfilling, not being economically viable for the Southern and Eastern Europe.
Also the higher share of biodegradable waste and lower amounts of waste
generated encourage the waste landfilling and composting. Thus, in some Member
States there are no incineration plants for municipal waste disposal (Romania,
Bulgaria, Lithuania, Cyprus, Greece), but only for the industrial waste sector. The
EU-27 average of incinerated municipal waste does not include these countries; the
disparities are outlined by the following classes:
Fig.5 – Disparities in incinerated municipal waste
Class 1 - Since 2001, Denmark benefits from modern infrastructure able to
meet the specific needs of waste incineration in terms of environmental protection
(Burcea, 2009). Also Denmark generates large amounts of waste (600 kg / per
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27
177
capita / yr): 2/3 is incinerated (about 400 kg / per capita / yr), the rest is recycled or
treated; landfilling is almost inexistent.
Class 2 - includes countries where municipal waste incineration takes place in
pilot programs or is in its early stages with very low amounts per capita (<10
kg/per capita/yr) compared to the EU-27 average, and the landfill of waste prevails.
Class 3 - Sweden has developed facilities on municipal waste incineration, the
amount of incinerated waste is of 250 kg/per capita/yr, far above the EU-27
average (100 kg/per capita /yr).
Class 4 – includes high-income countries with a modern infrastructure on
municipal waste management. Waste incineration is above the EU-27 average (150
kg/per capita/yr), waste landfilling is limited for recycling or mechanical-biological
treatment.
Fig.6 – Municipal waste incinerated - the annual average of classes
compared to the EU-27 average
Class 5 - countries where municipal waste incineration is developing against
landfill of waste (Finland, UK), the incinerated municipal waste is half of the EU-
27 average respectively 50 kg/per capita/yr). In Italy, there are regional disparities
regarding waste management issues. (Mengozzi, 2010). The incineration plays an
important role in waste management options in the industrial regions from the
North, unlike the Central and Southern Italy, where waste landfilling is the main
method of waste treatment causing governance issues (e.g. the Naples case).
2.4. Current municipal waste management options across the EU-27
Class 1 – includes the countries where waste landfilling has become
insignificant, being replaced by incineration with energy recovery (Denmark,
Florin-Constantin Mihai, Liviu Apostol
178
Sweden), co-incineration, recycling and composting having a significant share in
waste management options in Belgium, Holland, Germany and Austria. These
Member States have the most advanced waste management systems of the EU-27.
Class 2 - new EU members of Central and Eastern Europe, where waste
landfilling is still the main choice in waste management, recycling and composting
of waste is in its early stages; these countries have difficulties in the
implementation of the EU acquis.
Class 3 - states which have developed composting facilities for biodegradable
waste; recycling is not very developed and waste landfilling still prevails.
Fig. 7 – Disparities in current waste management systems in the EU-27
Class 4 - waste landfilling is still significant, but improvements were noted on
the development of recycling programs in recent years, in Ireland and Slovenia.
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27
179
Class 5 - the share of incinerated waste increases over the EU average and the
amount of landfilled waste decreases (Finland, France); waste recycling and
composting have an important role in waste management systems.
Conclusions Disparities regarding the economic and living standards between the member
states of Northern and Western Europe compared to the Southern and Eastern
Europe are reflected in municipal waste management systems with various
environmental implications. The main measures to reduce the generated waste and
the landfilling are the adoption of regulations and the economic instruments
(charges for waste landfilling, taxes on the amount of waste generated), financial
incentives, incentives to encourage waste producers to minimize waste etc. These
measures are successfully adopted by western countries having a healthy economy
which allow the best practices in waste management. Also, municipal waste
management does not depend only on the income of the population; the socio-
demographic factors and the implemented environmental policies may have a
significant contribution to reducing or increasing the amount of waste generated.
The quality and timeliness of data on waste statistics play an important role in
waste management planning. The waste collection services of the new member
states are poorly equipped to weigh the collected waste and often the reported
values are calculated according to the volume of containers or transporting
facilities.
The improvement of the waste management infrastructure and the orientation
of the environmental policies towards waste prevention and reduction should be a
real objective in the coming years for most EU members.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the European Social Fund in Romania, under the
responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme
for Human Resources Development 2007-2013 [grant POSDRU/CPP 107/DMI
1.5/S/78342].
References: Athanassiou, M., Zabaniotou, A. (2007), Techno-economic assessment of recycling
practices of municipal solid wastes in Cyprus, Journal of Cleaner Production, 16 ,
1474-1483.
Beigl P., Lebersorger S., Salhofer S., (2008), Modelling municipal solid waste
generation: A review, Waste Management, 28, 200–214
Burcea,S.G., (2009) - Managementul deşeurilor urbane: Perspectivă europeană
comparată, Edit ASE, Bucureşti
Florin-Constantin Mihai, Liviu Apostol
180
Davies,Anna, (2003) - Waste wars– public attitudes and the politics of place in waste
management strategies ,Irish Geography, 36(1), 77-92
Den Boer, E., Jedrczak, A., Zygmunt K., Joanna Kulczycka, Szpadt, R., (2010) - A
review of municipal solid waste composition and quantities in Poland, Waste
Management, 30, 369–377
Fahy, F., Anna Davies. (2007) Home improvements: Household waste minimisation and
action research, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 52, 13–27
Husaini, G., Garg A., Kim K.H., Marchant, J., Pollard., S.J.T., Smith R., (2007)
European household waste management schemes: Their effectiveness and
applicability in England, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 51, 248–263
Magrinho, A., Didelet, F., Semiao V., (2006) - Municipal solid waste disposal in Portugal
, Waste Management ,26, 1477–1489
Mazzanti, M., Zoboli,R., (2008) -Waste generation, waste disposal and policy
effectiveness Evidence on decoupling from the European Union, Resources,
Conservation and Recycling, 52, 1221–1234
Mengozzi, A., (2010) - Waste Growth Challenges Local Democracy. The Politics of Waste
between Europe and the Mediterranean: a Focus on Italy, California Italian Studies
Journal, 1(1), 1-21 (http://escholarship.org/uc/item/53v28242)
Papaioannou, M., Economopoulou, A., 2004. Hellenic ministry for the environment,
Physical planning and public works, Department of International Relations and EU
Affairs. In: Proceedings of the National Reporting to the Twelfth Session of the
Commission on Sustainable Development of the United Nations (UN CSD 12),
Athens.
Perkoulidis G., Papageorgiou,A.,Karagiannidis, A., Kalogirou, S., (2010) - Integrated
assessment of a new Waste-to-Energy facility in Central Greece in the context of
regional perspectives,Waste Management, 30, 1395–1406
Sokka, L., Antikainen, R., Pekka, Kauppi E., (2007) Municipal solid waste production
and composition in Finland—Changes in the period 1960–2002 and prospects until
2020, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 50, 475–488
*** EC 2005 - Waste generated and treated in Europe Data 1995-2003, Luxembourg,
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
*** Eurostat 2001 - The development of waste indicators at European Union level: some
recent Eurostat experiences, Joint ECE/Eurostat Work Session on Methodological
Issues of Environment Statistics (Ottawa, Canada, 1-4 October 2001
*** (2008), OECD - Environmental Data, Compendium 2006-2008, Waste chapter.
*** (2005) UNEP - Solid Waste Management (Volume II: Regional Overviews and
Information Sources) CalRecovery, Inc. California 94520 USA.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
HEAT WAVES: METEOROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND BIOMETEOROLOGICAL INFLUENCES
(CASE STUDY: ROMANIA, 14-16TH
JULY 2011)
Nicoleta Ionac1, Paula Tăbleţ
2, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
3
Keywords: hot weather; heat waves; air-temperature; humidity; heat stress.
Abstract. Some definitions describe heat waves as periods of excessive heat and
humidity, which generate the human heat stress due to overheating. For this reason, heat
waves can be deadly, and they rank among the world’s top 10 natural disasters. European
countries have already experienced some severe heat waves in the 21st century (in 2003,
2006, 2010 and 2011) and climate models predict an increase in the frequency and
intensity of mega heat waves in the years to come. That is why, case studies may be very
important in the reconstruction of climate models. This paperworks debates on the synoptic
conditions that generated the heat wave affecting Romania’s territory on 14-16 July 2011.
Moreover, it presents the distribution and evolution of air-temperatures which, in
combination with high humidity, contributed significantly to the discomfort people felt
during the heat wave. This was quantitatively assessed by the Temperature-Humidity Index
(THI) and UV Index, with corresponding values given below.
Introduction
The word canicula (meaning hot weather), which can be found in many
languages, comes from the Italian word canicula, naming the star Sirius or the
Dog’s star, from the Canis Major constellation, which is the brightest star in the
evening sky. It seems that the association between the star Sirius and hot weather
originates in the Middle Ages, when August was, as it still is nowadays, the hottest
month, when the Sirius star just rises up and sets down at the same time with the
Sun [1]. When hot weather, often associated with high air-humidity, persists for
more consecutive days and over more extended territories, it may turn into a heat
wave. There is no universal definition of heat waves yet, but according to the
World Meteorological Organization, it may be roughly defined as: a massive
invasion of hot air or the intense warming of air over vast territories [2]. However,
1Prof. PhD., University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
2 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
3 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
182
the same WMO developed a more accurate definition of heat waves as being:
weather episodes in which, for at least five consecutive days, maximum air-
temperatures exceed, by more than 50C, the climatological means of the maximum
values recorded between 1961 and 1990 [3].
This way, air-temperatures that are being perceived as normal by the
inhabitants of some countries with warmer climates, may as well be perceived as
extreme in other regions, generating the so-called heat waves.
Lately, hot weather and heat waves are more frequently defined in association
with other meteorological parameters that describe thermal human comfort or the
human body’s effective temperature which depends on air humidity.
For example, The US National Weather Service defines a heat wave as three
or more consecutive days of highs reaching at least 90 F (320C), while the weather
service's parent organization, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), also defines it as simply a prolonged period of excessive
heat and humidity [4]. In this respect, bioclimatic indices are used to quantitatively
assess the human body stress due to overheating. In the US, the Heat Index is used
to tell how hot it really feels when relative humidity is added to the air temperature.
Exposure to direct sunshine can also affect the heat index, increasing it by up to
15F, according to NOAA) [5].
In Romania, the highest air-temperature values are recorded from mid-June to
late August and hot weather is characterised by the persistence of high air-
temperatures all day and night long and by low day-to-night air-temperature ranges
or amplitudes. Romania’s National Administration of Meteorology (ANM) defines
weather as being hot, when maximum air-temperatures exceed 35°C during the day
and maintain around 20°C at night [6].
1. Heat waves: latest impacts and trends
So while there is no universally agreed upon definition for what constitutes a
heat wave, there is no doubt that it can be deadly. A 'pre-designed' summary and
profile of disasters reported that heat waves are particular weather hazards ranking
among the world’s top 10 natural disasters. A summary of events from 1980 to
2008 shows that human and economic losses due to heat waves are quite consistent
(Table 1 and 2, Figure 1) [7].
As we can see, the heat wave in 2003 represented, for all Europe, a major
climatic event, with great negative effects on the ecosystems, population and
infrastructure in many of its countries. The most affected countries were Italy,
France, Spain, Germany and Portugal, where the extremely long heat wave (from
June to August), following a dry spring and continuing until late Sepetember, made
many victims. The first heat wave was felt in June, in Portugal, Spain, Italy and
southern France. The second, in mid July, extended over northern France, Germany
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences
183
and Great Britain. According to a World Health Organization (WHO) report, the
2003 heat wave caused over 70,000 deaths in more than 16 European countries [8].
Tab. 1 - Worldwide Heat Wave Effects, 1980-2008
No of events: 126
No of people killed: 89,889
Average people killed per year: 3,100
No of people affected: 4,614,411
Average people affected per year: 159,118
Ecomomic Damage (US$ X 1,000): 21,989,859
Ecomomic Damage per year (US$ X 1,000): 758,271
Fig. 1 - Total number of heat waves reported in the world, 1980-2008
The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that
arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries: the United Kingdom,
France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Poland, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Germany and western part of Russia. In the Netherlands, Belgium,
Germany, Ireland, and the UK, July 2006 was the warmest month since official
measurements began [9].
In Belgium, July was the warmest month since records began in 1830, with
average maximum temperatures of 28.6°C (83.5°F) in Brussels. This was 1.8°C
(3.24°F) warmer than the previous record set in July 1994 and 7°C (12.60°F)
warmer than the 30-year meteorological average for Belgium. July 2006 was also
one of the sunniest months in Belgian history, with 316 hours of sunshine, or more
Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
184
than 140 hours more than normal. Before 1990, a heat wave occurred in Belgium
about once every 8 years, but during the last decade, the country averages one heat
wave per year. On 19 July 2006, temperatures throughout the entire country rose to
36°C (97°F), making it the hottest July day in almost 60 years.
In the Netherlands, where the monthly air-temperature average is 22.3°C
(72.1°F), temperatures went up to to 37.2°C (99.0°F) in July 2006. The highest
temperature was recorded on 19 July, when temperatures reached for most of the
country the mid- to upper 30's°C (mid- to upper 90s°F), especially in the south-
east. The all time record for the month of July was broken [9]. A UN report
published on 30 January 2007 showed that the Netherlands ranked the fourth
among the countries with most deaths related to natural disasters, with a total loss
of more than 1,000 victims.
Tab. 2 - Worldwide Number of Affected and Killed People by Heat Waves, 1980-2008
Heat Wave Date Affected People Heat Wave Date Killed People
Australia 1993 3,000,500 Italy 2003 20,089
Australia 1994 1,000,034 France 2003 19,490
Australia 1995 500,100 Spain 2003 15,090
Australia 1994 100,150 Germany 2003 9,355
China P Rep 2002 3,500 Portugal 2003 2,696
Japan 2007 3,000 India 1998 2,541
Peru 1983 2,700 France 2006 1,388
Romania 2005 500 United States 1980 1,260
Cyprus 2000 400 India 2003 1,210
Japan 2004 300 Belgium 2003 1,175
Turkey 2000 300
But the intense heat wave that centered on western Russia in 2010 was truly
a record breaker. It surpassed even 2003's scorcher in western and central Europe.
From late July until the second week in August 2010, record heat settled over 2
million square kilometers in Russia and Eastern Europe. In Moscow, the daytime
temperatures reached 38.2oCelsius, in Kiev, nights reached 25
oC, and estimates put
the Russian death toll at more than 55,000 [10].
By studying different climate models, the researchers predict an increase in
mega heat waves similar to the ones in the 21st century (2003, 2006 and 2010) for
two regions within Europe. Researchers, led by David Barriopedro of the Instituto
Dom Luiz at the University of Lisbon in Portugal, compared the 2010 mega heat
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences
185
wave with the one that struck western Europe seven years earlier (2003), and found
that 2010's heat wave was not only more severe, but also covered a greater area.
Even taking into account the uncertainties in the reconstruction of climate models,
they found that 2010 and 2003 were, most likely, the warmest summers since 1500.
And together, both of these mega heat waves have secured a place in the 500-year
weather history of Europe, according to their analysis [10]. Barriopedro and his
colleagues used 11 climate models to examine the outcome of climate change and
all models projected an increase in the frequency of mega heat waves during the
21st century in parts of Europe. In particular, they found that mega heat waves of
magnitude similar to 2003 would increase by a factor of five to 10 for regions of
western and eastern Europe (the western European region included France and
parts of surrounding countries, and the eastern region included northwestern Russia
and parts of the Baltic nations).
3. Synoptic conditions
Heat waves are definitely a complex form of extreme climate event with
substantial impacts. In this respect, case studies cannot but be beneficial in assesing
future evolution trends of heat waves. And this paperworks analyzes the heat wave
episode that affected Romania, in July 2011. In fact, this was a preliminary opening
of a greater heat wave that extended later (end of September till October) over
other countries (as UK) [11].
The July 2011 Romania heat wave was mainly due to the fact that the
Icelandic Low, greatly extending from north-western Europe into scattered low-
pressure nuclei all over central Europe, was blocked by the warmer high-pressure
ridge advancing from northern Africa, over eastern Europe, up to the northern parts
of Russia. This synoptic context favoured the transport of hot, north-African air-
masses in the lower and intermediate levels of the troposphere, over eastern
Europe, Romania included.
In fact, Figure 2 shows the retrograde trajectory of the air-masses at three
different atmosphere levels (1,500 m; 3,000 m and 5,000 m), as it could be
reconstructed by means of NOAA Hysplit Model. The backward trajectory was
simulated for the 96 hours before 16th July 2011, UTC 12.00 hrs., with Bucharest
as reference point. This explains that, in fact, the massive advection of hot air from
northern Africa was initiated ever since the 14th July and continued for at least two
more days.
This air-masses circulation type also explains the extensive cloud system
developed over most of Central Europe, as we may notice on MSG satellite maps
(Figure 4a-c) for all the three consecutive days of reference. However, Romania has
clear skies, only a peripheral cloud nucleus affecting its territory on 16th July, inside
the Carpathian Arch. Under the circumstances, high air-temperatures, characteristic of
Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
186
tropical hot air extending from northern Africa over central Europe, are being
recorded in Romania ever since the 14th July 2011, especially in the Western Plain,
lying closer to the core advection. The highest air-temperatures reached 34oC and
36oC on 14 and 15 July, respectively (Figure 5a-c).
Fig. 2 - Backward trajectory of air masses, ending at Bucharest, 12.00 UTC, 16th
July 2011
This is also confirmed by the wind speed pattern (m/s) at 700 mb isobaric
surface (Figure 3 a-c), showing that, over the Romanian territory, the airstreams
were very slow, with speeds ranging from 6-4 m/s on 14th July (Fig. 3a), then they
almost came to a halt on 15th July (Fig. 3b) and rapidly increased their speed to 6-
12 m/s, especially on the north-western parts of the country (fig. 3c), as they totally
changed into the opposite direction (from NE to SW into SW to NE).
In fact, Figure 2 shows the retrograde trajectory of the air-masses at three
different atmosphere levels (1,500 m; 3,000 m and 5,000 m), as it could be
reconstructed by means of NOAA Hysplit Model. The backward trajectory was
simulated for the 96 hours before 16th July 2011, UTC 12.00 hrs., with Bucharest
as reference point. This explains that, in fact, the massive advection of hot air from
northern Africa was initiated ever since the 14th July and continued for at least two
more days.
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences
187
Fig. 3 - Airstream wind-speed at 700 mb level (a – 14 July; b – 15 July; c – 16 July 2011)
This air-masses circulation type also explains the extensive cloud system
developed over most of Central Europe, as we may notice on MSG satellite maps
(Figure 4a-c) for all the three consecutive days of reference. However, Romania has
clear skies, only a peripheral cloud nucleus affecting its territory on 16th July, inside
the Carpathian Arch. Under the circumstances, high air-temperatures, characteristic of
tropical hot air extending from northern Africa over central Europe, are being
recorded in Romania ever since the 14th July 2011, especially in the Western Plain,
lying closer to the core advection. The highest air-temperatures reached 34oC and
36oC on 14 and 15 July, respectively (Figure 5a-c).
The persistence of this circulation and the continuous air-temperature increase
during daytime, as the high values of potential energy show, were also responsible
not only for the extent of the hot air-mass over the Romanian Plain, but also for high
air-temperatures (34,4ºC and 35,4ºC) being recorded here the following days (15 and
16 July 2011).
A closer look at the spatial distribution of potential energy (gpdm) at the isobaric
level of 500 hPa (that is approximately 5,500 m), where the atmosphere’s leading
airstreams form, reveals that, in fact, on 14th July (12.00 UTC), Romania was under the
influence of a high-pressure system (1,015 hPa) extending from northern Russia to
northern Africa, which generated not only high potential energy values (increasing
from E-564 gpdm, to W-576 gpdm), but also high air-temperatures (between 16oC in
the E to 20oC in the W) at the 850 hPa level (that is approximately 1,500m) (Fig. 6a
and 7a – Source: www.wetter3.de ).
On the 15th July, the Siberian High advanced farther southwards, determining the
steep increase of both potential energy (584 gpdm) and air-temperatures (20-22oC)
especially in the western parts of the country (Fig. 6b and 7b). Finally, on 16th July, the
Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
188
Fig. 4 a-c. Cloud systems over Europe
a – 14 July; b – 15 July; c – 16 July Fig. 5 a-c. Air temperatures at selected
weather stations in Romania
Icelandic Low pushed fresher air southwards, so that the hot, tropical air withdrew
more eastwards, meaning that, in Romania, air cooled off in the Western Plain but still
kept hot in the Romanian Plain, where air-temperatures still maintained high (Fig. 6c
and 7c).
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences
189
Fig. 6 – Distribution of geopotential
energy(gdm) at the 500 hPa level(14-16
july; up to bottom)
Fig. 7 – Air temperature distribution at 850
hPa (14-16 july; up to bottom)
Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
190
4. Meteorological characteristics
As air-temperature is one of the basic elements of weather and climate, the
heat wave affecting Romania on 4-16 July 2011, can best be described in terms of
air-temperature values (Figure 8).
Fig. 8 - Air-temperature values in Romania on 16th
July 2011(12.00 – 18.00 UTC)
Therefore, on the 16th
July 2011, while the western parts of the country
recorded air-temperatures ranging from 20 to 24oC, the south-eastern parts
recorded highs surpassing 32oC in most areas along the Danube River and even 33
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences
191
oC in Bucharest (Filaret), where the severity of the heat wave was greater because
of the urban heat island, resulting from the accumulation of a large amount of heat
within the inner city, as compared to the outer rural areas. The following hours, the
heat stress got greater as air-temperature values increased to 34 o
C and 35oC at
16.00 hrs and kept stagnant until evening (18.00 hrs.). The highest air-temperature
values (36 o
C) were recorded both on the southernmost peripheries of the country,
along the Danube’s left bank and in Bucharest capital city (as the ANM maps
presented in Fig. 8 show).
5. Biometeorological influences
High humidity contributes significantly to the discomfort people feel during a
heat wave. Hot, muggy days are uncomfortable because humans are warm-blooded
creatures who maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the temperature of
the environment. The human body prevents overheating by perspiring or sweating.
However, this process does little to cool the body unless the perspiration can
evaporate. It is the cooling created by the evaporation of perspiration that reduces
body temperature. Because high humidity retards evaporation, people are more
uncomfortable on hot and humid days than on hot and dry days.
Generally, temperature and humidity are the most important elements
influencing summertime human comfort. Several bioclimatic indices combine
these factors to establish the level or degree of comfort or discomfort. One index
widely used by Romania’s National Administration of Meteorology (ANM) is
called the Temperature-Humidity Index (eng. THI = ro. ITU), expressed in units,
which indicates how hot an average person feels on given various conditions of
temperature and relative humidity. To note that, as the relative humidity increases,
the heat stress increases as well.
To advise the public on the potential danger from heat stress, the THI is used to
determine the level of human discomfort, in order to categorize the impact that heat will
have on the well-being of individuals. It is, however, important to note that factors such
as the length of exposure to direct sunlight, the wind speed, and the general health of the
individual greatly affect the amount of stress a person will experience.
Romania’s legislation includes regulations concerning the specific ways of
identifying and reporting on biometeo-climatic risks, according to their character and
amplitude of manifestation in given geographical, seasonal and meteorological
conditions. This is being done on the basis of the Emergency Order nr. 99, issued by the
Romanian Government in 29 June 2000 (the methodological application norms of the
above-mentioned order being later established in the Government Decision nr. 580 in 6
July 2000), which identifies the hazardous weather conditions and establishes the
„measures to be taken in periods with extreme air-temperatures in order to protect the
working persons”; but this has a rather limited area of application since it refers only to
Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
192
the fact that specific authorities, as the National Administration of Meteorology, are
obliged to publicly report on dangerous weather events, such as cold or heat waves.
Fig. 9 - THI values in Romania on 16th
July 2011 (12.00 – 18.00 UTC)
And since the 14-16 July 2011 heat wave episode was considered hazardous to
human health, actual THI values were reported to mass-media every hour, in order for
the population to adopt protective measures. For instance, if taking a closer look at the
spatial distribution of THI values on 16th July (Figure 9), we’ll notice that, at noon (12.00
hrs.) the upper critical value of 80 THI units was exceeded only towards the southern
border of the country, but later in the after-noon (16.00 hrs.), the heat stress became not
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences
193
only more opressive (with THI values exceeding 84 units), but also more extensive, large
areas from the central and eastern parts of the Romanian Plain being influenced by heat
stress due to overheating.
Fig. 10 - UVI values in Romania on 16
th July 2011
On the previously-mentioned warm days, the sky was cloudless and bright,
therefore, sunshine was at its maximum. But too much sunshine (specifically too
much ultraviolet-UV radiation) can lead to serious health problems. For this
reason, the UV Index was issued to warn the public on the potential health risks of
exposure to sunlight. The UV Index is determined by taking into account the
predicted cloud cover and reflectivity of the surface, as well as the Sun angle and
atmospheric depth for each forecast location. The UVI values lie on a scale from 0
to 11 and higher, with larger values representing greater risk.
On the 16th
July 2011, the UVI values in Romania ranged from below 8 in
the Western Plain, to 9 on most of the country’s territory and to values surpassing 9
units on the south-eastern regions (Figure 10). All these UVI values indicated very
high exposure of outdoor people, who were advised, by the authorities, to avoid the
Sun during noon hours, otherwise to take all precautions to cover up, use
sunscreens, hydrate intensely,wear sunglasses etc.
Bibliography: Georgescu Florinela, Canicula si valul de caldura, www.meteoromania.ro
[World Meteorological Organization (1992) – International Meteorological Vocabulary, Geneva.
www.wmo.ch
Remy Melina (2010), Cruel Summer. The Science of Heat Waves, www.livescience.com
www.noaa.gov.org
Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
194
www.meteoromania.ro
[EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Brussels.
Georgescu Florinela, Valurile de caldura din Europa din vara anului 2003, www.meteoromania.ro
*** (2011) - 2006 European Heat Wave – www.wikipedia.com
[10] Wynne Parry (2011) -Recent Heat Waves Likely Warmest Since 1500 in Europe,
www.livescience.com
*** (2012), Autumn 2011 United Kingdom heat wave, www.wikipedia.com
.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ANALYSIS OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS IN THE
ATMOSPHERE OF BOTOSANI TOWN
Liviu Apostol1, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru2, Paul-Narcis Vieru
3
Key words: pollutants, immissions, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur
dioxide, air quality.
Abstract. Immissions of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) were measured in the central area of Botosani municipality, since
January 2008 until December 2009 (Environmental Protection Agency, Mihai
Eminescu Avenue, at the altitude of 160 m). The data represent hourly average of
the three pollutants concentrations, the measurements being performed with the
automatic station – urban background type, from the agency endowment. The
purpose of this work is to present the air quality and the connection between
concentrations and tendencies of gaseous pollutants in the climatic conditions and in
anthropic activities specific in Botosani town. Yearly averages of carbon monoxide
(CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) for the years 2008 and 2009
were: 0.250 mg/m3 and 0.280 mg/m
3; 7.26 µg/m
3 and 8.29 µg/m
3, respectively 37.71
µg/m3 and 30.53 µg/m
3. Generally, the maximum values of the pollutants
immissions are registered in the cold semester of the year, and the minimum values
of the immissions, in the warm semester. The medium value of the ratio CO/ NOx =
5,03 indicates the predominant contribution of the mobile sources in the atmosphere
pollution process, and the value of the ratio SO2/NOx = 0.14 indicates the fact that
the punctiform pollution sources are responsible of the pollution with SO2 in
Botosani town.
Introduction
At the level of Botosani municipality, the observations over the air quality are
assured by the Environmental Protection Agency (APM/EPA), by its own
monitoring system, with an automatic station urban background, with analyzers of
carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), placed on
Mihai Eminescu Avenue, n. 44, in a populated area, without the direct influence of
the industrial emission sources (situated at a distance longer than 2 km) and a
traffic area (at a distance longer than 200 m). The station is placed on an open,
grassy area without major obstacles in the representativeness area. The urban area
1 Prof.Phd., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi,[email protected]
2 PhD.Stud., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, [email protected]
3 Botoşani Town – Hall, [email protected]
Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
196
is residential and commercial. The height of the sampling point is at 3,7 , from the
ground, the sampling time is 24 hours, continuously, and the calibration is
automatically.
The pollutants life cycle implies emission, dispersion, transport, chemical
transformation and their submission to the surface of the ground. The spread of
contaminants emitted and their transformation in immission is dependent on
weather conditions and closely related with regional relief where the pollution
sources, climatic factors, respectively meteorological, are situated, being able to
action on the atmosphere pollutants, directly or indirectly.
Directly, the physical parameters of the atmosphere act by increasing or
decreasing speeds of reaction, by oxidations, favoring hydrolysis, determining „the
resistance time” in the atmosphere for every noxa. Indirectly, it influences the
propagation, dispersion or stagnation of the atmospheric noxae, along with the
dynamics, statics and transformations wich occur in the air masses that contain it
(Apostol et al, 1995).
2. Results and discussions
Sulphur, carbon and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, generally, come both
from anthropic activities and from natural processes. Carbon monoxide emissions
in the atmosphere contribute to generating the greenhouse effect and the main
sources at the level of Botosani town are cars and the thermal energy systems
(heating stations, individual households).
The main compounds with sulphur are inorganic pollutants resulted from fuels
burned in stationary sources (population heating systems which do not use marsh
gas, from industrial processes, from the sewage combustion from rural and urban
areas) or on a small scale from mobile sources (emissions come from diesel
engines). Natural sources are the bacteria (bacterial fermentation in swampy areas),
oxidation of sulphur-containing gas resulted from decomposition of biomass.
Immissions of sulphur dioxide in Botosani county, result, in quantitative, from:
industrial combustion plants (92,23%), combustion in energy industry and
transformation industry (7,57%), combustion in processing industry (0,09%), waste
treatment and storage (0,05%), production processes (0,019%) and other mobile
sources and equipments (0,041%) according to the report concerning status of
environmental factors in 2009, of Botosani Environmental Protection Agency.
The nitrogen oxides (NOx) are very reactive gases, which contain nitrogen
and oxygen in variable quantities. From the varieties of nitrogen oxides, N2O
(nitrous oxide), NO (nitrogen monoxide), NO2 (nitrogen dioxide), N2O3 (dinitrogen
trioxide), only NO si NO2 play an important part in the atmospheric pollution
problems. Immissions of nitrogen oxides which are registered in the atmosphere of
Botosani county come from: waste treatment and storage (59,93%), traffic
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town
197
(20,03%), non-industrial combustion plants (17,64%), energy industry and
transformation industry (2,29%), processing industry (0,08%) and the production
processes (0,008%).
Monitoring air quality in Botosani town was performed according to the law
provisions concerning the surrounding air quality in Romania (Law n. 104/2011),
and the pollutants monitored, measuring methods, limit values and alert thresholds
are established according to the requirements stipulated by the European
regulations (tab. 1).
Tab. 1 - Evaluation of CO, SO2 and NOx concentrations in the surrounding air in a certain
area or urban agglomeration
Critical
level
Daily limit value,
24 hours, for
human health
protection
Hourly limit value
for human health
protection
Alert
threshold
CO - 10 mg/m3*
- -
SO2 20 µg/m3 125 µg/m
3 350 µg/m
3 500 µg/m
3**
NOx 30
µg/m3***
- - 400 µg/m3**
*daily maximum value of the averages on 8 hours **measured for 3 consecutive hours, in points representative for the air
quality, for a surface of at least 100 km2 or for an entire area or
agglomeration;
***yearly critical level for vegetation protection; Legea 104/2011, extras Anexa 3
The town has a surface of 4.135 ha (from which 1.910 ha within incorporated
area), a slightly elongated profile on the north - south direction and a medium
altitude above sea level of 163 meters (fig.1).
The climate is temperate – continental, with winds predominant from North-
West and South-East ditections, with a yearly medium temperature of 9,2oC, an
average of the atmospheric precipitations of 567.9 mm/a year and a town
population of about 116.110 inhabitants.
In fig. 2, fig. 3 and fig. 4 are presented the evolutions of the monthly medium
concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
(NOx) specific of the years 2008 and 2009, in Botosani town.
Yearly medium concentrations of carbon monoxide in 2008 (0.252 mg/m3)
and 2009 (0.278 mg/m3), didn’t exceed the limit value for human health protection.
Instead, this indicator has a positive evolution, in the sense of increasing monthly
averages in 2009 in regard to 2008, because of increasing the traffic emissions and
the number of apartment heating stations.
Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
198
Carbon monoxide (CO) is influenced by the nitrogen oxides concentration in
the atmosphere through both capacity to react with hydroxyl ions (Weinstock et al,
1980; Parrish et al, 1991). The transformation CO in CO2 is facilitated by the
intervention of hydroxyl radicals (OH), a radicals concentration of only 10-9
– 10-8
being enough to transform CO emitted in CO2. The CO resistance time in the
atmosphere of approximately 1 – 3 months, represents the slow mixing and
consumption rhythm through the reaction with OH.
Fig. 1 - Slopes map – Botosani sector
Also, the existence of some soil bacteria which absorb appreciable quantities
of CO influence the atmosphere purification process.
SO2 monthly medium concentrations sustain the ascending trend of the yearly
medium concentrations beginning with 2000, but they didn’t exceed the limit
value, daily or hourly for human health protection. But it was exceeded the critical
level for vegetation protection 22 times in 2008 and 9 times in 2009. The level of
sulphur dioxide immissions depends, on a very small scale, of the traffic, the
registered values are due exclusively to the technological processes in the industrial
sector and to the town heat power plant which ensures the heating necessary,
technological steam and hot water for urban and industrial consumers.
The highest values are registered in May and November. The high values
registered in summer are due to the industrial activities, and in winter, to the
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town
199
heating sources and thermal inversions which favour the pollutants stagnation to
the ground. The SO2 immissions evolution is influenced by the temperature and
precipitations evolution. The temperature has the role to increase the reactivity, and
the water vapours drive to formation of sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
In 2008 and 2009, the monthly NOx medium concentrations exceeded the
critical level for vegetation protection, especially in cold months, because of
combustion processes and of the heating sources which function at maximum
capacity. The daily medium concentration exceeded the critical level 116 times in
2008 and 183 times in 2009. The meteorological conditions and photochemical
reactions which took place, may be considered factors which influenced the
occurrence of pollution processes in Botosani town.
Fig.2 - Monthly medium concentrations
of CO (mg/m3) in 2008 and 2009, in
Botosani
Fig.3 - Monthly medium concentrations of
SO2 (µg/m3) in 2008 and 2009, in Botosani
The report of the Environmental European Agency, concerning the thematic
evaluation of air quality in Europe in 2010, shows that the energetic sector remain
a great source of air pollution, responsible for almost 70% of the sulphur oxides
(SOx) in Europe and 21% of the nitrogen oxides (NOx), despite the significant
reduction of these emissions in 1990 until present. There is known the fact that a
combustion realised in mobile sources is characterized through a raised level of CO
and NOx emissions, ant that realised in punctiform sources is highlighted through a
raised level of SO2 and NOx emissions. Taking into account this thing, it is
expected that for the ratio CO/NOx to obtain a raised value at the mobile pollution
Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
200
sources, and for the ratio SO2/NOx to obtain a low value, a thing valid in reverse,
for the punctiform pollution sources.
Fig.4 - Monthly medium concentrations of NOx (µg/m3) in 2008 and 2009, in Botosani
The results of daily measurements performed in 2009, at automatic stations –
urban background type, by the environmental protection local agencies, in the main
towns in the North-East part of the country, we present as ratio CO/NOx and
SO2/NOx, in tab.2.
Analyzing comparatively the ratio CO/NOx and SO2/NOx, is highlighted the
fact that the mobile sources contribute most to air contamination with CO and NOx
in Piatra Neamt, Vaslui, Bacau town in relation to Botosani town, and the
punctiform sources, in the same towns are due to SO2 pollution. In Botosani town,
in 2009, the yearly CO medium concentration represents 42,3% of the one of Iasi
town, and the SO2 concentration had the highest value in the six towns in the NE
part of the country.
Tab. 2. CO, SO2 and NOx yearly medium concentrations in 2009
Town CO(mg/m3) SO2(μg/m
3) NOx(μg/m
3) CO/NOx SO2/NOx
Bacău 0.21 5.84 18.36 11.43 0.31
Botoşani 0.26 8.27 37.73 6.89 0.21
Iaşi 0.45 4.90 40.50 11.11 0.12
Piatra Neamţ 0.21 4.67 13.07 16.06 0.35
Suceava 0.16 4.08 20.31 7.87 0.20
Vaslui 0.28 6.24 24.00 11.66 0.26 Source: ARPM Bacau, Yearly report concerning the environmental factors condition (2010)
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town
201
From the analysis of the daily and monthly CO and NOx medium
concentrations evolution, it is observed how these ones increase and decrease
simultaneously (fig.5).
Fig. 5 - NOx (µg/m3) and CO (mg/m
3) monthly medium concentrations during the
years 2008 and 2009, in Botosani
If there exists a relation between the CO and NOx concentrations and how
tight is the relation between them, there can be demonstrated drawing the straight
line of regression, which is the result of the way in which the two data sets co-vary
and calculating the Pearson (1) correlation coefficient.
(1)
Where:
- n is the size of the sample formed of pair measurements (xy);
- xi represents the individual measurements of x variable (NOx – independent
values set)
- yi represents the individual measurements of y variable (CO –dependent
values set)
- x represents the arithmetic average of x variables;
- y represents the arithmetic average of y variables;
- sx represents the standard deviation for x values;
- sy represents the standard deviation for y values;
Standard deviations corresponding to the two variables is calculated with the help
of the relation:
; (2)
The regression straight line equation establishes the following static correlation:
2008, =19.331 , R2=0.257
Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
202
2009, = 75.429 , R2=0.6873,
and the value of Pearson correlation coefficient, r NOx,CO = 0,50 in 2008 and r
NOx,CO = 0,82 in 2009, indicates a positive correlation between the two variables
(fig.6 and fig.7).
Fig. 6 - Daily CO medium concentrations
(mg/m3) comparative with NOx ones
(μg/m3) in 2008
Fig. 7 - Daily CO medium concentrations
(mg/m3) comparative with NOx ones
(μg/m3) in 2009
Similar to all statistic tests, r, can’t control deformations or effects of other
variables, but in case of a sample of over 300 cases, the rejection of the null
hypothesis is possible with a weak correlation coefficient (0.118 at the level 0.05
and 0.148 at the level 0.01), that indicates the presence of a positive statistically
semnificative correlation between the two variables. So, in 2008, 25% of CO
concentration variation was due to the linear relation with NOx, and in 2009, 68%.
Conclusions
The continuous measurements of the carbon monoxide immissions (CO),
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) were performed in the central area of
Botosani town. Excesses of monthly and yearly limit values weren’t registered
during the period analyzed, except of nitrogen oxides (NOx). NOx and SO2
monthly medium concentrations exceeded the critical level for vegetation
protection, according to the European rules, especially in the cold months of the
year. NOx daily medium concentration exceeded the critical level in 116 cases in
2008 and in 183 cases in 2009, and SO2 concentration in 22 cases in 2008,
respectivelly 9 cases in 2009.
In 2009, CO yearly medium concentration in Botosani town represented
42,3% of the one of Iasi town, and SO2 concentration had the highest value of the
six towns in the NE part of the country. Analyzing comparativelly the ratio
CO/NOx and SO2/NOx, it is highlighted the fact that the mobile sources contribute
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town
203
the most at the air contamination with CO and NOx in Piatra Neamt, Vaslui, Bacau
towns in relation to Botosani town, and the punctiform sources, in the same towns,
are due to pollution with SO2.
Comparing the yearly medium concentrations of the three pollutants with the
immissions of the other towns in the North-East of the country (Iasi, Bacau, Piatra
Neamt, Suceava and Vaslui), at the level of the year 2009, Botosani town occupies
the Ist place at the immissions of sulphur dioxide (8.24 µg/m
3), the II
nd place at the
immissions of nitrogen oxides (24.81 µg/m3), and respectively the III
rd place at the
immissions of carbon monoxide (0.26 mg/m3).
68% of CO concentration variation, in 2009 and 25% of the year 2008
variation, were due to linear relation which was established between the CO and
NOx concentrations. This analysis was based on hourly measurements performed
at a single urban location.
We admit that there is necessary a global study, with a bigger spacial and
temporary coverage, in order to realise an objective analysis of correlations which
can exist between pollutants and to evaluate air quality in a town.
References: Apostol, L., Catană C., Maxim Brandior Niculina (1995), Influenţa factorilor climatici
în propagarea şi dispersia poluanţilor atmosferei în Subcarpaţii Moldovei, Lucrările
seminarului „Principii şi tehnologii moderne pentru reducerea poluării
atmosferice”, Agenţia de Protecţie a Mediului – Staţiunea Stejarul, Piatra Neamţ.
Apostol L., (2004), Clima Subcarpaţilor Moldovei, Editura Universităţii ,,Ştefan cel
Mare”, Suceava.
Apetrei M., Groza O., Grasland C.(1996), Elemente de statistică cu aplicaţii în
geografie, Editura Universităţii „AL.I: Cuza”Iaşi.
Bruhl CH., Crutzen PJ.,(1999), Reduction in the antropogenic emission of CO and their
effect on CH4 , Chemosfere Global Change Science, 1:249-254.
Parrish DD., Trainer M.,Buhr MP., Watkins BA.,Feshenfeld FC (1991), Carbon
monoxide concentrations and their relation to concentrations of total reactive
oxidized nitrogen at two rural US sites, J. Geophys Res, 96:9309-20.
Seinfeld JH (1986), Atmospheric chemistry and physics off air pollution, NewYork, Wiley.
Weinstock B., Niki H., Chang TY (1980), Chemical factors affecting the hydroxyl radical
concentration in the troposphere, Adv Environ Sci Technol 10:221-258.
Warneck P. (1988),Chemistry of the natural atmosphere, NewYork, Academic Press.
Viney P. Aneja, Agarwal A., Paul A. Roelle, Sharon B. Phillips , Quansong Tong,
Nealson Watkin, Richard Yablonsky (2001), Measurements and analysis off criteria
pollutants in New Delhi, India, Environment International, 27: 35-42.
* * * (1999), Directiva Consiliului nr. 1999/30/EC privind valorile limită pentru dioxidul
de sulf, dioxidul de azot şi oxizii de azot, pulberile în suspensie şi plumbul din
aerul înconjurător (Directiva fiică 1)
Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
204
* * * (2000), Directiva 2000/69/EC privind valorile limită pentru benzen şi monoxidul de
carbon din aerul înconjurător (Directiva fiică 2)
* * * (2011), Legea privind calitatea aerului înconjurător, nr. 104/2011
*** (2010), Raport anual privind starea factorilor de mediu în Regiunea 1Nord-Est
*** (2012), The European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register,
http://prtr.ec.europa.eu/DiffuseSourcesAir.aspx
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
IS THE BIOCLIMATE OF SUCEAVA PLATEAU COMFORTABLE OR
UNCOMFORTABLE? ANALYSIS BASED ON TEE AND THI
Elena Teodoreanu1, Dumitru Mihăilă
2
Keywords: Equivalent Effective Temperature, Air baths, Temperature
Humidity Index
Abstract: The present study approaches in the first part the bioclimatic
comfort or discomfort of the Suceava Plateau during the hot season based on
the two most representative bioclimatic indexes (equivalent effective
temperature - TEE and Temperature Humidity Index (THI). The study is
completed in the second part by the analysis focused on the cold season, a
period for which two other major bioclimatic indexes have been used (cooling
wind power - P, equivalent temperature cooling wind power - TPR) plus an
index derived from previous indices (skin stress index). We used a fifth index
(pulmonary stress) to see whether the bioclimate in Suceava Plateau is
stressful for the human body. The study was completed by the calculation of
the total stress index and the degree of stimulation of Suceava Plateau
bioclimate.
Introduction
Suceava Plateau is a geographical area in the North-East of Romania, lying on
an area of approximately 9000km2, with an average altitude of 250-450m, a forest
and steppe area inhabited by about 660000 people (Romanian Geography, Vol IV,
1992). From the economic and infrastructural point of view, it is considered a well
developed and arranged geographical subunit. In Suceava Plateau or in the
immediate vicinity, numerous sights are located, of which we mention: the Saint
John Monastery of Suceava, Suceviţa, Putna, Arbore, Slatina, Probota, Dragomirna
monasteries, weather resorts Cacica, Solca, Gura Humorului, a lot of hotels, tourist
pensions which annually attract a large number of visitors.
The continental climate with Baltic influences, cold winters, rich snow layer
and comfortable summers in a varied landscape of gentle hills well wooded,
meandering wide valleys with rich and quality water resources, is also a reason to
1 Prof. PhD., Ecological University, Bucuresti, [email protected] 1 Lect. PhD., University ,,Stefan cel Mare” Suceava, Department of Geography, [email protected]
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
206
spend a pleasant holiday or vacation for rest, relaxation or training and
conditioning.
Previous studies on the bioclimatic characteristics of the Romanian regions
(Bogdan, 1983; Teodoreanu, 1993; Berlescu, 1996, 1998) revealed a sedative, tonic
and relaxing bioclimate in Suceava Plateau, with stimulating and tonic properties,
especially in the western part of the region, useful to climatic-therapy during all
months of the year.
Several bioclimatic indices – the most representative for the year or for
summer (Part I) or for cold (part II) – were analyzed to detail the average
bioclimatic features or the most particular periods of time and to highlight the
annual and night-day regime in Suceava Plateau.
1.Data and method. The database used focuses on meteorological
observations related to temperature, humidity and wind speed from the weather
stations of the Suceava Plateau between 1960 - 2008. If applicable for the case
studies, we used daily or hourly data for shorter samples. The formula used to
calculate TEE was the Missenard formula (1937) and the THI formula for moisture
temperature index expressed in units and recommended by WMO. The level of
analysis descended from general (system/distribution, based on average data
outlined) to case studies (as exemplified by the hourly data and daytime objective).
Since the subject is very large, we had to divide the analysis into two parts: one
mainly dedicated to the warm season of the year (based on bioclimatic indexes
equivalent effective temperature – TEE and temperature-humidity index – THI)
and the other part dedicated to the cold season (in this case based on the following
research bioclimatic indexes: cooling power of the wind – P and, closely related,
we have examined the stress of the skin, the equivalent temperature cooling power
of the wind – TPR, and for the unity of the approach, the study is completed by the
total lung stress analysis and the stimulation degree of the Suceava Plateau
climate).
2.Results and Discussions
2.1. TEE - equivalent effective temperature. TEE is a bioclimatic indicator
representing the effective temperature experienced by the human body in different
climatic environmental conditions. It can be followed with good results during the
warm season (summer), expressing the relation [1] given by the air temperature in
the dry bulb - T(0C), the wind speed - v (m/s) and the relative humidity f (%) in
accordance with the Missenard formula, 1937 (Krawczyk, 1975; Teodoreanu 2003,
2007).
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
207
[1]
The thermal comfort is given by a narrow range between 16.90 and 20.8
0 TEE,
where under normal conditions, wearing relaxing clothes, whose albedo is average
in rest position, the body doesn’t lose or gain significant heat. Under or above this
range, the body is feels cold or hot, which brings metabolic changes, in order to
maintain the internal body temperature constant (thermal homeostasis). The
intervals of thermal comfort vary on the globe depending on latitude and human
race (14.4 to 20.60TEE - United Kingdom, 16.7 to 21.8
0TEE – Yakovenko region
of the Russian Federation, 18 - 220TEE - U.S., 23.3 – 29.4
0TEE – tropical countries
- Teodoreanu, Bunescu, 2007).
Tab.1 – The weather stations in the Suceava
Plateau (position and altitude)
N. Z. Mihailov (Baibakova et. al, 1964, according to Teodoreanu, 2002),
classified the air baths according to TEE, as it follows:
- Cold baths 1 – 8.90TEE,
- Moderately cold baths 9 – 16.80TEE,
- Comfortable air baths from 16.9 – 20.80TEE,
- Moderately warm air bath from 20.9 – 22.90TEE,
- Hot air baths 23 – 270TEE,
- Hot air baths > 270TEE.
Calculating the average values of TEE based on data from the weather stations
of the Suceava Plateau (Table 1), on a period of 48 years, we can observe that
although the geographical location (altitude, latitude, longitude - tab. 1) is quite
different, the results are similar (the monthly and annual average TEE was lower in
the northern plateau with approximately 20TEE in Radauti, city situated in a
depression, compared to the southern plateau, at Roman ÷ tab. 2, Fig. 1).
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
208
Fig..1 – The evolution of the annual TEE values (
0C) at the
meteorological stations of the Suceava Plateau (1960-2008)
Tab.2 – Monthly average values of TEE (
0C)
in Suceava Plateau (1960-2008)
TEE I F M A M I
Rădăuţi -9,1 -8,1 -3,5 3,2 9,8 13,5
Suceava -8,2 -7,5 -3,0 3,4 9,8 13,4
Fălticeni -7,6 -6,5 -1,8 4,5 10,5 14,4
Roman -7,9 -6,6 -1,8 5,5 11,5 15,5
TEE I A S O N D
Rădăuţi 15,2 14,9 10,3 4,6 -1,3 -6,3
Suceava 15,3 14,8 10,4 4,8 -1,8 -6,0
Fălticeni 15,9 15,6 11,3 5,8 -0,4 -4,8
Roman 17,4 17,1 12,8 6,7 0,3 -5,0
Moreover, if we analyze the obtained data, we will determine that only in July
and August and in the southern plateau (Roman, Fig. 1), there are comfortable
outdoor baths, which underlines what the researchers found, namely that in
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
209
bioclimatology, average values are not edifying. This is explained by the fact that
the human body can bear higher temperatures during the day and lower
temperatures during the night.
In addition, certain periods, depending on the atmospheric circulation, are
colder or warmer, and the body is exposed to instantaneous conditions of
temperature – humidity – wind and not to average values, which are only required
for comparisons to other regions.
For a more real result of thermal comfort, daily average values of TEE were
calculated for 38 years at the Suceava weather station (Fig. 2) and then the daily
values for 2000 (warm year t0C annual average = 9.3
0C; 1.5
0C above the annual
average), at the same weather station (Fig. 3).
Fig.2 – Annual average values of TEE in Suceava
(1970 - 2008)
We conclude that the TEE evolution outlined through average daily values is
not a relevant way to valorise this bioclimatic index. The unification and limitation
of these TEE index values underneath certain thresholds could even lead to wrong
conclusions about the nature of the air thermal baths (which during summer days,
according to the classification in question, are only moderately cold). The level of
particularization of the analysis on diurnal average values is not relevant enough.
Fig. 3, applied only for the year 2000, is more probative and allows us to see a
concrete case that since April-May moderate cold-air baths have often been
recorded, the approximate thermal comfort is asserted during the summer months
and in September and October the air baths become again moderately cold air, the
average ratings being interrupted on short periods of time by periods of slight cold
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
210
or warm discomfort. In the cold season, in Suceava, even in warm years like 2000,
air baths are cold.
Fig.3 – The evolution of the diurnal annual values of TEE to
Suceava in 2000
For more details, the hourly TEE values were calculated over a period of four
years at the Suceava weather station (by positioning them in the centre of the
plateau, this station can be considered the most representative geographical subunit
ever investigated) for each month of the year, which allows us to find that
discomfort by cooling is predominant in most of the months, both during the day
and the night.
Only in June and on the diurnal range 7-8 a.m. ÷ 6-7 p.m. weather condition is
close to thermal comfort, and in July and August, the thermal comfort is recorded
on a shorter interval between 8-9 a.m. and 5-6 p.m. (Fig. 4).
An analysis of the July 2007 heat wave period, which covered the whole
country, affecting a large part of the population especially in the plains and hills in
the south and east of the country, proved that this period was uncomfortable even
in the plateau area of the northeast of the country, hourly average values of the
period July 16 – 22, 2007 fitting in the area of a heat discomfort over 210TEE to
almost 280TEE.
Even during the night hours before sunrise, at 4 a.m., when there was minimal
daily average for this period, the effective temperature felt by the human body
exceeded the limit of comfort (Fig. 5).
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
211
2.2. Temperature Humidity Index (THI)
There are two methods for calculating this index and for its expression:
"dimensionless", "by unit" or calibrated on the temperature scale, i.e. “C degrees”.
The significant values start from the point where the discomfort is high (80 units,
respectively 400C).
The weather parameters required to calculate the thermal comfort index (ITU),
expressed both in units and in the one calibrated in degrees are the air temperature
at 2m height and the relative humidity.
Fig. 5 Evolution of TEE value in Suceava during the
heat of 16-22.VII.2007
Fig.4 – Average diurnal evolution (2005 - 2008) hourly values of
TEE (0C) to Suceava
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
212
The moisture -temperature index expressed in units recommended by the
WMO (Dragotă, 2003, Marina 2006, Teodoreanu and Bunescu, 2007) is obtained
using the formula [2]:
ITU = (T x 1,8 + 32) – (0,55 – 0,0055 x U) [(T x 1,8 + 32) – 58)] [2], where:
T = temperature (0C) meteorological shelter height (2m); U = relative
humidity (%) at the same level.
Thermal comfort or discomfort is assessed in accordance with the following
scale values: THI ≤ 65 units indicates the comfort, 66 ≤ THI ≥79 indicates the alert
and THI ≥ 80 units shows discomfort.
This index has a limited applicability in the Suceava Plateau for the warm
season of the year. Its utility is especially validated in situations of discomfort
during the summer, and it is an ideal indicator of the time conditions when the
temperature-humidity complex exceeds the alert threshold of discomfort. However,
situations of discomfort caused by high values of temperature – humidity complex,
have a lower frequency in the Suceava Plateau compared to other
subunits/geographical units (the Plain of Moldavia, Cris Plain, Baragan).
Calculating the monthly average values of the THI index at the weather
stations, we can find the comparable bioclimatic conditions in the entire plateau,
and also the inefficiency of the index in all months of the year showing values
below the alert threshold, except in July and August, when in the south of the
plateau, the values are above the alert threshold (fig. 6, tab. 3).
If we calculate the daily values of the THI for the daily values during the year
on a longer period of time (39 years, Suceava weather station), we can notice that
for the maximum values (theoretical values which result from calculations that
included daytime maximum values of every month for a period of 39 years of air
temperature and relative humidity), the alert threshold is exceeded only during the
summer months, while the average values remain within the comfort range (fig. 7).
Calculated for one year (in 2000, which was a very warm year), the average daily
values of THI show that on some days and specific days groups, they can exceed
the alert threshold (Fig. 8).
An isopleth of the THI index for average values is also totally inconclusive,
showing a nucleus during the summer months, during the day hours possibly
ranging within the alert group (Fig. 9). The analysis of hourly values by months for
a period of several years is more conclusive, showing the alert state in the summer
months during the hot sunlight hours (Fig. 10).
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
213
Fig.6 – The regime of the annual ITU values (units) at
meteorological stations in SuceavaPlateau (1960 - 2008)
Tab.3 – Average monthly values of ITU (units) in
Suceava Plateau (1960-2008)
ITU I F M A M I
Rădăuţi 27,0 29,7 36,5 47,3 56,8 62,1
Suceava 28,9 30,8 37,7 48,1 57,2 61,9
Fălticeni 29,0 31,2 38,2 48,8 57,4 62,7
Roman 26,9 30,4 38,6 50,4 59,1 64,2
ITU I A S O N D
Rădăuţi 64,2 62,8 55,6 47,2 38,1 30,2
Suceava 64,4 63,2 56,5 48,3 38,2 31,3
Fălticeni 65,0 64,0 57,3 49,0 39,5 32,3
Roman 66,7 65,7 58,9 49,3 39,4 30,5
Besides, we should note that the state of alert, which would mean a possibility
of thermal discomfort and potential health problems, (highlighted by the media
especially during those periods) is generally the result of temperatures of 25-300C
(normal for summer months in our country, for which the body is adapted), which
shows that this index is only usable under conditions of high heat waves (due to
anticyclonic periods, invasion of continental and maritime tropical air and
highlighted through the succession of days and tropical nights or canicular days).
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
214
Fig.7 – The annual trend of the maximum, medium and maximum
diurnal average values of ITU (units) to Suceava from 1970 to 2008
Fig.8 – Annual evolution of ITU (units) diurnal values in Suceava
in 2000
But even in these cases, respectively during the canicular weather on July 16
to 22, 2007 in Suceava Plateau, the THI values exceeded the critical threshold of
80 units only at noon hours (Fig. 11). This aspect differentiates the Suceava Plateau
from a bioclimatic point view, where summer heat waves have not the size
and intensity of the other Romanian extra-Carpathian subunits.
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
215
Fig. 9 The ITU isopleth (units) in Suceava for the period 2005-2008
Conclusions TEE as bioclimatic index has a greater relevance for the warm season of the
year, because the classifications in terms of the thermal air baths (Mihailov, 1961;
Baibakova, 1964; Teodoreanu, 2002), are limited to positive temperatures. The
thermal character of the winter air baths in Suceava Plateau is more uniform and
located below the high value of cold baths, although the actual change in TEE
allows us to appreciate the detailed nature of atmospheric air heat related to the
human body.
For the warm period (and especially for summer days) we notice that, given
the comfortable character of the average air baths, during an anticyclonic period
(Fig. 5), in Suceava Plateau, TEE values exceed by far the upper thermal comfort
threshold, especially during the day. Moreover, during the night, heat discomfort
can occur several nights in sequence, not being cancelled during the diurnal period
specific to the minimum daytime values. The uncomfortable alternations of days
and nights due to high levels of TEE are therefore highlighted for the Suceava
Plateau too, a geographical subunit regarded as having a cool climate.
We did not intend to highlight/emphasize this aspect, but in the last 30 years,
in the current climate trends, such episodes have become more and more frequent.
This index proves its usefulness especially for such synoptic situations.
THI is a bioclimatic index for Suceava Plateau which has a limited temporal
applicability in the summer months. Only in these months and only in the southern
half of the plateau, the THI index can exceed the threshold of 65 units, which
biologically indicates the body entrance in the alert state. Considering this
situation, the limited timeframe of 7 – 9 a.m. ÷ 18 – 20 p.m. from June to August,
there may be days and nights (single or in groups) when the THI values are above
the threshold of 80 units, case in which the body experiences discomfort. Although
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
216
less frequent in the Suceava Plateau compared to other extra-Carpathian
geographical areas, the weather conditions characterized by discomfort while
Fig.10 – Diurnal regime of the ITU (units) to Suceava for
the months May to August(2005 -2008)
Fig.11 – The trend of diurnal ITU values in Suceava
between 16th - 22.VII.2007
heating under high atmospheric humidity, can create significant problems in the
overall socio-economic system or human body in particular.
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
217
References: Ardeleanu I., Barnea M., (1973), Elemente de biometeorologie medicală, Edit. Medicală,
Bucureşti
Dragotă Carmen (2003), Indicele de confort temperatură-umezeală (ITU), Indici şi
metode cantitative în climatologie, Edit. Univ. din Oradea, 47
Licht S. (1964), Medical climatology, Elisabeth licht Publ., New Haven
Ionac Nicoleta, Ciulache S. (2008), Atlasul bioclimatic al României, Edit Ars Docendi,
Bucureşti
Mihăilă D., Tanasă I. (2007), Particularitati climatice ale semestrului cald la Suceava,
Analele Univ. Stefan cel Mare, Sect. G., T. XVI., Suceava
Munn R. E. (1970), Biometeorological methods, Acad. Press, New York and London
Teodoreanu Elena (1987), Les bains d’air en conditions de topoclimat montan, III
Sympos.”Le topoclimat de montagne” Bucureşti-Buzău
Teodoreanu Elena, Bunescu Iulia (2007), Thermal confort, Present environment and
sustainable development, Nr. 1, Iaşi, 134-142
Teodoreanu Elena, Bunescu Iulia (2008), Canicular days in the summer of 2007 at Iasi,
Present environment and sustainable development, Nr. 2, Iaşi, 195-203
*** Geografia României (1992), Vol.IV, Edit. Academiei Române, Bucureşti.
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
218
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
EVOLUTION OF WATER RESOURCES IN FLOODPLAINS OF
EMBANKED RIVERS
Lăcrămioara Mirela Vlad1, Petru Deliu
2, Iosif Bartha
3
Keywords: Hydrological regime, embankments, floods.
Abstract
The paper analyzes the evolution of water resources in the floodplain of the
Prut river, corresponding to the Trifesti Sculeni sector: the hydrological
network, under natural flow regime and under anthropic modified regime, the
hydraulic arrangements realized (embankments, drainage, draining, irrigation,
etc.) and their impact on the hydrological and hydric regime of the studied
area are inventoried. The impact of damming on the river flow regime during
floods is exemplified using data recorded at hydrological gauging stations in
the natural flow and in the dammed regime: comparative graphs of floods
were prepared for the Prut and Jijia Rivers.
Introduction
In Romania, for flood protection, many rivers have been dammed using the
Saligny solution (non-submersible embankments).This principle was also applied
along the rivers of the Prut basin (Fig 1). In this paper, the hydrological network,
under natural flow regime and anthropic modified regime, the hydraulic
arrangements realized (embankments, drainage, draining, irrigation, etc) and their
impact on the hydrological regime of the study area are inventoried. The purposes
of these arrangements were flood protection and the increase of agricultural areas.
1. Methodology / Study area
The Sculeni Trifesti dammed enclosure (Fig. 2) is part of the hydraulic works
series carried out in the Prut basin for flood protection [1]. It is located in Iasi
County, bordered on the north by the Trifesti locality, at east by the defense
embankment built along the Prut River, at south by the defense embankment built
along the Jijia River and at west by the defense embankment against high waters
1 Lecturer Ph.D., “Gh. Asachi”Technical University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
2 Researcher, ”Romanian Water” National Administration, Iaşi, Romania
3 Lecturer Ph.D., “Gh. Asachi”Technical University, Iaşi, Romania
Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha
220
from the river valleys Frasin and Optoceni.
Prut River is the last first-order tributary of the Danube and it confluences
with it at 150 km upstream of the Black Sea. Jijia River is the most important
tributary on the right side of the Prut River.
Fig. 1 – Prut basin
Fig.2 – Prut River Basin; Location
of the Trifesti Sculeni dammed
enclosure; Dammed works;
Hydrometric station placement.
2. Results
Prut and Jijia floodplain area, in natural flow regime, was a regulator of the
hydrological regime of the rivers as a "valve" during great floods, but also as a
"tank" that provided complete flow in periods when the rivers had low flows.
Looking at maps since 1965, before the building of flood protection
embankments, the initial courses of Cerchezoia, Pruteţ, Frasin Rivers, abandoned
meanders, dead arms of these rivers as well as of rivers Prut and Jijia were
identified. The meadow was characterized by the existence of many oxbows,
backwaters, permanent ponds, swamps, river meanders and abandoned river arms.
The diversified relief resulted on one hand due to the sudden enlargement of
the floodplain downstream Zaboleteni, on the other hand due to Jijia River action,
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers
221
whose backwater wave at high waters prolonged the longer stagnation of flood
water.
The pre-terrace area, which generally lacked the natural drainage that
sometimes overlaps with the central area, especially near ponds and oxbows
portions under the terrace, was fed by water from springs and from the
Cerchezoaia, Frasin and Optoceni Valleys, and in time of floods by the Prut River
and by Jijia River action. All these maintained a regularly water excess area,
feeding low micro relief forms. [1].
The floodplain water surfaces have been anthropogenically altered by the
hydraulic works of defense (Fig. 2): longitudinal dams on the Prut, Jijia, Frasin
Rivers, by building the Stanca-Costesti storage on the Prut River and an
accumulation on Cerchezoaia River. The hydrologic regime from enclosure was
modified and it was dependent then, by hydroameliorative arrangement applied in
order to increase the agricultural area: drainage, draining, irrigation, regulation of
runoff form slopes, etc.
3. Discussion
3.1. Researches on changes in the hydrological regime of the Prut River
Protection against flooding on Prut River basin was designed by building the
Stanca-Costesti storage and by carrying out embankments as the enclosures:
Trifesti-Sculeni, Prisecani-Gorban, Drânceni, Albita-Fălciu, Upper Brates and
Lower Brates.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Timp (months)
Qm
ax (
m3/s
)
1975
1976
1961
Fig.3 – Monthly flow hydrograph at the H. S. Ungheni
on natural regime and dammed regime
Stanca-Costesti accumulation was put in operation in 1978 [3] and the Trifesti
Sculeni enclosure was embanked during 1972-1974. The defense embankment has
Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha
222
a length of 30 km, average top width of 4 m, average height of 3 m, embankment
slopes interior / exterior 1:2 / 1:3 and it protects against floods an area of 8982 ha.
For examples of hydrological changes in the Prut River, we used the hydrological
data recorded at the Ungheni hydrometric station (Fig. 2) since 1961, in the natural
flow regime of the river and since 1975, 1976 (Fig. 3) in the case of the
embankment and data since 1961 and 1991, 2008, 2010 (Fig. 4) in the case of the
embankment and controlled regime by operation of Stanca Costesti storage. By
constructing the Stanca-Costesti Hydrotechnical Junction both the flow and the
extreme levels were changed, resulting in changes of the hydrograph shape in
required limitations.
Fig.4 – Monthly flow hydrograph at the H. S. Ungheni on
natural regime and dammed and controlled regime
50100150200250300350400450500550600650700750800
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Level(cm)
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0P(mm)
2060
100140180220260300340380420460500540580620660700
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Flow(m3/s)
Fig.5 – Annual hydrograph of the Prut River levels / Precipitation at Ungheni H.S.-2008
(left); Annual hydrograph of the Prut River flows (right)
An increase of peak flows due to embankments can be observed, although the
Stanca Costesti accumulation reduces the flood flow.
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers
223
Spring flood hydrograph shape is asymmetric: rapid growth and slow decline
and the summer hydrographs have a bell-shape (Fig. 5).
3.1.Researches on changes in the hydrological regime of Jijia River
In the south of the enclosure, the damming on both sides of Jijia river were
completed in 1974, on a length of approx. 6.4 km, with average top width of 4 m,
average height of 3 m.
For examples of hydrological changes in the Jijia River, we used hydrological
data recorded at hydrometric station Victoria (Fig. 2) since 1960 and 1964, in the
natural flow regime of the river and since 1985 (Q max = 130m3/s, in 24.06.1985
date), 1988 in the case of the embankment regime (Fig. 6).
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
T (months)
FLOW (m3/s)
1960
1964
1988
1985
Fig.6 – Monthly flow hydrograph at H. S. Victoria on natural
regime and dammed regime
Currently, the Jijia River hydrological regime during floods, on the sector of
river afferent to the Trifesti-Sculeni enclosure, depends by controlled exploitation
of I-VI Tiganas polders, built (upstream of the area under study) to attenuate the
flow of Jijia River with a probability of 1%, from 500 m3 / s to the value of 220
m3/s (Fig. 2).
These six embanked (polders) enclosures can hold together a volume of 79,67
million m3 of water. The total length of the arrangement is 11 103 km. The IV, V
and VI polders were put into operation in 1996, the I Tiganasi polder in 2008 and
the II Tiganasi polder in 2003.
The I, II and V Tigănasi polders are inundated in case of floods higher than
5%. The III and IV polders are flooded by floods higher than 10% and the IV
Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha
224
polder will protect against floods higher than 1%, because in this site there are the
pumping station and the transformer that serves the irrigation system Tiganasi –
Perieni [3].
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
21-
Jun
24-
Jun
27-
Jun
30-
Jun
3-Jul 6-Jul 9-Jul 12-Jul 15-Jul 18-Jul 21-Jul 24-Jul 27-Jul 30-Jul
T(days)
Flow(m3/s)
0.000
20.000
40.000
60.000
80.000
100.000
120.000
1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
T (months)
Flo
w (
m3/s
)
Fig.7 – Flow hydrograph at H. S. Victoria in
June-July 2010 (left); Annual flow
hydrograph at H.S. Victoria in 2010 (right)
For flood protection and reduction of solid leakage from the slope, the left
side of the Frasin River was dammed and on Cerchezoaia Valley, south of Trifesti
village, an accumulation was made (Fig. 8). The diffluent flows from the
Cerchezoaia accumulation discharges in the CCS7 drainage channel, placed at the
terrace base, which ensures the transit of flows to the CC NORTD Balteni channel,
in order to evacuate the water excess in the Prut River by the discharge pumping
station (DPP) Bălteni.
Tab.1 – Tharacteristics of Cerchezoaia accumulation [3]
NRL ATTENUATION CAPACITY (between
N.R.L and verification level) mil.m3 Level m above Black Sea Volumemil.m
3
54.20 0.160 0.820
The balance of water regime was modified by drainage, draining arrangement
too, for eliminating the excess water inside the embanked enclosure.
Completion of the drainage works (collection - disposal channels) and
pumping plants for evacuation was achieved during 1974-1975.
The works consist in a network of open drainage channels that are designed to
take surface water from precipitation that stagnates in the lowlands with no
possibility of escape. They were made on an area of 8130 ha, in two functionally
independent systems, NORTH Bălteni system (3 900 ha) and SOUTH Bălteni
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers
225
system (4 230 ha), consisting of a collecting channels network with a total length
of 153.0 km. The drainage network is provided with a central collector traced
across the meadow in the middle enclosure, near Bălteni, down to the Prut
embankment. The collector takes the water from the north of the enclosure (the
NORH Bălteni sector), collecting from the secondary collecting channels; the
distance between them is 400 m. The collected waters are discharged into the Prut
River by the DPP Bălteni. The excess waters in the south of the enclosure (the
SOUTH Bălteni) are collected by the second collector, which is drawn parallel to
the transversal embankment, taking the water from the secondary collectors, which
are drawn at 400 m. Drainage of water from the enclosure over the embankment
into the Jijia River is performed by the DPP Sculeni [1]. Some of the pools
intercepted by collecting channels went into farming.
Fig. 8 – Trifeşti Sculeni embankment enclosure; draining channels; evacuation of excess of
water in the Prut and Jijia Rivers
Arable land was obtained by grubbing the pastures and natural grassland,
clearing forests, bushes and hybrid vineyards as well as by drainage and leveling of
ponds that have small depth and are intercepted by the drainage sewers, realizing
the total drainage of water from them.
Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha
226
The deep oxbows and the abandoned former meanders of the Prut River, e.g.
Potcoava, Rediu Lakes, due to the functioning of the draining system, became
terrains without water, ground water levels at 1 to 1.4 m depth and the total content
of salts on the soil surface of 0.500 g/l.
It was proposed that the negative forms of micro-relief located in the shore’s
sand bank area, where water level and its quality are directly influenced by water
changes of the Prut or Jijia Rivers be left as pools for fishing. It is the case of the
Pruteţ Balatău and Teiva Vişina ponds, which are declared water reserves at the
national level [4].
Pruteţ Bălătău Lake is characterized by special conditions for the reproduction
of sheatfish (Silurus glanis), bream (Abramis brama brama), carp (Cyprinus carpio
carpio), gold fish (Carassius auratus gibelio), pike (Esox lucius) and gudgeon
(obtusirostris gobio) [4].
Teiva – Vişina Pool: the characteristic of this biotope is the presence of tench
(Tinca tinca), carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio), gold fish (Carassius auratus gibelio),
perch (Perca fluviatilis) and pike (Esox lucius).
After 1990, the use of irrigation was drastically reduced, favoring the salt soils
appearance.
The inventory of hydraulic works and water network, of the Trifesti Sculeni
sector of the Prut River major meadow, under natural and man-modified system, is
needed to research the evolution of water resources and quantify the anthropogenic
changes impact over the hydrologic regime of the study area.
By removing the effect of flooding from the major river bed, thus reducing the
territories covered by water, the land use and the biotope specific to flood
fluctuations were changed; the land of the protected soil is used in positive ways,
of agricultural productivity growth.
Acknowledgement: This paper was supported by the project PERFORM-
ERA "Postdoctoral Performance for Integration in the European Research Area"
(ID-57649), financed by the European Social Fund and the Romanian Government.
References:
ILRI, (1976), Irrigations and drainages in Trifesti Sculeni area, Iasi County, Project no.
3189/1 (in Romanian), Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement Iasi,
Romania, 10-40.
ILRI, (2000), Refurbishment and upgrading of Sculeni and Balteni pumping stations from
inside Trifesti-Sculeni dammed and drained enclosure, Iasi county, Project no.167/1
(in Romanian), Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement Iasi, Romania, 12-
14.
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers
227
Prut-Barlad W.B.A., (2010), The Regulation of exploitation of Prut-BARLAD river basin
district, (in Romanian), Prut-Barlad Water Basin Administration, National
Administration “Romanian Waters”.
REPAI, (2004), Mutual management Romania – Republic of Moldova for biodiversity
conservation on the border between the two countries, Phare Project, CBC
RO2004/016.941.01.01.02, (in Romania), Regional Environmental Protection Agency
Iasi, Romania, 15, On line at:
http://biodiversitatecbcapmis.ro/new/down/starea%20de%20conservare/APM_BOOK_Star
ea_de_conservare_Interior_ART.pdf
.
Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha
228
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
IS THE BIOCLIMATE OF THE SUCEAVA PLATEAU COMFORTABLE OR UNCOMFORTABLE? ANALYSIS BASED ON WIND COOLING
POWER INDEX AND SKIN AND LUNG STRESS INDEX
Elena Teodoreanu
1, Dumitru Mihăilă
2
Key words: wind cooling power index, skin and lung stress index
Abstract. The second part the study sets out the main focus on the cold season and
weather critical conditions that may occur during it. The summer months are not
excluded from the analysis, but the climatic indexes analyzed (cooling power of the
wind - P temperature equivalent to the cooling power of the wind - Tpr) point out,
through their values, the bioclimatic discomfort especially in winter months. The
skin stress is felt from November to April when dominant time is hypertonia which
is imperative in the processes of the human body thermogenesis. In January-
February in the northern half of the plateau, the cold stress the human body is
exposed to is a severe one. From May to October, the weather is mild. Mention
should be made that the exception is July, in the southern extremity of the plateau
(Roman) where the weather becomes hypotonic, so that the physiological activities
in the human body work well, initiating the thermolysis processes. The November to
March months present a dehydrating lung stress, which dries out the mucous
membranes, while the cold air mass, the actual amount of water vapor is reduced,
and May-September, when the amount of water vapour air increases, stress lung is
hydrating, as they are mucous softeners. The lung stress, according to the
bioclimatic average statistics is absent in April and October. The cold season months
(especially in winter) are more stressful for the human body than the warm season
(of which the summer months stand out). Episodes of stressful weather in winter
(cold stress) are more frequent and more representative than during summer (heat
stress). Positive stress gives the total stress index. The total stress in Suceava Plateau
is moderate, favorable to the life and work of its inhabitants.
Data and methods.
Using data on temperature, wind speed, water vapor pressure, Beçancenot's
formulas (1974), Siple and Passel (1945), Becancenot's classification (1974) we
calculated the values of yearly, monthly, daily or hourly main bioclimatic indexes
1 Prof. PhD., Ecological University, Bucuresti, [email protected] 2 Lect. PhD., University ,,Stefan cel Mare” Suceava, Department of Geography, [email protected]
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
230
(P - cooling power of wind, TPR - temperature equivalent to wind cooling power),
derivatives (skin stress index), associates (pulmonary stress index) and synthesis
(total stress index and the degree of stimulation of climate). Their temporary
evolution and their spatial distribution allowed us to identify the periods of the year
and of the day when critical thresholds of these indicators are exceeded. We also
identified the plateau areas where the complex temperature-wind speed, water
vapour content can determine discomfort to human body.
2) Results and discussions. 2a) The cooling power of the wind (stress index skin). The human body, by
its exposed parts (skin,) comes into direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere
whose parameters (light, radiation, temperature, humidity, wind etc.) impose an
adaptation to the meteo-climatic complex by triggering thermolysis or
thermogenesis. In some cases, thermoregulation is not required. In 1974,
Beçancenot, repeating the formula for wind chill index, determined by a formula
[1] an index called the wind cooling power that takes into account two meteo-
climatic parameters: the air temperature and the wind speed. It represents a
meteoro-physiological concept expressing in objective terms the combination of air
temperature and the wind speed on the heat balance of the human body (Ciulache,
Ionac, 2008).
Simplified formula for calculating the wind cooling power:
P = (10 v +10,45-v) x (33-t) [1] where:
P = cooling power expressed in kcal/m2/h,
v = wind speed in m/s,
t = air temperature in meteorological shelter reported to conventional
threshold 330C.
Then, the values of wind cooling power, classified in classes (Tab. 1) were
determined according to the reactions of the human body, comfort or discomfort
index with different values and signs (negative, zero or positive). They are called
indices of skin stress. They give the character of the weather/climate and the degree
to which the human body is subjected to stress caused by lower values or higher
cooling power of the wind (Tab. 1).
Out of technical and methodological considerations, the two indices (cooling
power of wind, skin stress index) will be analyzed together or alternatively because
the relations between them are more than obvious.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
231
According to the monthly averages calculated for the plateau stations, May,
June, July, August, September and October are relaxed, the rest of the months
require thermogenesis due to both lower temperatures and wind speed even when
the values are not very high (Tab. 2 corroborated with Tab.1).
Tab. 1 – The cooling power of the wind (kcal/m2/h) and the significance of the
biostress index skin (P. A. Siple, J. P. Beçancenot, 1974)
The cooling
power of the
wind (kcal/m2/h)
Indices
of stress
skin (I)
Character
(significance) Type of stress
0-149 -2 hypotonic stress by triggering thermolysis
during the summer
150-299 -1 hypotonic stress by triggering thermolysis
during the summer
300-599 0 relaxing not require thermoregulation
600-899 +1 Hypertonic stress by triggering thermogenesis
in winter
900-1199 +2 hypertonic stress by triggering thermogenesis
in winter
1200-1499 +3 hypertonic stress by triggering thermogenesis
in winter
> 1500 +4 hypertonic stress by triggering thermogenesis
in winter
Tab. 2 – Monthly average values of wind cooling power (kcal/m
2/h) in Suceava Plateau*
I II III IV V VI
Rădăuţi (1961-2006) 923.5 907.3 796.7 635.0 482.8 399.9
Suceava (1961-2006) 919.9 898.8 793.8 631.2 476.7 390.1
Fălticeni (1961-1998) 877.7 859.3 748.8 599.3 450.3 364.5
Roman (1961-2006) 876.7 858.8 751.6 583.7 431.4 337.7
VII VIII IX X XI XII
Rădăuţi (1961-2006) 355.9 361.3 463.5 599.3 737.3 846.6
Suceava (1961-2006) 346.9 354.5 456.7 592.9 743.3 855.9
Fălticeni (1961-1998) 334.0 341.0 435.1 562.4 707.6 812.9
Roman (1961-2006) 293.1 301.3 399.3 526.7 674.9 793.7 *resulting from consideration of the monthly average temperature and monthly averages of wind speed
A closer analysis (Fig. 1) captures some differences among the weather
stations in Suceava Plateau: hypertonia with higher intensity of requested
thermogenesis during the winter months in northern and central plateau and the
emergence in the far south, at Roman, in July, of periods of hypotonic stress states,
which the body bears more easily by triggering thermolysis.
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
232
Legend
Fig.1 – Types of time classified after the indices of stress skin
in meteorological stations of Suceava Plateau (1961-2006)
The maps of the skin stress in the Suceava Plateau, indicate moderate annual
average values - Fig. 2a, and so does the map that was published in 1984, related to
the annual skin on climatic stress in Romania - Teodoreanu et al. 1984). On that
map, annual values are included for most of the Moldavian Plateau, between 20
and 50 conventional units. A more detailed analysis of this parameter indicates
somewhat higher values in the northern plateau and lower ones in the south.
In the coldest month, January, the skin stress fall is moderately hypertonic
(Fig. 2b) and in the hottest month, July, the values remain relaxed and only in the
south extremity they go down easily in the category of weak hypotonic stress,
possibly exercing on the human body a slight stress that requires heat loss (e.g.
sweating), thermolysis, respectively (Fig. 2c). We must emphasize that the
differences between the northern and southern plateau are reduced and therefore
less significant, generally about 50kcal/m2/h (Fig. 2). The annual regime,
calculated for the largest monthly stress values, indicate for the winter months a
cooling power generally over 1000-1100kcal/m2/h (maximum in February to
Radauti), showing a pronounced skin stress from November to March and the
relaxing months May to September, April and October being slightly hypertonic
(Tab. 3).
The maps of the skin stress in extreme months (February and July), show
relatively small differences between the northern and southern plateau, higher in
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
233
winter (about 150kcal/m2/h in February - Fig. 3a), lower in summer (70kcal/m2/h
in July - Fig. 3b).
Fig. 2a
Fig. 2b
Similar findings can be seen in Fig. 4. Calculation of the skin stress frequency
for the four considered meteorological stations (we exemplified with Rădăuţi
stations - Fig.4 and Roman - Fig. 4b), shows a very low percentage of high
hypertonic stress (+3) in the north, in February a stress of (+2), of 30-50% in
January and less in February, March and December, a moderate stress of (+1), in
80-100% in March and November, a relaxed state (0) up to 100% in May and
September and less in other months and a reduced hot and hypotonic stress (-1) by
10-60% in July and especially August (Fig. 4).
The analysis of daily average value of skin stress over a period of 38 years in
Suceava shows a cooling wind power between 1000 and 600kcal/m2/h from
January to late March, with average daily variations of 20 - 100kcal/m2/h. From
early spring (April 1st), with some exceptions, the index of stress falls into the
relaxing category until late autumn (31 October), with daily variations 10-
50kcal/m2/h (fig. 5).
In November and December, the diurnal values of the wind cooling power
range from 600-900kcal/m2/h under the conditions of a slightly hypocaloric stress,
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
234
the interdiurnal top values of the investigated bioclimatic parameter range from 10
to 70-80kcal/m2/h.
Fig. 2c
Fig.2 – Spatial
distribution of
mean annual
values of
cooling power
of wind
(kcal/m2/h)
and stress skin
in Suceava
Plateau (1960-
2006) – a, in
January - b
and in July - c
Tab.3 – The highest monthly average cooling power of wind (kcal/m2/h)*
I F M A M I I A S O N D
Rădăuţi (1961-2006) 1192.3 1226.1 1001.4 762.2 584.2 484.0 451.7 450.7 538.9 687.7 901.4 1089.2
Suceava (1961-2006) 1121.9 1171.1 951.1 752.9 579.3 446.1 431.9 441.1 537.5 680.8 883.9 1067.3
Fălticeni (1961-1998) 1040.0 1112.4 894.7 733.8 562.0 417.0 402.6 425.3 559.0 662.6 829.1 946.1
Roman (1961-2006) 1043.2 1081.0 917.6 735.5 546.4 392.4 379.7 401.6 478.0 619.3 833.7 1012.6
*taking into account the results of monthly average temperature and the lowest monthly averages the highest values of wind speed
The same index for the maximum daily cooling power of wind, shows
(Fig. 6) values that rarely reach 2000kcal/m2/h, especially in February, but
researchers show that stress of over 1400kcal/m2/h (as it can be recorded in the
winter months in Suceava), can cause freezing of the exposed skin (face, ears,
hands). On very cold and windy days, hypertonic skin stress (700-1200kcal/m2/h)
is present even during the summer months, requiring thermogenesis, therefore
processes that make the body strive for heating (e.g. shivering).
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
235
Fig.3 – Spatial distribution of the maximum monthly values of the wind
power cooling (kcal/m2/h) and stress skin in Suceava Plateau in February –
(left) and in July – (right)
Fig. 4a
The analyzed average hourly values for a period of several years repeat the
previous observations, namely that during the winter months, hypertonic stress,
with little difference from day to night, while during the winter months, the time is
relaxing, with some more pronounced differences, about 100kcal/m2/h between the
minimum at night, generally recorded at around 4 and the maximum daily value is
recorded after an hour or two, after the sun passes at meridian (Fig. 7).
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
236
Fig.4b
Fig. 4 Frequency (%) of months with different values
of wind /cooling power (kcal/m2/h) in Radauti -4a
and Roman - 4b (1961-2006), the related indexes of
comfort or discomfort (the biostres skin),the time
(weather) character
Similar findings, but more detailed, can be noted in the calculation of hourly
values for all months for one year i.e. reduced daily variations of 50 - 100kcal/m2/h
in the winter months and, more pronounced ones of up to 150-180 kcal/m2/h
between night and day, during the spring (Fig. 8).
Fig. 5 Daily average* annual trend of cooling power of the wind, the related
indexes of comfort or discomfort (the skin biostres), the time (weather)
character in Suceava (1971-2008); *results by entering in the calculation of diurnal
average temperature and the diurnal averages of wind speed
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
237
Fig.6 – Annual course of daily maximums of the cooling power of the
wind*, the related indexes of comfort or discomfort (the biostress
skin), the time (weather) character in Suceava (1971-2008); * results by
entering in the calculation of average temperature with lowest diurnal and diurnal averages of wind speed with the highest value
Fig.7 – Diurnal evolution of wind power cooling
(kcal/m2/h) to Suceava (2005-2008)
Isopleth representations (Fig. 9) of the skin stress index show that in a
typical year (1999), the hypertonic weather is specific to winter days, to relaxed
summer days, except for the summer days when the weather becomes hypotonic.
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
238
Fig. 8 Evolution of the diurnal values of wind cooling power, in Suceava in 1999; Period January to June (left); Period July to December (right).
Fig. 9 The isopleth of skin stress index in Suceava in 1999
Fig. 10 The cooling power of wind (kcal/m2/h) to
Suceava (20 to 24 January 2006)
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
239
In a very cold period, with strong wind, skin stress index can reach high
values of wind cooling power, causing a very high hypertonic stress, with
implications on the health of the exposed persons (Fig. 10). Thus, we should
mention that on January 23, 2006 at 8 and 9 a.m. the cooling power of the wind
increased up to 1752, respectively 1768kcal/m2/h! Such values may quickly cause
frostbite of the unprotected human body parts exposed to direct atmospheric air
2b) Temperature equivalent to wind cooling power Tpr. Wind cooling
power index is complemented by another one called temperature equivalent to
wind cooling power - TPR. This is the temperature that air reaches at certain values
of the wind speed. The formula for TPR (by P.A. Siple and C.F. Passel, 1945,
quoted by Ionac and Ciulache in 2008) is given by [2]:
Tpr = [33 + (Tusc-33) x (0.474 + 0.454 v -0.0454v)] [2] where:
Tp.r. = temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power expressed in 0C,
Tusc = air temperature measured with dry thermometer expressed in 0C,
v = wind speed in m/s.
Tab. 4 The cooling power of wind, temperature equivalent to
wind cooling power and physiological effects induced by it (after
Ionac and Ciulache, 2008)
The cooling
power of wind P
(W/m2)
Equivalent
temperature of
cooling power of
wind – Tpr0C
Physiological effects
P = 200-400 Tpr > +10 No discomfort (comfort)
P = 400-600 +10 ≥ Tpr > -1 slightly discomfort
P = 600-800 -1 ≥ Tpr > -10 increased discomfort
P = 800-1000 -10 ≥ Tpr > -18 very cold
P = 1000-1200 -18 ≥ Tpr > -29 stress hypocaloric
P = 1200-1400 -29 ≥ Tpr > -50
Risk to frostbite in
prolonged exposure
conditions
P > 1400 Tpr ≤ -50 Risk to instant frostbite
The intervals of P values correspond to intervals with certain values of TPR
(Tab. 4). The effects of P (and related TPR) on human physiology depend on the
intensity of caloric losses suffered by the human body (Tab. 4).
Table 5 indicates that between May and September, the monthly averages of
this indicators show comfort condition, while from November to March, they show
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
240
increased discomfort, the remaining months (October, April) being classified as
slightly uncomfortable.
Tab. 5 Monthly* and annual averages of temperature equivalent to wind cooling power (0C)
in Suceava Plateau
I F M A M I I A S O N D Annual
Rădăuţi (1961-2006) -8.9 -8.2 -3.2 4.2 11.1 14.9 16.9 16.6 12.0 5.8 -0.5 -5.4 4,6
Suceava (1961-2006) -8.7 -7.8 -3.0 4.4 11.4 15.3 17.3 16.9 12.3 6.1 -0.7 -5.8 4.8
Fălticeni (1961-1998) -6.8 -6.0 -1.0 5.8 12.6 16.5 17.8 17.5 13.3 7.5 0.9 -3.9 6.2
Roman (1961-2006) -6.8 -6.0 -1.1 6.5 13.4 17.7 19.7 19.3 14.8 8.9 2.0 -3.5 7.1
*for the calculations, we considered the monthly averages of air temperature recorded at the dry thermometer and
the monthly averages of wind speed
Territorial distribution of annual average of TPR indicates values within the
range of slight discomfort (Fig. 11a). We note again that the average values of
annual high degree of generalization imposed by this index are insignificant, as
they equalize and unify bioclimatic conditions during a year on large areas. In January, the discomfort is increased (Fig. 11b), and in July, the TPR falls
within the range of comfort everywhere (Fig. 11c), with a (insignificant) difference
of several units between southern and northern plateau. The same problem of
interpretation comes across in July.
Fig. 11 Spatial distribution of annual values (left) January (middle) and July (right) of the
Tpr (0C) in Suceava Plateau (1961-2006)
It is hard to accept that in the warm season only the thermal comfort is
dominant, because we observed (looking at TEE and ITU) that Suceava Plateau is
not avoided by the waves of heat (and rapid cooling), which causes heat waves
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
241
even if their frequency is not really significant in the investigated subunit. As for
January (and winter), we consider that thermal discomfort (given by the TPR
values) is normal for the Suceava Plateau.
I F M A M I I A S O N D Annual
Rădăuţi (1961-2006)
-21.1 -22.6 -12.4 -1.6 6.5 11.0 12.5 12.5 8.5 1.8 -7.9 -16.4 -2.4
Suceava
(1961-2006) -17.9 -20.1 -10.2 -1.2 6.7 12.8 13.4 13.0 8.6 2.1 -7.1 -15.4 -1.3
Fălticeni (1961-1998)
-14.2 -17.5 -7.6 -0.3 7.5 14.1 14.7 13.7 7.6 2.9 -4.6 -9.9 0.5
Roman
(1961-2006) -14.3 -16.1 -8.6 -0.4 8.2 15.2 15.8 14.8 11.3 4.9 -4.8 -13.0 1.1
*for the calculations, the lowest average monthly air temperatures recorded at the dry thermometer and the highest average monthly wind speed were considered
Calculating the monthly average according to the lowest values of temperature
equivalent to the cooling power of the wind (as the lowest monthly average air
temperature and the highest monthly average wind speed) shows similar
observations to the Tab. 8, respectively increased discomfort during the cold
season (extended from November - April), comfort in summer months and slight
discomfort in May, September and October (Tab. 6).
Fig. 12 Spatial distribution of the of the lowest TPR values (
0C)
in February – left side and July – right side in Suceava Plateau
The map of the lowest average monthly values distribution of TPR made in
February (the coldest month according to this index), indicates very low
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
242
temperatures (between -10 and -180C TPR) in the southern half of the plateau and "
hypocaloric stress" (a quite uninspired and insignificant term for severe winter
conditions) (i.e. TPR < -180C), the northern half of the subunit (Fig. 12a). In the
hottest month, July, the conditions are comfortable, with a small difference
between the south and the north of the plateau (Fig. 12b).
Although the lowest monthly average values of the index, represent theoretical
combinations, but likely to occur in real synoptic situations of the studied subunit,
they still allow us to issue relatively similar observations: hypocaloric stress and
very cold in the winter months, increased discomfort in April and October-
November, late spring and autumn slight discomfort, comfort in summer (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13 The annual trend of the lowest average monthly
temperature equivalent to the power of the wind cooling
effect and the physiological effects upon the human body in
Suceava Plateau
The analysis of frequency of monthly TPR average values at the four stations
in the plateau (we only exemplified Radauti and Roman), shows a maximum
frequency for comfort during the warm season, slight discomfort in the
intermediate seasons, cold discomfort in winter, with a frequency of 90% in the
two categories of increased discomfort and very cold only in Suceava and Radauti,
in January-February <5% for hypocaloric stress (Fig. 14).
Fig. 15 shows the interdiurne evolution of the index value in the same
categories, during an average year. It appears, although they are average values,
that from one day to anotheer, variations up to 5-6 degrees of equivalent
temperature can occur, especially in winter and early spring, indicating an unstable
time, stressful for the human body.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
243
Fig. 14 Frequency (%) of the months with different values of temperature equivalent
to wind cooling power at Radauti, Suceava, Romania (1961-2006) and Falticeni
(1961-1998), the physiological effects induced by each month on the human body
(1961 -2006)
Fig. 15 The annual
trend of the daily
average* of
temperature
equivalent to wind
cooling power and
physiological effects
induced on human
body in Suceava
(1971-2008);
*resulted from introducing in the calculations the diurnal average temperatures recorded in the dry
thermometer and the diurnal averages of wind speed
The phenomenon is more obvious, if we take into account the diurnal minima
of equivalent temperature (calculated using the lowest diurnal thermal average and
the highest average diurnal wind speeds), so that differences of 10 -20 degrees
equivalent temperature may arise from day to day (Fig. 16).
We mention that the values of TPR diurnal minima represent statistical
combinations of the two considered elements (daytime temperatures with the
lowest values, diurnal speeds with the highest values). However, the probability of
such combinations occurence is high over long time intervals, when they can
produce profound negative consequences on the human body (frostbite, stress, and
discomfort).
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
244
These combinations with deviations status represent in a transition temperate
climate characterized by great variability, normal thresholds which the atmospheric
air reaches with negative consequences for the living body.
Taking into account the average values of TPR during 24 hours, one can
remark small inter-hour differences (5-70Tpr), both in July (when day and night are
comfortable), but especially in February, when the differences between day and
night are small (2-30Tpr) and the discomfort is increased (Fig. 17).
Fig 16 The annual trend of diurnal temperature
minima* of temperature equivalent to wind cooling
power and physiological effects induced on human
body in Suceava (1971-2008); *resulted from introducing in
the calculations the lower diurnal average temperature calculated from observations at the dry thermometer and of the highest average
diurnal wind speeds
Fig. 17 Evolution of diurnal Tpr (
0C) in
Suceava (2005-2008)
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
245
A more detailed analysis of the evolution of hourly values for each month of
the year (Fig. 18), shows the same elements of the index taken into account, the
difference between night and day not exceeding a few degrees, more pronounced in
the warmer months. The thermal comfort is specific to the whole day (24) only in
June-September.
Fig. 18 The evolution of the diurnal hourly values of temperature equivalent to wind
cooling power in Suceava for the months of 1999
Calculation of temperature equivalent to the cooling power of the wind for a
specific period of time (20-24 January 2006) shows that values of this bioclimatic
index can decrease frequently in synoptic situations of severe winter (zero degrees
temperatures, wind, snow etc.) to values below -300C (Fig. 19).
On shorter time intervals, temperature equivalent to the cooling power of the
wind can reach lower values. For example, on 23 January 2006 at 8, 9 a.m. while
the air temperature dropped to -24 and -23.20C and wind speed reached 8 to 9m/s,
Tpr showed -46.5, respectively -47.20C, corresponding to cooling power of wind
with values higher than 1700kcal/m2/h (1759.1kcal/m2/h at 8, 1767.5kcal/m2/h at
9).
Fig. 19 Temperature equivalent to the
cooling power of wind (0C) in Suceava (20
to 24 January 2006)
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
246
It is a thermal value similar to the low values of Siberia or Antarctica.
Although such values of TPR are rare, they occur in some severe winter conditions.
Such episodes identified by TPR show that in the Suceava Plateau, cold thermal
stress being put on the human body is highest during heavy winters (cold and
windy).
2c) The pulmonary stress index. Atmospheric air with its particularities
(thermal, compositional, water etc.) is inspired by the upper airways and reaches
the lung alveoli. Through these, breathing exchanges are done that can be
interpreted as diffusion processes (Teodoreanu, 2002). One of the parameters on
which a smooth respiratory exchange depends is represented by the atmospheric
water vapour pressure (e) and is expressed in mb (hPa).
Becancenot calculated in 1974 pulmonary stress indices grouped into seven
values intervals (Tab. 10), situated within a scale drawn up by J.P. Nicolas. The
scale of Nicolas includes three levels depending on water vapor pressure values.
When e < 7.5mb, stress is expressed by the tendency of dehydration or
molecular concentration of the blood (usually winter), and when e > 11.7mb, stress
is manifested by the tendency of hydration and dilution of plasma (summer). When
it is between 7.5 to 11.6 mb, stress is balanced (Tab. 7). The values of e > 31.3mb
cause breathing difficulties.
Tab. 7 Index of pulmonary stress depending on the water
vapor pressure (Becancenot, 1974) Water vapor
tension (e) Index Type of stress
0 – 4.0 (+2) dehydrating in winter
4.1 – 7.4 (+1) dehydrating in winter
7.5 - 11,6 0 equilibrate
11.7 – 15.9 (-1) hydrating during summer
16.0 – 21.1 (-2) hydrating during summer
21.2 – 26.5 (-3) hydrating during summer
26.6 – 31.2 (-4) hydrating during summer
The map of pulmonary climatic stress in Romania published in 1984
(Teodoreanu et al., 1984) shows low values of this index for approximately half of
the Moldavian Plateau (the western side, towards the mountains), unlike the eastern
one, which has higher values due to lower quantities of water vapor in the air
masses.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
247
The calculation of the average monthly water vapor pressure (Fig. 20) shows
in months like November to March a dehydrating pulmonary stress, which dries the
mucous membranes, in circumstances in which in the cold mass, the amount of
moisture (water vapor pressure expressed) is reduced and in March-September,
when the air masses contain a large amount of water vapor (relative humidity is
low though, depending on air temperature, while water vapor pressure expresses, in
fact, the actual amount of moisture in the air). Pulmonary stress is moisturizing,
emollient for the mucous membranes. In April and October, this index has values
that do not generate pulmonary stress.
A more detailed situation regarding the watery character of different months
and the intensity of pulmonary stress of the center plateau (Suceava) is shown in
Fig. 21. Monthly frequencies of specific pulmonary stress index (Fig. 21) respect
the general characteristics of its monthly average (Fig. 20), but introduce a greater
statistical detail, by including multiple levels and types of stress during the month.
Fig. 21 The average frequency of months
with different pulmonary stress index
values in Suceava (1971-2006)
Legend
+2 +1 Desiccati
ng time
0 Balanced
time
-1 -2 Moisturiz
ing time
Fig. 20 *Monthly averages of
pulmonary stress index in
Suceava Plateau *based on monthly
averages of water vapor tension of
Radauti (1961-2008), Suceava (1961-
2008); Falticeni (1961-1998), Roman (1961-2008)
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
248
Analyzing the monthly values of the higher vapor pressure of water, we see
that dehydrating months can belong to a more extended interval of the year
(October-April). May to September is balanced in terms of water. According to this
parameter of pulmonary stress (Tab. 8), only the southern half of the plateau and
only July and August may have moisturizing character.
Tab. 8 *Maximum medium monthly averages of lung stress index
Suceava Plateau (1971-2006)
I F M A M I I A S O N D
Rădăuţi
(1971-2008) 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2
Suceava
(1971-2008) 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2
Fălticeni
(1971-1998) 2 2 2 1 0 0 -1 0 0 1 2 2
Roman
(1971-2008) 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 -1 0 1 2 2
*calculated based on monthly averages with the highest values of water vapor tension
Fig. 22 *Monthly average frequency of
diurnal averages of pulmonary stress
index in Suceava (1971-2006); *for the
calculations, the multiannual daily average of water
vapor tension were used
Fig. 23 *Monthly average frequency of
diurnal maxima of pulmonary stress
index in Suceava (1971-2006) ;*for the
calculations, the daily average with the highest
values of water vapor tension were used
The analysis of diurnal regime of pulmonary stress index (Fig. 24) shows the
same thing, dehydrating stress during night hours in the cold months and
moisturizing during the day in the summer months. The regime is balanced in
April, May and October.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
249
Fig. 24 Diurnal regime of pulmonary stress index in Suceava in 1999
2d) Total stress index and the degree of climate stimulation
Adding the annual positive stress (Besancenot, 1974, according to
Teodoreanu, 2002) allows us to boost the annual capacity assessment of the climate
of a region (Tab. 9).
Tab 9 The degree of climate stimulation by
bioclimatic stress values (Becancenot, 1974)
Sum of positive stress Degree of stimulation
< 5 0
5-10 1
10-15 2
15-20 3
20-25 4
> 25 5
Tab. 10 The degree of stimulation of the bioclimate of Suceava Plateau calculated by
totaling the positive stress
Meteorological
station Skin stress index
Pulmonary
stress index
Sum of
positive stress
The degree of
stimulation of
climate
Rădăuţi (1961-2008) 8 6 14 2
Suceava (1961-2008) 7 6 13 2
Fălticeni (1961-1998) 6 6 12 2
Roman (1961-2008) 5 5 10 2
In the Suceava Plateau, although skin stress index is slightly higher in the
north region, the total stress index falls in the same category, namely the moderate
total stress, favourable to the residents’ life and work (Tab. 10).
These data complement the total bioclimatic stress map, published in 1984,
indicating for the Suceava Plateau, moderate values of 40-50 conventional units)
compared to both the east and south, with values of over 50 units and with the
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
250
mountains, where the annual total stress values - reach or exceed 100 conventional
units (Teodoreanu et al., 1984).
Conclusion The use of bioclimatic indexes to analyze the general character of the Suceava
Plateau climate in relation to the human body, usually shows the same general
features, with small differences between the north (slightly cooler and wetter) and
the south (slightly warmer and drier) and smaller differences between the eastern
and western parts of the plateau, taking into consideration the generally quite
similar altitude and the relief.
We can appraise that in the cold season the stress is relatively increased,
caused by low temperatures and active dynamics of the air, which requires an
adaptation of the human body, in order to strengthen the process of thermogenesis,
while in the warm period, the relatively high temperatures, especially during the
day, the generally reduced speed of the wind and the higher humidity of the air
cause a moderate stress, which requires adaptation of the body by thermolysis to
reduce internal temperature. In intermediate seasons, the stress is minimal, being
relaxing for the skin and and balancing for the lungs.
Obviously, these are the results of the analysis performed on average values of
bioclimatic indices. In some situations determined by rapid advections of hot or
cold weather fronts on certain days or hours, the general nature of stress can be
modified (increasing or rising), even only for a short period of time.
References: Ardeleanu I., Barnea M. (1973), Elemente de biometeorologie medicală, Edit. Medicală,
Bucureşti
Berlescu Elena (1998), Enciclopedia de balneo-climatologie a României, Edit. All,
Bucureşti, 258p
Besancenot J. P. (1974), Premieres donnees sur les stress bioclimatiques moyens en
France, Annales de geogr. Nr. 459, LXXXIII, sept. - oct.
Hentschel G. (1978), Das Bioklima des Menschen, Veb verlaf Volk und Gesundheit, Berlin
Krawczyk Barbara (1975), Bioklima uzdrowiska Iwonicz, Probl. Bioklimat Uzdrowisk.
Praca Zbiorowa, fasc 3-4
Licht S. (1964), Medical climatology, Elisabeth licht Publ., New Haven
Mihăilă D., Tanasă I. (2006), Particularitati climatice ale semestrului rece la Suceava,
Analele Univ. ,,Stefan cel Mare”, Sect. G., T. XV., pag. 61-72, Suceava
Munn R. E. (1970), Biometeorological methods, Acad. Press, New York and London
Teodoreanu Elena (1987), Les bains dair en conditions de topoclimat montan, III
Sympos.”Le topoclimat de montagne” Bucureşti-Buzău
Teodoreanu Elena (1992), The bioclimate of Rucăr-Bran Corridor, Revue Roum. de
Geogr., T.36
Teodoreanu Elena (2002), Bioclimatologie umană, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable?
251
Teodoreanu Elena (2011), Clima şi Omul, prieteni sau duşmani?, Edit. Paideia Bucureşti
Teodoreanu Elena, Dacos Mariana (1980), Preliminary data on the average bioclimatic
stresses in Romania, RRGGG- Geogr., T. 24
Teodoreanu Elena, Dacos-Swoboda Mariana, Voiculescu-Ardeleanu Camelia, Enache
L., (1984), Bioclima staţiunilor balneoclimatice din România, Edit. Sport-Turism,
Bucureşti
Tromp S. W. (1974), Progress in biometeorology, vol. I, part I A, part I B, Swets et
Zeitlinger BV Amsterdam
Tromp S.W. (1980), Aspects medicaux de la bioclimatologie humaine, Spectrum
international, vol. 23, nr. 4.
Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
252
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
THE IMPACT OF MINING INDUSTRY ON THE LANDSCAPE OF
MARAMUREŞ COUNTY
Ileana Vasilescu1, Irina Smical
2, Ioan Pop
3
Keywords: mining, vicinity of mining sites mining perimeter, dumps, mitigation or
environmental safeguard measures, environmental mining accidents
Abstract. Having been mentioned for centuries, the mining industry and its
activities have been at the same time an important means of economical
development in the region and a major source of pollution for the environment.
Moreover, it has altered the features of the natural habitat in Maramureş. This study
aims to highlight the impact that mining industry has on the environment of the
county and to present the main aesthetical consequences of carrying out such
activities.
Introduction
The rapid development of mining industry in Maramureş caused the spread of
ore extraction sites, out of which the best known are Baia Mare, Baia Sprie,
Cavnic, Borşa, Ilba, Nistru, Băiuţ and Răzoare.
In Maramures county there were two major mining companies - Intreprinderea
de Prospectiuni şi Explorări Geologice Maramureş and Centrala Minereurilor Baia
Mare. Both companies ceased their activity in the field of non-ferrous and precious
metal extraction in 2006 as a direct consequence of drastic subsidy reduction after
the nineties. Since 1999 several mine closure and rehabilitation activities have been
carried out in order to return the disturbed land in the vicinity of mining sites to its
natural landscape. However, the planning and implementation of this process has
not succeeded in restoring the original native ecosystem of such sites.
Serious environmental problems caused by extraction activities have not been
promptly and efficiently solved and accordingly, environmental accidents due to
1
Lecturer Ph.D., Universitatea de Vest ,,Vasile Goldiş‘’, Arad, filiala Baia Mare, Romania,
2 Researcher Ph.D., Agenţia pentru Protecţia Mediului Maramureş, Baia Mare, Romania,
3 Researcher, Environment Watch Guard Maramureş, Baia Mare, Romania,
Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop
254
technical malfunction occurred while handling dumps at Aurul Baia Mare (Jan
30th 2000), Novăţ - Borşa (March 10th 2000), Colbu- Borsa (July 2008).
These accidents had a considerable media impact on public perception,
highlighting once more that special meteorological phenomena accompanied by
errors in the planning and extraction process may cause accidental pollution with
major regional or international impact.
1. The impact on geography and landscape
In Maramures county prospecting, exploring, extraction and processing of
non-ferrous and precious metals generated unwanted aspects that led to difficulty
in maintaining the balance of the natural terrestrial ecosystems.
The main categories of polluting and disturbing factors that affect the
geographical and landscape are:
1.1. Mine spoil dumps and acid mine drainage
The activities in mining industry have generated huge amounts of waste
material, more precisely, mine spoil (over 100 million tones) which was deposited
in the following 18 dumps: Bozânta, Săsar, Aurul, Nistru, Tăuţii de Sus, Flotaţia
Centrală, Vrănicioara, Mălăini, Plopiş–Răchiţele, Bloaja, Bloaja Vechi, Leorda,
Novăţ, Colbu I, Colbu II, D1, D2, D3 (Figure 1). In our opinion all these dumps
can cause international impact with serious consequences on the environment and
on the safety of the population in case of hydrologic accidents.
Fig.1 – Tautii de Sus tailings dam Fig2 – Ilba – Valea Băii dp (387 m)
In Maramures there are over 500 mine spoil dumps, out of which only 300
dumps that deposit 4 mil tones are registered in the documents of mine operators.
We consider that these dumps present mechanical instability due to the wide angles
of the huge piles, due to ditches, spoil washouts, as well as due to the downward
The impact of mining industry on the landscape of Maramureş county
255
migration of pollutants (heavy metals) caused by exfiltration and alkalinisation (Fig
2).
A very critical situation is represented by the over half million tone of arsenic
pyrite that is directly deposited on the soil. The strong acidification of the flotation
waste which contains high level of pyrite led to the acidification of the surrounding
soils and to the drying out of the vegetation on the southern side of the dumps in
Bozânta, Plopiş, Bloaja, Corbu and D3.
A relevant example is the old dump at Bloaja – Baiut where the concentration
of deposited pyrite (over 50.000 tones) caused the acidification of a wide surface of
surrounding land and led to the corrosion of the evacuation system built for pluvial
water on the dump platform (the reverse pumps), causing 4 holes in the dump.
On the other hand, the deflation phenomena that affect the flotation waste on
the surface of the dump have major negative impact on the surrounding places such
as Bozânta, Săsar, Tăuţii de Sus, Baia Mare and Borşa (Fig. 3).
At the same time mine waste flows and ditches occurring at such dumps and
dams have disastrous effect on the vegetation and on the environment
Fig.3 – “Valea Lungă” Dump (IPEG) Baia
Mare.
Fig.4 – Ilba Mine – Surface mine “Mihai
Nepomuc”
1.1.Surface and underground mining
Surface minings at Hanău –Ilba, Mihai Nepomuc – Ilba, 11 Iunie – Nistru,
Baia Sprie, Şuior, Măgura – Borşa, Răzoare, are mainly responsible for the
appearance and evolution of soil erosion, acidification and migration of harmfull
elements into the surface receptors (Figure 4).
Underground mining – that consist of over 1000 km galleries in the mines of
Ilba, Nistru, Săsar, Herja, Baia Sprie, Şuior, Cavnic, Băiuţ, Băiţa, Borşa and IPEG
galleries in all Maramureş county cause underground sinkholes that - under the
influence of the interior pressure led to landslide, uncontrolled mine water
Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop
256
accumulation as well as its acidification due to the contamination of surface and
underground water with minerals (Figure 5).
Fig. 5 – Sfântul Gheorghe Mine – Băița; Gallery (left), Old stope
(right)
1.3. Sinkholes
Drilling in the underground caused numerous sinkholes on the mine surfaces
at: Purcăreţ, Firizan, Nucuţ – Ilba; Jidovia, 9 May, Lăpuşna – Nistru; Borzaş, Sofia,
Aurum, Valea Roşie, Dealul Crucii – Săsar Baia Mare; Herja Superior; Limpedea,
Crăpătura Zorilor - Baia Sprie; Cariera Şuior; Breiner, Petru and Pavel – Băiuţ;
Gura Băii – Borşa) (Fig. 6).
Through these holes pluvial water infiltrates, it acidifies due to contamination
with metals in the deposits and, combined with heavy rain it creates huge amounts
of water in the underground, as well as violent phenomena such as heavy floods.
Fig.6 – IPEG Hole – Dealul Crucii
Fig.7 – Nistru Mine – Sinkhole Pâlnia,
Jidovia
The impact of mining industry on the landscape of Maramureş county
257
Fig.8 – Săsar Mine – stope Sofia Fig.9 – Nistru mine – The landslide on
the surface at Lăpușna
Fig.10 – “Dealul Crucii” mine - Landslide
Also, infiltration of surface water in the underground can occur through karsts
and crevices formed above some mines where the mining activities are run near the
surface (Jidovia – Nistru, Băiţa, Valea Roşie – Baia Mare, Conci stream – Băiuţ)
(Fig.7, Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10).
1.4.Mining related constructions and water transportation pipes.
Huge surfaces (hundreds of hectares) on which abandoned constructions and
equipment connected to mining industry were left derelict (at present most of them
being devastated) will represent a major environmental problem due to the
corrosive process they undergo.
Such dangerous factors are: buildings, flotation plants, storehouses for mining
materials and concentrates, mine access roads, large quantities of scrap iron (rails,
Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop
258
tubes, pipes, cables, metallic structures, anchors); electric cables, electric
equipment, tools and installations (trolleys, engines, mining pumps, extraction
machine, loading machines, electrical engines) that were not removed because their
removal was not profitable. They will be a major environmental issue for a very
long time (Fig. 11).
Fig.11 Ilba mine – mining site
Similarly, a negative effect on the environment can be caused by evacuating
mining water directly into nature or by the insufficiently purified mine waste
waters in the 5 water treatment plants at Toroioaga- Borşa, Tyuzosa – Băiţa,
Câmpurele – Nistru, Valea Colbului – Ilba and Herja – Baia Mare (Fig. 12, Fig. 13,
Fig. 14, Fig. 15).
Fig.12 – Săsar mine – mine water
evacuation plant
Fig.13 – Nistru mine – water treatment
plant at Câmpurele
The impact of mining industry on the landscape of Maramureş county
259
Fig.14 – Nistru mine – mine water flow
at Tzuyosa
Fig.15 Nistru mine – mine water at
Galbena
Other potential causes of negative impact on the environment are represented
by purified water evacuation systems in the waste dams (reverse water pumps) that
undergo severe corrosion phenomenon that lead to ecological accidents (relevant
examples are the collapse of reverse water pumps at the dams in Tăuţii de Sus,
Bozânta, Bloaja vechi, Leorda ).
Also, there is the permanent danger of blocking the water transportation
galleries under dams situated in the valleys of Novăţ, Colbu (Borşa) and Bloaja
(Băiuţ) in the case of heavy floods that can carry branches, logs, garbage from the
slopes.
At present closure and safeguarding processes are run on such dams built in
valleys at Novat, Colbu (Borsa) and Bloaja Baiut, but it requires important
financial resources to close and clean all the mining vicinities.
Conclusions
Unfortunately for the environmental health and safety, only a regional
perspective - and not a global view - was considered in the process of closing the
mining perimeters. As for the technical projects of mine closures, the interest of the
company involved in this business (REMIN) was prior to other activities such as
prospection, geological explorations, mine opening activities executed by IPEG
Maramures or by other mine operators.
As well, it is obvious that all there is no prioritization from the perspective of
assuring a minimal safety when it comes to mining activities and environment and
also, it is evident that there are no designing solutions that could lead to the
possibility of holding back the pollutants at the source.
The present situation in the post-closure process of the mining perimeters
reveals the fact that there are many unsolved problems due to lack of regulations
when it comes to environment protection. The major problems consist of hundreds
Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop
260
of galleries and vertical mining activities, as well as waste dumps and many surface
mines.
Vertical mining causes the most dangerous situations as they lead to the
formation of sinkholes or landslides that represent a real threat for the animals and
especially for the tourists who, too often, get too near, risking falling. The water
quality is also a major issue as it acidifies due to the flooding process.
In order to solve all these problems, it is necessary to implement the
legislation concerning the safety of post-closure process in the case of mining
perimeters so as to provide protection both for the environment and for the people
and animals that live or happen to go near such areas.
References: Bălănescu, S., Achim, V., Ciolte, A., (2002), Istoria Conducerii Mineritului, a Metalurgiei
Neferoase şi Preţioase din Nord-Vestul României, Editura Gutinul, Baia Mare, pp 508
Bud, I., (2006), Poluanţi în Industria Minieră, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, pp 153.
Paraschiv, I., (1994), Protecţia Mediului în Zonele Miniere, Course, Universitatea de Nord
din Baia Mare, Baia Mare, pp 121
*** (2011),Priority Action Plan, Chapter 22, Environment, Maramureş County
*** web references:
www.apmmm.anpm.ro
http://www.google.ro/imgres?imgurl=http://hartamaramures.ro/imagini/harti/harta_maram
res_.jpg&imgrefurl=http://hartamaramures.ro.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
A LOCAL APPROACH OF SOME PHENOMENA
WITH CLIMATIC EFFECTS AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL.
CASE STUDY: PIATRA NEAMT TOWN
Dumitru Letos
1, Cristina Letos
2
Keywords: Indicator, greenhouse gases, radiative forcing, climate change, energy
consumption, sustainable development.
Abstract. Even though on the global level and especially on European plan, climate
change problem is tackled with great attention by: United Nations, European
Council, European Commission and European Parliament into many official
documents concerning with sustainable development, as well as some research
institutions and working groups such as EUROSTAT, IPCC, OECD, etc., do it in
many reports, analyses and assessments on this theme, local application comes
hardly on an efficient level because of a delay and an disparate approach. Global
impacts upon climate change have the origin at the local level and therefore any
global effect can be mitigated starting from local level through operating upon the
original causes. Among local processes generated by human activities with great
impacts upon climate change are: greenhouse gases emissions (GHGs) and energy
consumption. Monitoring these processes at the local level by using some adequate
indicators such as: Local Contribution to Global Warming Potential and Total Local
Rude Energetic Consumption can be carried out important steps for an efficient
urban audit concerning the sustainable development at the local level and implicitly
on the global plan.
1. Greenhouse gases emissions (GHGS) and radiative forcing
Human activities result in emissions of the following long-lived GHGs:
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous protoxide or nitrous oxide (N2O),
together with other substances as halocarbon gases: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphurhexafluoride (SF6), which destroy the natural
stratospheric ozone, increase the quantity of artificial ozone (O3) and increase the
radiative forcing. The largest part of these gases result from burning conventional
fuel as fossil fuel in different human activities: industry, transport, agriculture etc.
1 Phd student Universitatea „Al. I. Cuza” Iasi, Facultatea de Geografie si Geologie, Romania,
[email protected] 2 Phd student Universitatea „Al. I. Cuza” Iasi, Facultatea de Geografie si Geologie, Romania,
A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
262
The accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to a warming
process of the atmosphere brought about by „catching the infrared radiation
reflected by Earth surface” (IPCC, 2007). Greenhouse effect upon the Earth’s
atmosphere is a natural phenomenon and a necessary precondition for maintaining
life on Terra, but without exceeding a certain point, otherwise it can have negative
effects. It is known that without atmosphere, the Earth’s average temperature
would be lower with about 33oC, but keeping the emissions of greenhouse gases on
a high level that natural phenomenon is artificially amplified and conducts
irreversibly to fast climate change with dangerous repercussions, sometimes
unexpectedly, on the environment generally and the human society especially.
Atmosphere pollution with greenhouse gases is a global phenomenon but its
causes are at the local level, where the effects come back, therefore the local level
is considered as the basic level in tackling the climate change and where there is
necessary a permanent monitoring and finding practical solutions to mitigate
dangerous effects on short term and even to improve the quality of environment on
long term, limiting gradually the causes which generate global effects.
According to the Yearly Report of Neamt Environment Protection Agency,
(Report 2009), and to the series of data during 2008, the analysis of greenhouse
gases emissions in Piatra Neamt area is based on the inventory of emissions
recorded at NT1, an urban background station which is located near Piatra Neamt
Meteo Station and has automatic analyzers which monitor online the air quality,
counting hourly and daily averages. These series of data are delivered to the server
of Neamt Environment Protection Agency and then to the public panel in the centre
of the town and to Air Quality Evaluation Centre belongs to National Environment
Protection Agency at Bucharest (Report 2009).
The inventory of long-lived GHGs emissions at the local level of Piatra Neamt
points out negligible quantities of halocarbon gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF6), but
relative considerable quantities of: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and
nitrous oxide (N2O). Because nowadays in Piatra Neamt area there are few
industrial factories with GHGs emission potential in technological process due to
the phenomenon of deindustrialization during the last decade and because the local
production of electric power is based only on hydroenergy, the main fields which
generate GHGs are: the production and consumption of thermal energy in industry,
the production and consumption of thermal energy for population houses, and the
urban transportation. For technical reasons, we changed the emissions of methane
and nitrous oxide in carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2 -eq) according to specific
global warming coefficients for every gas established by the working group of
Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC’s Third Assessment Report,
2001), as in the formulae:
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain
263
(1) 1×CO2 = 21×CH4 = 310×N2O
(2) 1t CO2 = 21t CH4 = 310t N2O
During 2008, when economic activities weren’t confronting the rebound
generated by economic crisis, the whole quantity of CO2 –eq emissions resulted in
the economic sphere, meaning both fields: technological process and production
and consumption of thermal energy, was summed about at 103.897,6 t/year (42%),
adding the quantity of CO2 –eq emissions resulted from production and
consumption of thermal energy in population houses based on mini-centrals and
estimated at 67.880,4 t/year (28%) (both district centrals and private centrals),
adding also the quantity of CO2 –eq emissions resulted in urban transport activities
counted at about 75.000,2 t/year (30%) (indicators 1,2,3 Annex and Figure 1).
42%
28%
30%
CO2 -eq from economic field
CO2 -eq from domestic activities
CO2 -eq from transport activities
Fig. 1 – The percentage of CO2 –eq emissions in the main activity fields
It is easy to notice that the largest quantity of CO2 –eq is produced by
economic activities, while the smallest one by the thermal system for population
houses. Among all industrial unities, the highest quantity of CO2 –eq is produced
by PETROCART A.S. (factory of cellulose and paper) which generates yearly
about 5.000 tons of CO2 –eq. In fact it is the only industrial unity in Piatra Neamt
that has an agreement for CO2 emissions, according to Kyoto Protocol, the main
emission sources being the thermal central of the factory and drying processes. The
whole quantity of CO2 –eq emitted during 2008 in Piatra Neamt was estimated at
246.778,2 tons (indicator A Annex) which meant 2.3 t/per capita/year (indicator 4
Annex), being situated under the national average in 2007 about 4,4 t/per
capita/year (IEA Statistics, 2010).
A small part of the CO2 quantity is taken off through absorption process in
local vegetation, in this case local forests because the other types of vegetation and
agricultural lands are negligible as area and absorption capacity. So, according to
A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
264
the absorption average capacity of CO2 by forests in the boreal hemisphere (aged
50-70 years) estimated about 0.95 t/ha/year (Global Change Biology, 1998), there
is a result of 3.351,6 t/year of CO2 (for those 3528 ha) (indicator 5 Annex) which is
taken off from the initial quantity, thus the final balance for 2008 was 243.426,6
t/an CO2 –eq (indicator A Annex).
In order to determine the concrete effects of CO2 –eq emissions, we resort to a
particular type of Global Warming Potential (GWP), an indicator introduced by
SETAC which points out the measure that GHGs contributes to global warming
process. IPCC uses a series of mathematical formulae to determine GWP starting
from another index, Radiative Forcing Capacity (RF), which is the quantity of
energy absorbed by GHGs on area unit and time unit otherwise that would be lost
in atmosphere (IPCC, 2007), intending to estimate the future impact potential of
GHGs upon terrestrial climate system. According to comparative analyses, IPCC
proposes in Climate Change 2007, Synthesis Report, an estimated number for
combined radiative forcing generated by increasing of concentration of CO2, NH4
and N2O as to be +2.3 [+2.1 to +2.5] W/m2 for 2005, larger than the radiative
forcing generated only by the variation of solar radiation estimated on the average
of +0.12 [+ 0.06 la + 0.30] W/m2. In this vision, total radiative forcing depends on
many factors: some natural factors as solar radiation, cloud albedo, surface albedo,
and so on, but mostly anthropogenic factors, mainly the increase of CO2 –eq
concentration in atmosphere, estimated by IPCC at 279 ppm in 2005, with an
yearly increase rate of 1.4 ppm/year during 1995-2005.
Even though these information give an evidence about the increasing
concentration of CO2 –eq at the global level, because the emissions of GHGs
happen at the local level, we think that local area has to be introduced into this
equation, and because GWP is an indicator having only a global aggregation level,
it is necessary to evidence the contribution of local area to GWP, at least as a
percentage of local emissions into the national and global quantities of GHGs
(IEA, 2010). We propose a complex indicator in order to evaluate a segment of
urban sustainable development into an urban audit as Local Contribution to Global
Warming Potential, which can gather many specialized indicators referring to local
GHGs emissions (Annex).
According to the calculations from Table 1, quantitative values of CO2 -eq
emissions in Piatra Neamt during 2008 mean 0.000258 % of the total emissions at
national level and 0.000000083 % of the total emissions at global level for that
year (indicator I Annex). If Romania is situated on 40th place on the Globe as
quantity of GHGs emissions, for the local area it is not possible to establish a
certain place, but there is a very little contribution to Global Warming Potential
with 0.000000083 %. This process can be appreciated from two perspectives which
evidence two types of impacts: from its very little contribution to GWP that
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain
265
generates a satisfactory impact upon the global environment, but until those GHSs
are absorbed into the high atmosphere (accumulating in stratosphere), they are
pollution sources in the local level generating air pollution, accumulation of
positive entropy and thereby generating a moderate negative impact upon the local
environment (indicator A Annex).
Tab. 1 – The ratio among global, national and local levels for some statistical indicators
during the 2007-2008 interval
Levels
Area Population GHGs emissions
Absolute
values (km2)
Percentage
(%)
Number
inhabitants
Percentage
(%)
Quantity
(Th. tons)
Percentage
(%)
Globe 148.939.100 100 6.670.000.000 100 29.321.302.000 100
Romania 238.391 0,16 21.500.000 0,32 94.138.000 0,321
Piatra
Neamt
77,47
0,000052
107.000
0,0016
243,4
0,000000083
Sources: National Statistics Institute; Neamt Environmental Protection Agency
2. Energy consumption
Energy consumption includes all types of energy that are consumed as:
electric power, thermal energy and all kinds of energy resulted from burning gas
and liquid fuel for economic, family, public and for other sectors. If inside a
society of consumption, energy consumption expresses the economic level and
standard of living, in our vision based on sustainable development principles,
energy consumption has a double role: a dynamic one for sustaining the economy
and society development and a role of impact upon the environment as increasing
the radiant energy that is emitted towards atmosphere, contributing to increasing
the positive balance recorded at the limit between troposphere and stratosphere on
the background of amplifying the radiative forcing. In IPCC’s vision, terrestrial
surface and atmosphere function together like a system where there are inputs and
outputs of radiant energy and the balance of energy happens in tropopause where
are caused variations of radiant energy called also radiative forcing. The experts of
IPCC considered 1750 as a mark year in the evolution of radiative balance, and
agreed for the acceptance of the term positive radiative forcing for the phenomenon
when the inputs are large than the outputs of radiant energy as the term of negative
radiative forcing for the phenomenon when the inputs are smaller than the ouputs
of radiant energy. Besides solar radiation, cloud albedo, surface albedo and
presence of GHGs, the radiative balance is influenced also by the supplementary
radiant energy emitted from terrestrial surface to the atmosphere as a result of
anthropogenic production and consumption of energy. While the concentration of
GHGs in atmosphere is low, the most part of radiant energy would leave the
A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
266
system and therefore the radiative balance can be negative or close to zero. But the
progressive accumulation of GHGs leads to the growth of radiant energy
absorption in tropopause and consequently to a positive evolution of radiative
forcing which amplifies the greenhouse effect. As the accumulation of GHGs
grows progressively keeping more energy in the atmosphere, the anthropogenic
production and consumption of energy brings a supplementary contribution of
radiant energy into the system, supplying the positive radiative forcing. In these
conditions, energy consumption at the local level has a basic role in the global
system as radiant energy generator; even more the ways of energy production
together with technological level and consumption efficiency can amplify or
diminish the global warming process.
3. Local consumption of electric power
Electric power consumption of Piatra Neamt was 448.742.701 KWh/year in
2008, that meant 25% of Neamt county consumption and 0.82% of Romania
consumption for that year, while the population of the town held 19% of the county
and 0.49% of country population, being a relative high consumption in comparison
with its population percentage (indicator B Annex, according to the data supplied
by different official documents, 2009).
Electric power consumption shared on activities fields in Piatra Neamt during
2008 points out the following values: 6.467.941 KWh/year for public consumption
(1%), 82.613.760 kWh/year for domestic consumption (18%) and 359.661.000
KWh/year for economic consumption (81%) (indicators 6,7,8 Annex and Figure 2).
The yearly average consumption of total electric power per capita in Piatra Neamt
was 4.189 KWh/pc/year during 2008, being higher than Romania’s average
estimated at 2.524 KWh/pc/year. The only explication for that difference depends
on a high level of economic consumption with a highly consuming power industry
(indicator 12 Annex).
A detailed quantitative analyses points out that the average consumption per
house in Piatra Neamt was about 160 KWh/month during 2008, placing the town
close to Romania’s average of 165 KWh/month, and furthermore, associating this
with the domestic average consumption of electric power per capita estimated at
771 KWh/pc/year, proves again a standard of living for the inhabitants close to
Romania’s average (indicators 8, 9 Annex). The average public consumption of
electric power per capita was at 60.37 KWh/pc/year during 2008, proving
economical power consumption placed near to the lowest limit for a normal
operation (indicator 10 Annex).
A short conclusion points out that while public and domestic consumption are
placed close to national average, sometimes with economical tendencies; economic
consumption has a very high level due to some characteristics of local industry
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain
267
1%
81%
18%
Electric power consumption in public
activities
Electric power consumption in economic
field
Electric power consumption in domestic
activities
Fig.2 – Percentage of electric power consumption on main fields of activities
such as high consumptions and low technology. The modest characteristic of total
local electric power consumption in association with the ecological way of
production (100% hydroenergy) generates a moderate positive impact of that
activity field upon the local sustainable development (indicator B Annex).
4. Local fuel consumption
Fuel consumption includes fuel for means of transportation and gas for
producing thermal energy and domestic consumption. The consumption of fuel for
transportation in local area may be analyzed by using some indicators linked to
some different types of fuel (traditional and ecological) and the effects upon the
environment. The total rude fuel consumption in transport activities of Piatra
Neamt during 2008 was estimated at 32,608,782.6 l/year (result of personal
investigation which corroborated the analyze of solid fuel with the urban stock of
means of transport and CO2 –eq emissions from transport activities) that meant an
average fuel consumption in transport activities per capita of 304.4 l/pc/year
(indicators 13, 14 Annex). The percentage of ecological fuel in local urban
transport was estimated at 3% as an average for all fuel stations in the local area,
pointing out an incipient stage in using that kind of fuel (indicator 15 Annex).
The local rude gas consumption in 2008 was 81,799,409 m3/year, shared on
the following fields: 60.5% of gas consumed in economic and public activities and
39.5% of gas consumed in domestic activities (indicators 16, 17, 18). Summing all
conventional fuel consumed reported as tons of conventional fuel (t.c.f.), we can
notice that fossil gaseous fuel has 67%, followed by fossil liquid fuel with 32%
while the ecological liquid fuel has only 1% as reporting to the whole quantity
(Figure 3).
A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
268
32%
1%67%
Fossile liquid fuel
Ecological liquid fuel
Fossile gaseous fuel
Fig. 3 – Percentage of different kinds of fuel consumption
As the majority of economic and domestic activities are based on an
unsustainable power support concerning that about 97% of local fuel consumption
in transport activities are fossil fuel and over 95% of thermal energy is produced by
burning gas, we can conclude that local fuel consumption generates a moderate
negative impact upon the local environment and upon the local sustainable
development (indicator C Annex).
5. Local consuption of thermal energy
The entire local economic field, all public institutions and about 96% of
houses in Piatra Neamt were provide with thermal energy during 2008 by burning
gas and only 4% by other sources: stoves and minicentrals on wood. Total local
consumption of thermal energy was estimated at 470,634 Gcal/year, which meant a
per capita consume of 4.4 Gcal/pc/year. That consumption was shared on different
fields of activities as: economic field and public institutions held 43% of thermal
energy consumption, while houses held 57%, which totalized 15% as thermal
consumption connected to public system and 42% as thermal consumption based
on private centrals (Figure 4).
The thermal public system bore back during the last 10 years due to an
explosion of flat-centrals phenomenon, so that for present period in Piatra Neamt,
over 70% of houses have their own thermal system and only about 26% of houses
are connected to the thermal public system. Even though local administration
succeeded to invest during 2006-2008 over 1000 milliard RON to rehabilitate the
old thermal public system with 194 new thermal centrals with a power of 200 –
800 KW each one, every central connecting only 2-3 blocks of flats in order to
increase the efficiency, more and more householders have been preferring to
assemble their own thermal system for a supplementary autonomy. We appreciate
that the decreasing of local thermal consumption in association with the growth of
consumption efficiency by choosing centrals of small capacity would generate a
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain
269
43%
15%
42%
Thermic energy consumption in economic
field
Thermic energy consumption through public
system
Thermic energy consumption in houses
equiped with own themic centrals
Fig.4 – Percentage of thermal energy consumption on main fields of activities
moderate positive impact upon the local environment and implicitly upon local
sustainable development with better effects over global climate system (indicator D
Annex).
6. Total local energetical consumption
Applying the equivalence formula concerning local energy consumption in
order to change all kinds of consumptions into tons conventional fuel (t.c.f.),
(according to ISMU), we obtain the following:
(3) 1 Gcal = 4.18×109 J
(4) 1 m3 CH4 = 35.5×10
6 J/m
3
(5) 1 l liquid fuel = 43.1335 MJ/l
(6) 1 Gcal = 109 cal = 10
6 kcal = 1.163 x 10
3 kWh = 1.163 MWh
(7) 1 t.c.f = 7 x 106 Kcal = 8.1414 x 10
3 kWh = 8.1414 MWh = 7.0Gcal.
Totalizing them at the local level for 2008, we can obtain about 269,553.57
t.c.f., and can appreciate into a sustainable perspective (quantity of fuel, quantity of
GHGs, ecological energy, local contribution to GWP) that generating a satisfactory
impact upon sustainable development of the local area.
Inside the local energy consumption, we can distinguish between
unsustainable energy generated from conventional fuel by burning (liquid fuel and
gas) which hold about 55% (18% and 37%) and so-called sustainable energy
(electric power and thermal energy) which hold about 45% (20% and 25%), that
A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
270
18%
37%20%
25%
Energy generated from liquid fuel
Energy generated from gas
Energy generated from electric power
Energy generated from thermic energy
Fig.5 – Percentage of local energy types according to energetic sources
does not affect the local environment with chemical emissions but the global
climate system with radiant energy, both of those categories of consumption having
a small contribution to greenhouse effect and global warming process (Figure 5).
7. Determination of climatical and energetical impact indicator upon the
environment
All the conclusions detached during the theoretical analyze we tried to
concentrate into one analysis model like that proposed by EUROSTAT (Almunia,
2005), based on three levels of indicators: analytical, operational and principal
(Annex). Besides we added also a synthetic one, in order to express in a qualitative
manner the degree of local sustainable development inside the researched theme.
This approach means a unification in stages of quantitative and qualitative
indicators, from level 3 to level 1, finally all these levels have to be focused in the
synthetic one (Annex, Table 2). Every indicator in upper levels has to receive a
special code using the main initials of their names in order to be introduced easy
into a diagram (Table 2).
Tab. 2 – Unifying local indicators concerning to climatic and energetic impact upon the
environment
Synthetic Indicator Level 1 Indicator Level 2 Indicator
Climatic and Energetic
Impact Indicator upon the Natural Environment
(CEIINE)
Local Contribution to Global
Warming Potential (LC-GWP)
Total GHGs Emissions (TGHGE)
Total Local Rude Energy
Consumption (TLREC)
Local Consumption of Electric Power (LCEP)
Local Consumption of Liquid Fuel (LCLF)
Local Consumption of Gas Fuel (LCGF)
Local Consumption of Thermal Energy (LCTE)
Source: Annex
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain
271
The graphic unification of operational and principal indicators concerning
climatic and energetic impact upon the natural environment in order to obtain the
synthetic indicator is made in Figure 6, using five categories of impact: major
positive, moderate positive, satisfactory, moderate negative and major negative
impact.
Fig.6 – Generative diagram of Climatic and Energetic Impact Indicator
upon the Natural Environment (Sources: Annex, Table 2)
Total GHGs Emissions Indicator (TGHGE) at the local level is estimated to
have a satisfactory impact upon the environment of global level, that transferring
the same level of impact to the upper indicator, Local Contribution to Global
Warming Potential (LC-GWP).
Because Local Consumption of Electric Power (LCEP) and Local
Consumption of Thermal Energy (LCTE) are integrated into the category of
moderate positive impact and Local Consumption of Liquid Fuel (LCLF)
respective Local Consumption of Gas Fuel (LCGF) are integrated into the category
of moderate negative impact, their unification generates an upper indicator, Total
Local Rude Energy Consumption (TLREC) integrated into the category of
satisfactory impact as an average among them all (Table 2, Figure 6). Unifying the
two indicators of level 1 which have the same category of impact generates the
synthetic indicator, Climatic and Energetic Impact Indicator upon the Natural
Environment (CEIINE) that points out a satisfactory impact upon the sustainability
level of the natural environment and implicitly upon the sustainable development
of Piatra Neamt (Table 2, Figure 6).
Conclusions
The transposal of general principles and rules concerning to sustainable
development from the global or continental plan to local level is a responsibility
A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
272
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain
273
mainly of local authorities supported by national and regional administration.
Inside a globalized economic and environmental system, local level has to play the
role of fundamental cell as well as generator of causes with global effects but also
as decision centre for implementing new developing models for sustainability. The
interdependence between local and global, natural and anthropological, economy
and environment brings the request for local authorities to choose the best solutions
after a thorough knowledge of the problem for a scientific substantiation of every
decision. Inside this vision, the present approach is a small link into a long chain of
knowledge and attitude in order to propose a type of analysis in a certain location
about the basic causes with global impacts upon climate change, trying to put in
quantitative and qualitative relations the two levels, local and global. It is a trial to
transpose the European prospect proposed and sustained by European institutions
into a useful instrument for local analysis of an acute problem. It can become a
main method for investigating the local sustainability referring to causes that affect
global climate and implicitly its manifestations on the local plan. While European
Commission requests more insistently for local authorities to implement urban
audit as a very useful instrument to measure and monitor the level of local
sustainability, this proposal comes to welcome that demand and to help local
administration to apply an efficient analysis instrument. This approach starts from
some results and analysis models proposed by international specialized institutions
such as EUROSTAT and IPCC, managing to adapt them at the local level. We used
the case study of Piatra Neamt in order to give an example of practical application
of the promoted instrument according with this vision. Connecting and summing
up the Local Contribution to GWP and the Total Rude Energy Consumption into
one synthetic indicator as Climatic and Energetic Impact Indicator upon the
Natural Environment allows us to have a good evaluation of the local sustainability
and of its impact upon the global climatic system. Even though the analysis inside
the case study pointed out a satisfactory impact of the local area Piatra Neamt into
the global climatic and energetic circuit where the local level is only a small
subsystem, it could become an analysis model for every town and every local
subsystem concerning the study theme.
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
This article is a result of research carried out by Dumitru Letos and Cristina
Harabagiu (cas. Letos) financed by POSDRU Project (POSDRU/6/1.5/S/25).
References: Almunia, M., (2005). Sustainable Development Indicators to monitor the implementation
of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy, Communication to the members of the
Commission, Brussels, 3-5
A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
274
***Commission of the European Communities, (2005). Sustainable Development
Indicators to munitor the implementation of the EU Sustainable Development
Strategy, 9-20
***Commission of the European Communities, (2007). Progress Report on the Sustainable
Development Strategy, 5, 6
***EUROSTAT, (2007). Monitoring Report of the EU SustainableDevelopment Strategy,
Statistical books, 66-83
***EUROSTAT, (2007). Indicators and better policy-making: the case of sustainable
Development, Luxemburg, 1-4
***European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Systems, Informatics and
Safety, (1999). An European System of Environmental Pressure Indices, First Volume
of the Environmental Pressure Indices Handbook: The Indicators, Part I: Introduction
to the political and theoretical background, European Commission, Joint Research
Centre, Institute for Systems, Informatics and Safety (ISIS), whole document
***Global Change Biology, (1998), Long-term measurements of boreal forest carbon
balance reveal large temperature sensitivity, 443-450
***Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2001). Third Assessment Report, 2001,
244,245
***Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis
Report, 4, 14-17
***International Energy Agency, (2010), CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion,
Highlights, 50
***Local Commity for Emergency Situations, (2009). Analyse Plan for Risk Covering in
Piatra Neamt town, 41
***Neamt Environment Protection Agency, (2009). Annual Report concerning the quality
of environment factors, 23-39
***Neamt Environment Protection Agency, (2009). Rude data series referring to local
GHGs emissions during 2008
***Neamt Environment Protection Agency, (2009). Inventory of GHGs emissions recorded
to NT1 during 2008
***National Statistics Intitute, (2009), Statistics Data
***Townhall of Piatra Neamţ, (2008). Strategia de Dezvoltare Locală a Municipiului
Piatra Neamţ 2008-2015, 56, 57
ABBREVIATION
APRC – Analyse Plan of Risk Covering; CO2 –eq – CO2 equivalent; EPA NT –
Environmental Protection Agency Neamt; GHGs – Greenhouse Gases; GWP – Global
Warming Potential; IEA – International Energy Agency; ISMU – International System of
Measure Unities; IPCC - Interguvernmental Panel of Climate Change; NT1 – Neamt Meteo
Station No. 1 pc – per capita; RON – Romanian monetary unity; SETAC - Society of
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry; TH – Townhall; t.c.f. - tons conventional
fuel.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
IMPLICATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF
CORRIDOR AND AXIS DEVELOPMENT
Daniela Iurea
1
Key words:development corridors, development axes, urban sprawl, linear spatial
development, urban concentration, spatial disparities Abstract.The subject of corridor and axis development as linear spatial
development pattern is a very controversial one. While some see it as a valuable
economic development tool at regional level, others associate it with problems like
congestion, landscape fragmentation, increasing dependency of private car use, land
waste, pollution, or suburbanization. At national level, the territorial development
strategy seems to support corridor and axis formation, while the strategy for
sustainable transportation expresses the concern about some of the possible negative
consequences of this type of development trend. This article examines different
points of view regarding corridor and axis development which are present in the
literature as well as in the European and national spatial strategies and attempts to
emphasize the main opportunities and risks entailed by these spatial development
patterns.
Introduction
Compact cities, preservation of open spaces, reduction of private car
dependency and a spatial structure that encourages the use of public transportation
are some of the main European spatial development objectives.
„Urban concentration” has been considered a basic principle for combating
the current spatial development trends: urban sprawl, ribbon development along the
main transportation routes.
Corridor and axes development patterns are therefore seen as antagonistic to
the compact urban forms that represent the sustainable spatial design recommended
by European spatial policies.
At the same time, a development corridor is supposed to have an influence on
the spatial disparities by shaping investment decisions (Chapman et al., 2003).
Albrechts and Tasan-Kok (2009) showed that the terms ‘corridor’ and ’axis
development’ carry a variety of meanings that relate to the functions (urbanization,
ecological, transportation and economic development corridors), views
(geographers, ecologists, spatial policy planners, transport engineers, economists)
1 PhD. Student, University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, Romania, [email protected]
Daniela Iurea
276
and scale (from global to local). According to these two authors, corridor and axis
development have in common spatial linearity as a major feature and they refer to
the same types of development. The difference between them would be, according
to the same authors, that corridors refer to patterns of spatial development at
macro-scale, whereas axis development refers to micro-scale continuity, namely,
concentration of urban functions along a linear pattern.
At European level, for example, Euro-corridors are seen as “the backbone” of
the Trans-European-Networks (TENs), whereas at regional level, the significance
of corridors is more closely related to the urbanization processes (Vries, J. de and
Priemus, H., 2003).
Within the project CORRIDESIGN2, Ipenburg et al. (2000) examined the
divergent points of view and showed that there are at least two ways to look at
(mega)corridors. Thus, for those who expressed a positive view about the
development corridor, this is seen a tool for regional development, while for those
sharing a negative perception, the corridor is looked upon as a threat to the quality
of life (Ipenburg, 2001).
In the document concerning European Regional Planning Strategy prepared
for the European Conference of Ministers Responsible for Regional Planning
(CEMAT, 1992), Nicholas Momper showed as well that the influence of
metropolitan areas and the main development axes can be negative or positive. It is
negative if it leads to urban concentration of development potential, which, instead
of being distributed throughout all the hierarchical levels of the structure, it is
higher within metropolitan areas and around the main development axes. They
become positive when performing highly qualified and specialized functions, in the
exchange of goods and services between rural and urban areas and between
developed and declining regions.
According to the same document, the main development axes might have the
following functions:
- intensification of goods and services exchange between metropolitan areas
(liaison functions);
- improving the accessibility between regions (functional organization);
2 The project CORRIDESIGN investigated the development of the megacorridors in the north-western part of
Europe. Seven megacorridors have been identified: 1) Randstad - Flemish Diamond; 2) Randstad – RheinRuhr; 3)
RheinRuhn – Flemish Diamond; 4) Flemish Diamond – Lille; 5) Lille – Paris; 6) Lille – London; 7) London – West Middlands. CORRIDESIGN have analized if and to what extent the process towards the network society is
linked, from the spatial point of view, with the transnational megacorridors or with the bundles of infrastructure
between big urban regions in north-western Europe. Important questions in CORRIDESIGN were: what type of development corridor should be stimulated, slowed down or forbiddened?; where should corridors be developed
and why there?; should the increase of the spatial coherence be followed by institutional coherence? And, if so,
which public and private bodies should be involved?
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development
277
- stimulating urban development of the urban centers and development axes in
order to promote the linear extension of the metropolitan areas (functional
concentration) and to reinforce and guide development potential to the junctions
situated along the development axes (development functions);
- protection and preservation of the open spaces between development axes
(protection functions).
We will further examine some of these positive and negative perceptions on
corridor and axes development.
1. Negative perceptions on corridor and axes development
This point of view is determined by the problems with which corridors and
axes are being associated with: congestion, urban sprawl, ribbon development
along the transport routes and landscape fragmentation.
In addition, this type of development pattern is being considered to lead to the
reduction or even to the suppression of the economic investments in the inner
cities, and it can thus be a threat to the vitality of the cities. This interpretation is
strongly present in Holland, Flanders (northern Belgium), Germany and Great
Britain (Ipenburg, 2000).
Peter Hall (2002) summarizes some of the criticism of these types of
development: waste of land, uncontrolled use of natural resources, pollution,
increased cost of living resulting from the dependency on private cars,
suburbanization.
Many spatial planners reject the idea of ribbon development, wishing instead
to concentrate the development in the existing urban centers, or, in cases that
cannot be avoided, in new urban centers.
Unplanned urban sprawl based on a street system has always been rejected by
urban planners. First, planners were against the occupation of rural areas with
urban functions. Later – the last decades of the 20th century – the fragmentation of
landscapes and destruction of green infrastructures became the main reasons for
rejecting this model. Studies of different cities have concluded that 1850 represents
a peak regarding densities and urban agglomerations (Hohenberg and Hollen Lees,
1995, p. 303).
Subsequently, most European cities have sprawled quickly towards their
surrounding rural areas, including along the main roads, followed by a speculative
development of the lands in the nearby areas. Technological innovations have
made this sprawl possible, initially through the emergence of electric trams and
trains, and then with the internal combustion engine and with private cars.
Although personal automobile led to decentralization in all possible fragmentation
patterns, a certain concentration can be seen at a larger scale (Priemus and
Zonneveld, 2003).
Daniela Iurea
278
The industrial cities of the 19th century had a relatively compact shape, which
made them easy to distinguish from the rural areas and from other cities (Albrechts
and Tasan-Kok, 2009).
The dynamics of cities during the 20th century resulted in decentralized trends,
economic growth, and numerical growth of the population outside the cities
beginning with the 1960s. The decentralization process has been supported by
economic changes and by the explosion of personal mobility and the emergence of
new lifestyles.
Many planners consider that compact cities with an optimal density should
replace the urban sprawl as the dominant future development pattern. From this
point of view, corridors and axes have been criticized as being associated with the
decentralization of urban functions (ibid.).
Urban sprawl has also been seen as a problem in the European Spatial
Development Perspective (ESDP): “uncontrolled growth results in increased levels
of private transport, increases the energy consumption; makes infrastructure and
services more costly; and has negative effects on the quality of the countryside and
the environment” (European Commission, 1999, p. 281).
The Strategy for Sustainable Transportation in Romania also draws attention
upon some of the direct consequences of the development of the residential and
commercial areas and of the extension of the urban space along the national roads.
In this regard, the document points that the integration of the national roads in the
urban street network for tens of kilometers affects the exploitation and safety
parameters of the national roads. Also, the document shows that the access to the
west, east and south European corridors is being limited by the low travel capacity
and by the reduced quality of some infrastructure transport elements, perturbing the
free circulation of goods and people and diminishing the international freight and
passengers traffic that crosses Romania (Strategy for sustainable transportation for
the period 2007-2013 and 2020, 2030, p.12)
Momper (1992) considers that metropolitan areas and the main development
axes could bring about the following negative effects:
- growth of the disparities between rural areas and local centers leading to
intensification of the drift from the land by an absorption effect;
- ore acute shortages of the infrastructure facilities in the rural areas, resulting
in additional transport costs;
- increased exchange of goods and services on the main axes between the main
conurbations to the detriment of the rural areas;
- disorganization and destruction of rural areas by the construction of high-
speed roads between major urban centers.
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development
279
2. Positive perceptions of corridor and axis development
The second interpretation of corridors has a positive connotation, corridors
being seen as opportunities for economic development.
Well developed and carefully selected nodes along the corridors might support
economic development that in other circumstances would not take place.
Those using these positive interpretations seek to avoid the ‘pomp and tunnel’
effects that appear in the regions that host the infrastructure, but do not benefit
from it (Graham and Marvin, 2001). This point of view is dominant in the North of
France and in Walloon region (South Belgium) (Ipenburg et al., 2001).
According to Momper (1992), development axes might have the following
positive effects on the rural and urban development:
- stimulus for the development of the entire territorial structure through the
priority development centers situated on development axes;
- gradual reduction of the infrastructure imbalances and other shortages;
- connection of rural areas, especially in peripheral regions, by stimulating the
exchanges of goods and services on long distances, eradicating the shortcomings in
the transport infrastructure;
- improvement in the access to rural areas of industrial products necessary for
agriculture and the transport of the agricultural products to urban areas;
- increased entrepreneurial attractiveness in the rural areas;
- improved access to recreation and relaxation areas for the inhabitants in the
urban environments and equal access for the inhabitants of rural areas to the
services provided by big urban areas;
- encouragement of decentralization within highly concentrated areas for their
benefit as well as for that of the rural areas.
In the regional policy exists a strong belief that the increase of the
connectivity level stimulates the performance of the regions that were left behind.
The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) is an organized
spatial policy integrated at transnational level. The development of a polycentric
urban system and a new urban-rural relationship is one of the objectives of the
development strategy of the ESDP that considers the concept of corridor as an
instrument of reconciling growth, competitiveness and sustainable development.
ESDP offers a geographical image of the European economic space – a polycentric
urban system, linked through integrated communication corridors (Albrechts and
Tasan-Kok, 2009). ESDP addresses the issue of corridors (Euro corridors) both in
the sense of bundles of infrastructures and development corridors.
In the document, Euro corridors are being considered to strengthen the spatial
cohesion of the EU and to represent an essential instrument of spatial development
in supporting the cooperation between cities: “the spatial concept of Euro corridors
can establish connections between the sectoral policies, such as transport,
Daniela Iurea
280
infrastructure, economic development, urbanization and environment. In the
development perspective for Euro corridors, it should be clearly indicated in which
areas the growth of activities can be clustered and which areas have to be protected
as open space. There are a great number of potential corridors in the EU. Some
corridors are already well-developed. In other regions such corridors have to be
developed and connected with the existing ones. Important missing links and
secondary networks should be established (ESDP, 1999, p. 164).
According to the National Strategy for Sustainable Development, the
objective regarding spatial planning for the year 2020 is “the constitution at
regional level in accordance with the spatial development strategies of the
polycentric system of functional urban areas (urban agglomerations) and of the
urbanization corridors along the European transport axes (network polycentricity)”
(National Strategy for Sustainable Development of Romania Horizons 2013-2020-
2030, (2008), p. 128).
Warnish and Verster (2005) point out that the concentration of development
initiatives along a transport route determines the emergence of the development
corridors. The authors consider logical the intensification, diversification and
concentration of land uses and economic activities in areas where most
infrastructure and transport services (roads and railways) are available, not only
because they require massive capital investment for an efficient functioning, but
also because this kind of investments need an intensive use of the lands to recover
the investments costs.
Traffic and infrastructure do not only derive from the economic and social
processes, but they also determine these functions (Priemus and Zonneveld, 2003).
Population flows induce the manifestation of a consumption demand in the
transit and halting areas. Such a request stimulates numerous traditional activities,
being able in certain conditions to spur the economic development of the entire
region. Flows of tourists and passengers bring an additional request in the local
markets for the food products and for numerous other commercial activities.
Along the transport axes, relay cities come to develop accommodation, tourist
and catering activities (Pottier, 1963).
An improved or a new transport infrastructure can determine the increase of
the rural population and the augmenting of the diffusion effects of additional
employment opportunities in the rural areas or in their surroundings (Guangqing
Chi et al., 2006).
The probability for industries and companies to move here increases as a
result of better transportation conditions, which means new job opportunities.
Under this scenario, the road infrastructure not only contributes to maintaining
the residents who would otherwise seek to relocate for a job, but it will also attract
people from other places.
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development
281
The development of the road infrastructure generates new jobs in the services
sector, such as gas stations, service stations, retail centers like strip malls,
restaurants and motels.
Fig.1 – Positive and negative perceptions on corridor and axes development
Rural areas that are away from the influence of an urban center could become
new growth centers as a consequence of the emergence and centralization of new
services and could develop specialized production.
Priemus and Zonneveld (2003) argue that the passage areas for large
passengers and freight transport volumes are attractive for companies, especially
for those that operate in distribution and logistics.
This would eventually lead to urbanization in the places situated between the
existing urban centers, beginning with a ribbon development, and then creating
new urban growth poles.
The same point of view seems to be shared by the territorial development
vision of the Strategic Concept of the Spatial Development Strategy Romania
2030. In this document, connecting Romania to the European poles and
development corridors is one of the main spatial guidelines. The document
highlights in this regard the need for balanced structuring and for the development
of urban networks through formation, consolidation and balanced distribution of
Daniela Iurea
282
development poles. This goal can be achieved, inter alia, by developing and
diversifying the relations between urban centers, supported by the configuration of
development axes in relation to major transport routes.
The main positive and negative perceptions associated to corridor and axis
development are being synthesized in the figure below.
3. Alternative concepts
Landscape preservation and concentration of development are generally seen
as strategies to combat urban sprawl, and to reduce the economic drain and the auto
mobility, whereas the intersections of the infrastructure axes are being perceived as
key nodes for regional development (Ipenburg et al., 2001).
Different concepts have been proposed to symbolize more sustainable urban
forms. The concept of “bead” if often mentioned in strategic spatial planning to
avoid this type of development (Chapman et al., 2003). This concept can be
described in spatial terms as a sequence of compact settlements connected by a
high quality public transport axis and is seen as way of reconciling the potentially
conflicting objectives to strive towards a more compact urban form, to have a range
of residential densities and access to green space (Chapman, D., Pratt, D.,
Larkham, P., Dickins, I., 2003).
Chapman et al. (2003) propose a new term to replace the term corridor,
namely “armature”, with the meaning of supporting framework. According to the
authors, the advantages of using this concept come from the fact that armature can
be conceptualized as multi-layered and multidimensional, where the infrastructure
and flows could be represented as the complex matrix that already exists, rather
than confining them to a linear area potentially limited. The interactions between
different infrastructural and institutional systems in different nodal points could be
rapidly represented in this model. The concept also has the advantage of allowing
the territory associated with armature at the local level to vary in terms of
urbanization and economic development while functioning coherently at
transnational level.
A variety of institutional relations could be related to the armature concept as
supporting framework. The concept could also provide a basis for incorporating
more essential connections that do not follow linear corridors, such as air links and
telecommunication networks. Another advantage is that it provides a multi-layered
model with mega-corridors as the “backbone”, along with a framework that can
relate development at national, regional and sub-regional level.
Other concepts are proposed to illustrate these dynamic geographic “entities”
and which could replace the negative connotations of development corridors and
axes: matrix, urban network, polycentricity (Chapman et al., 2003; Zonneveld and
Trip, 2003; Albrechts and Tasan-Kok, 2009 ș.a.).
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development
283
Conclusions
The concepts of development corridors and axes are part of a continuing
debate on the urbanization patterns and on the spatial urban structures.
Thus, corridors are seen as valuable tools in economic development, but are
also associated with the idea of decentralizing the urban functions, with the delays
caused by traffic congestion in certain areas, with landscape fragmentation, waste
of land, suburbanization, or with additional air pollution caused by the increase of
private car use.
We consider that a special attention should be given to the implementation of
the national territorial development objectives, so that the endogenous qualities of
the areas crossed by important transport infrastructures in terms of economic
development opportunities are capitalized, and at the same time the negative
aspects such as congestion, uncontrolled urban sprawl along strategic transport
routes are avoided, and the environmental problems caused by these type of
development are minimized.
Acknowledgements: This work has been supported by the research grant
POSDRU/6/1.5/S/24 – “Financial support for doctoral studies on the complexity of
nature, environment and human society”, project co-financed by the European
Social Fund within the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources
Development 2007-2013.
References: Albrechts, L., Tasan-Kok, T. (2009), Corridor and Axis Development, International
Encyclopedia of Human Geography, MS number 833
Chapman, D., Dickins, I., Larkham, P. and Pratt, D. (2001), Development corridors,
transport corridors: stakeholders’ perceptions of links between the West Midlands,
London, and Europe, paper presented to the Planning Research 2001 Conference,
Liverpool
Chapman, D., Pratt, D., Larkham, P. Dickins, I. (2003), Concepts and definitions of
corridors: evidence from England’s Midlands, Journal of transport Geography 11,
179-191
Graham, S., Marvin, S. (2001), Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures,
Technological Mobilities and the Urban Condition, Routledge, London/New York.
Guangqing Chi, Voss, P. P., Deller, S. C. (2006), Rethinking highway effects on
population change, Public Works Management Policy, Vol. 11, No. 1, p. 18-32
Hohenberg, de P. M., Hollen Lees, L. (1995), The making of urban Europe, 1000-1994,
Cambridge, MA,. Harvard University Press
Ipenburg, D. (2000), Survey Among Key Actors About Megacorridors in the NWMA,
Report within the framework of Action 1 of CORRIDESIGN.OTB Research Institute
for Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies, Delft University of Technology, Delft.
Ipenburg, D., Romein, A., Trip, J.J., Vries, J. de, Zonneveld, W. (2001), Megacorridors
in the North Western Metropolitan Area; Transnational Perspectives on
Daniela Iurea
284
Megacorridors in North West Europe; Final Policy Report; Report within the
framework of Action 18 of CORRIDESIGN.OTB Research Institute, Delft University
of Technology, Delft.
Kloosterman R. C., Musterd, S. (2001), The Polycentric Urban Region: Towards a
Research Agenda, Urban Studies, , 38: 623
Momper, N. (1992), European Regional Planning Strategy, European Conference of
Minister Responsible for Regional Planning (CEMAT)
Pottier, P. (1963), Axes de communication et dévelopment économique, Revue
économique, Vol. 14, Nr. 1, p. 63-95
Priemus, H., Zonneveld, W. (2003), What are corridors and what are the issues?
Introduction to special issue: the governance of corridors, Journal of Transport
geography 11, 167-177
Vries, J. de, Priemus, H. (2003), Megacorridors in north-west Europe: issues for
transnational spatial governance, Journal of Transport Geography 11, 225-233
Zonneveld, W., Trip, J.J. (2003), Megacorridors in North West Europe: investigating a
new transnational planning concept, Housing and Urban Policy Studies 27, Delft
University Press, Delft
Warnish, S., Verster, B. (2005), The answer is: corridor development, but what is the
question?, Proceedings on the 24th Southern African Transport Conference (11-13
iulie 2005) Pretoria, Africa de Sud
*** Schema de dezvoltare a spaţiului comunitar. Spre o dezvoltare spaţială echilibrată şi
durabilă a teritoriului Uniunii Europene (1999), Consiliul Informal al Miniştrilor
Responsabili cu Amenajarea Teritoriului, Postdam
*** Urban Design for Sustainability (2004), European Union Expert Group on The Urban
Environment, Final Report of the Working Group on Urban Design for Sustainability, http://eceuropa.eu/environment/urban/pdf/Q404finaLreport.pdf
*** Urban sprawl in Europe-The ignored challenge (2006), European Environment
Agency, Report No. 10/2006
*** Carta de la Leipzig pentru Oraşe Europene Durabile (2007), Reuniunea Ministerială
Informală privind Dezvoltarea Urbană şi Coeziune Teritorială, București
*** Agenda teritorială a Uniunii Europene. Spre o Europă mai competitivă şi durabilă a
regiunilor diverse (2007), Reuniunea Informală a Miniştrilor Europeni Responsabili
cu Dezvoltarea Urbană şi Coeziunea Teritorială, Leipzig.
*** Conceptul strategic de dezvoltare teritorială România 2030. O Românie competitivă,
armonioasă şi prosperă, (2008), Ministerul Dezvoltării, Lucrărilor Publice și
Locuinşelor, Bucureşti
*** Strategia pentru transport durabil pe perioada 2007-2013 şi 2020, 2030, (2008),
Ministerul Transporturilor, Bucureşti
*** Strategia Națională pentru Dezvoltare Durabilă a României, Orizonturi 2013-2020-
2030, (2008), Ministerul Mediului şi Dezvoltării Durabile, Programul Natiunilor
Unite pentru Dezvoltare, Centrul Naţional pentru Dezvoltare Durabilă, Bucureşti
*** Peri-urban Land Use Relationships - Strategies and Sustainability Assessment Tools
for Urban-Rural Linkages (2010), European Commison, http://www.plurel.net.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
OSCILLATIONS AND CYCLES OF AIR TEMPERATURE IN THE
UNITED STATES
Ion Isaia
1
Key words:Oscillations of air temperature, cycles of air temperature, Laplace
zonal spherical function, tidal potential, Rossby wave
Abstract. The work is trying to demonstrate that in the United States there are
the same cycles of air temperature (almost perfect) discovered and presented
in Romania and in New Zeeland (Chatham Islands). The great extension in
latitude and longitude of the United States records to these oscillations and
cycles of air temperature their own characteristics. The lack of some important
ranges of mountains situated in a longitudinal way permits the fast and
intensive advection of polar, arctic and tropical air masses.Also the lack of
some important mountain ranges arranged longitudinally allows the rapid and
intense advection of the polar and arctic air masses and also of those with
tropical origin. As a result, higher amplitudes of air temperature appear.
Introduction
The cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperature discovered in
Romania and New Zeeland and described in previous works, have been explained
by the atmospheric tidal cycles caused by the Moon and Sun attraction. The same
causes underlie the explications and the demonstrations for the cycles of air
temperature in the United States. Also the explications are more consistent in the
USA area through the Rossby wave propagation, taking into consideration its
longitudinal expansion. In some situations can be noticed a phase shift between the
characteristics of the thermal oscillations from the west side of the USA and those
from the central and eastern areas located on the same latitude. In addition, the
characteristics of the thermal oscillations can be found on the European territory,
but with a larger phase shift. On the USA territory there are cycles of daily
maximum and minimum temperature lasting less than one year, but also cycles
lasting more than one year. For the description of these different cycles were
chosen points with subarctic climate (Nome), temperate climate (Minneapolis) and
subtropical climate (Memphis).
1 Assist. Prof. PhD., Dunarea de Jos University from Galaţi, Romania.
Ion Isaia
286
Cycles of air temperature lasting less then a year
All cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperature lasting less than a
year which were discovered in Romania and New Zeeland also appear on the
territory of the USA. The most important are:
The 14-day cycle. This cycle appears to a large extend due to the almost 14-
day period (13.66 days, half of the tropical period of the Moon, which is 27.32
days) in the evolution of the Moon, the celestial body which causes the tides of the
atmosphere for the same period of time. This cycle appears anywhere on the
territory of the USA. Fig. 1 shows graphics of the cycles of daily maximum and
minimum temperature, which were recorded at the meteorological stations in
Nome (Alaska), Minneapolis (Minnesota) and Memphis (Tennessee) lasting 14
days.
From the analysis of these graphics, one can observe that the warm and cold
advections reappear after approximately 14 days, no matter which meteorological
station is referred to.
The six- month cycle (approximately 183 days). In fact, this cycle is due to
the six-month period (half of the tropical year, which lasts 365.24 days), in the
evolution of the Sun, the celestial body that causes the atmospheric tides for the
same period of time.
Fig.2 presents graphics which show the evolution of the daily maximum and
minimum temperatures at the three meteorological stations. It can be noticed that
the main warm and cold advections can be recorded after a 6-month interval.
Fig.1 – The 14-day cycles of air
temperature in the United States
Fig. 2 - The six-month cycles of air
temperature in the United States
In the graphic which shows the evolution of the daily maximum and minimum
temperatures from Minneapolis it can be noticed that the warm and cold advections
reappear after approximately 6 months (March 1980 - September 1980), even if the
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States
287
general tendency of the air temperature is to grow (March 1980) or to diminish
(September 1980).
All these are explained by the fact that, no matter how is the sign of
declination of the Moon and the Sun ( +in the North; - in the South hemisphere), at
the same absolute values of the declination, the atmospheric tides occur identically.
Thus the tropical period of the Moon (27. 32 days) and the tropical year of the Sun
(365. 24 days) can be halved.
1.3. The 246-day cycle (approximately eight months)
The appearance of this cycle can be explained through the fact that in 246
days (approximately eight months) can occur nine tropical periods of the Moon
(27.32 days), according to the calculations: 246:37.32=9.00. This cycle is produced
everywhere on the surface of Terra. Figure 3 presents the 246-day cycles of daily
maximum and minimum temperatures at the three representative meteorological
stations in the United States.
Fig. 3 – The 246-day cycles of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures in the United States.
In the United Stated there are also other cycles of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures lasting less than a year discovered in Romania and in New
Zealand. These have the period of 28; 55; 82; 110; 137; 164; 192; 220; 274; 301;
328 and 355 days. All these cycles represent multiples of the Moon’s tropical
period (27.32 days).
2. The cycles of air temperatures lasting more than a year
These cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperatures lasting more than
a year are clearer, because they represent not only multiples of the Moon’s tropical
Ion Isaia
288
period (27.32 days), but they are also cycles for the other Moon’s periods (the
anomalistic period = 27.55 days and the synodic period = 29.53 days). These
cycles are at the same time cycles of the atmospheric tides. Of these, the cycles of
11 years, 18 years and 11 days (Saros’s Cycle) and the cycle of 19 years (Meton’s
Cycle) are more important.
2.1 The 11-year cycle
As it is known, there are many cycles in the Sun’s activity, of which the most
important is the 11-year cycle (4017.64 days). This cycle is, at the same time, a
tidal and month-solar one, because this period is also a multiple for the Moon’s
tropical and synodic periods, according to the calculations: 4017.64: 27.32 = 147.0
and 4017.64: 29.53 = 136.0. This tidal and month - solar cycle is one cycle of the
daily maximum and minimum temperatures too. Figure 4 presents graphics with
cycles of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures recorded in the United
States with the 11-year period.
Fig.4 – The11-year cycles of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures in the United States.
From the analysis of these graphs it can be concluded that the main hot and
cold advections are repeated after an 11 -year period regardless of the region to
which we refer.
2.2. The cycle of 18 years and 11 days (about 6585 days)
This cycle is known in astronomy as the cycle of Saros. After a period of 6585
days, eclipses of the Sun and Moon are again almost identical. It is a monthly
cycle, since it does not have a whole number of years. At the same time, this cycle
is a tidal one, whereas during this period of time 241 tropical revolutions, 239
anomalistic revolutions and 233 (periodical) synodic revolutions of the Moon
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States
289
occur, according to the calculations: 6585:27.32 = 241, 0; 6585:27.55 = 239.0 and
6585: 29.53 = 223.0.
Through Rossby waves, this cycle is also reflected in the evolution of daily
maximum and minimum temperatures, causing a cycle with the same duration.
Figure 5 presents Saros Cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures in the United States.
Fig.5 – The Saros Cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures in the United States
We find this cycle everywhere on Earth, but especially in temperate areas,
where Rossby waves (planetary) fully occur.
2.3 The 19-year cycles (about 6940 days)
This cycle is known in Astronomy as cycle of Meton, which was found in the
Ancient Period. After completion of this period of time, phases of the Moon are
repeated identically. This cycle is a month-solar one, because it includes a whole
number of years, but also a whole number of tropic and synodic revolutions of the
Moon, according to calculations 6940: 27.32 =254.0; 6940: 29.53 = 235. 0. Being a
tidal cycle too, this is reflected in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum
temperatures.
For the first time, this meteorological cycle was discovered in Romania, after
that it was also demonstrated in New Zeeland. In the United States it has the
highest frequency, especially in the temperate climate regions.
Fig.6 presents Meton cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum
temperatures at the three representative meteorological stations in the USA.
Ion Isaia
290
Fig.6 – Meton Cycle in the evolution of daily maximum
and minimum temperatures in the United States
From the analysis of the graphics in figure 6, similar to the other cycles
described earlier, it can be noticed that the main warm and cold advections
reappear after a period of 19 years. Also can be noticed some similarities (less
clear) between meteorological stations from Minneapolis and Memphis, although
there is a large distance between them. These similarities might occur because the
graphics from the two meteorological stations describe the same months (July 1988
and 2007).
From the above mentioned results that the problem of the temperature cycles
is a complex one, especially for those with a period of more than one year, because
more of these have connections between each other. So the difference between the
19- year cycle and the 11- year one is of 8 years, which is, actually, a cycle too. So,
6940 (the 19-year cycle) – 4018 (the 11-year cycle) = 2922 days (the eight-year
cycle). This cycle is a month-solar one, because it has a whole number of years and
a whole number of tropical and synodic revolutions of the Moon, according to the
following calculations: 2922: 27.32 days = 107; 2922: 29.53 days = 99.
With this, the eighth -year cycle (2922 days) is, at the same time, a tidal cycle.
With the help of the Rossby waves, this also influences the evolution of daily
maximum and minimum temperatures.
In the United States, this cycle appears in all regions, regardless of their
climate conditions.
The graphs in figure 7 shows the evolution of daily maximal and minimal
temperatures in the air in an eight -year cycle, in the United States.
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States
291
Fig.7 – The eight-year cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures in the air in the United States
This cycle was discovered and demonstrated for the first time on Romanian
territory, but it can also be found in other European regions, regardless of their
climate conditions. In all situations, the main hot and cold advections are repeated
after an eight-year time, as it can be observed in the graphs in figure 7.
If, we take difference between the Meton cycle (19 years) and the Saros cycle
(18 years + 11 days), we get a cycle of 355 days, which is part of the one-year
length category.
Calculations show that 6940 days (Meton cycle) -6585 (Saros cycle) = 355.
This cycle is a lunar one, because, during this time, approximately 13 tropical and
12 synodical revolutions of the Moon are produced, based on these calculations:
355: 27.32 = 12.994 and 355: 29.53 = 12.021
In this instance, this cycle is also a tidal one. Just like in the case of other
cycles, through the (planetary) Rossby waves, this cycle is also reflected in the
evolution of daily maximal and minimal temperatures in air.
The existence of this cycle was proved for the first time in Romania, but it
appears on the surface of the Earth, regardless of the type of the climate.
On the territory of the USA, this cycle appears in all regions, beginning with
Alaska and ending with Florida. The graphics from figure 8 outline definitely the
existence of this cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum
temperatures in air, on the territory of the USA.
Ion Isaia
292
Fig.8 – The 355-day cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures in the air in the United States
In the following, we will analyze the problem of the similarities between the
evolution of the maximum and minimum temperatures from the territory of the
USA and from the territory of Europe. We will describe only the similarities that
appear around the latitude of 45° North, so in full temperate zone.
For understanding the phenomenon more correctly, were taken for comparison
the evolution of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the air from the
meteorological station from Minneapolis (USA) and the meteorological stations
from Europe, situated approximately at the same latitude (45 degrees North).
These similarities in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum
temperatures between Minneapolis and other meteorological stations from Europe
are noticed during all seasons. All similarities are produced at a time difference
between 10 and 14 days, if we take into consideration localities from the territory/
of Romania. The time difference decreases at the same time moving through West
from the territory of Romania.
The graphics from figure 9A describe the evolution of the daily maximum and
minimum temperatures from Minneapolis (USA) on the 1st to 30
th of April 2006,
in comparison with the 9th of April - 8
th of May 2006 from Milano (Italy) and the
11th of April and the 10
th of May 2006 from Braila (Romania). The time difference
between Minneapolis and Milano is of eight days. This difference reaches ten days
if we count between Minneapolis and Braila. All the three localities are situated
around the 45th parallel.
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States
293
The graphics from figure 9B show the evolution of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures from Minneapolis from the period 21.09 - 20.11.1993 in
comparison with the period 01.10-30.11 (October-November) 1993 from Galati
(Romania). In both situations from figure 9 (A and B) it can be noticed that the
main warm and cold advections are produced at a difference in time of ten days for
the localities from Romania and only eight days for Milano (Italia) comparative
with Minneapolis (the SUA).
Fig.9 – t The similarities in the evolution of daily maximum and
minimum temperatures between Minneapolis, Milano and Braila
(A); between Minneapolis and Galati (B)
In other situations, similarities in the evolution of daily maxim and minimum
temperatures between Minneapolis and the localities from Romania are produced at
a difference in the time of 13 and 14 days.
The graphs in figure 10 (A and B) show this time difference between
Minneapolis (the SUA) and the localities from Romania (Viziru, Bucharest, Iasi
and Braila).
From the analysis of the graphs in figure 10 it is found that the similarities in
the evolution of temperatures are clearer for the localities from Romania situated
around the 45° North latitude. For example, the similarities with Minneapolis are
Ion Isaia
294
more obvious at Viziru and Galati, situated near the 45 degrees North parallel (as
Minneapolis). For Bucharest Baneasa and Iasi, situated at other latitudes, the
similarities have a lower clarity.
Fig.10 – The similarities in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures
between Minneapolis (the USA) and localities in Romania
These similarities with Minneapolis can be also observed for the localities
situated more to the east from the Romanian territory, but at the same latitude. The
graphs in figure 11 present the obvious similarities between Minneapolis, Galati
and Krasnodar (Russia).
The graphs in figures 9, 10 and 11 show the similarities of the evolution of
daily maximum and minimum temperatures from the air between Minneapolis and
more localities from Europe situated around the 45° North latitude. The same
graphs show the time differences of these similarities, which are between 8 and 14
days, depending on the longitudinal distance between Minneapolis and these
localities.
For explaining these time similarities and differences we have to take into
consideration some characteristics of Rossby (or planetary) wave propagation.
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States
295
As we know Rossby waves have wavelength (ƛ) of 2000 and 6000 km and
characterize the atmosphere dynamic from temperate areas of the Earth , especially
from Northern hemisphere.
Fig.11
The similarities in the
evolution of daily maximum
and minimum temperatures
from the air between
Minneapolis (USA) = A;
Galati (Romania) = B and
Krasnodar (Russia) = C.
Periods: Minneapolis =
21.09- 20.11.1993;
Galati = 01.10-30.11.1993;
Krasnodar = 03. 10- 02.12.
1993.
Relative to the environment (atmosphere in this case) these waves always
propagate in a negative direction of the axis “x”, such as from east to west.Their
propagation speed is reduced, but it grows as the wavelength (ƛ) grows. As the
atmosphere in the temperate areas of the Earth has much faster speeds from west to
east, Rossby waves will also propagate from west to east, depending on the surface
of the continents and oceans. When the wavelength of Rossby waves is 5,400 km,
these are static regarding the terrestrial surface. This means that the propagation
speed from east to west of Rossby waves with ƛ = 5400 km is equal to the moving
speed of the atmosphere from west to east (vice-versa).
For the northern hemisphere, a Rossby wave has a maximum barometric
situated on the North and a minimum barometric located on the South. The
evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures from the air and the
meteorological phenomena is determined by how the atmospheric circulation
occurs in the anticyclone and the cyclone of Rossby wave. The weather patterns
generated by the baric and thermal features of Rossby wave propagate once with
this, especially from west to east.
For the same locality from Romania, for example, Braila, located at 45°12’
North latitude, differences can appear during the time between 10 days (figure 9A)
Ion Isaia
296
and 14 days (figure 10B). This phenomenon is explained clearly by the propagation
speed of Rossby waves which depend on their wavelength (ƛ). It is understood
that at a time difference of 10 days, the length of Rossby waves is smaller than the
situation in which the time difference is 14 days.
From this it results that in situations when we don’t have similarities between
Minneapolis and Braila (even Galati), the wavelength of Rossby waves reached or
overcame 5400 km. In this situation other pieces from Rossby wave chain will
determine the weather features from Braila.
Conclusion
From the analysis of the daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in the
United States the next conclusions can be drawn:
The daily maximum and minimum air temperature cycles found in
Romania and New Zeeland can be found in the United States, too.
These cycles aren’t perfect, because neither the astronomical cycles (solar,
lunar, lunar-solar), nor the generated tidal ones aren’t perfect.
The lack of important mountain ranges with longitudinal orientation in the
United States determines very fast and strong advections both to the arctic and
polar air masses, and to the tropical ones; the air amplitudes being very high.
The most frequent cycles with duration longer than a year are the Cycle of
Meton (19 years), the Cycle of Saros (18 years and 11 days) and the cycle of 11
years.
The most frequent cycles with duration smaller than a year are ones of 14
days, 6 months, 8 months and 355 days.
The time similarities and differences between the evolution of daily
maximum and minimum air temperatures in Minneapolis from several localities in
Europe situated, approximately, at the same latitude (45°N) are due to the
propagation of the Rossby waves.
Knowing these time differences of the similarities, we can develop
meteorological forecasts on a long time (over 10 days) for several regions of
Romania, with a greater probability.
References Airinei, St. (1992), Pamantul ca planeta, Editura Albatros, Bucuresti.
Draghici,I. (1988), Dinamica atmosferei, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti.
Holton, A. (1996), lntroducere in meteorologia dimanica, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti.
Isaia, I. (2005), Ciclul lui Meton in meteorologie, Comunicari de Geografie, Vol.IX ,
Editura Universitatii Bucuresti.
Isaia, I. (2006), Solar, Ebb-tide and Meteorological 11 Year-Cycle, ”Dimitrie Cantemir”
Geographical Seminary’s Works, Editura Universitatii ’’ Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States
297
Isaia, I. (2008), The meteorological consequences of the moon cycles lasting less than one
year, Present Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol.2, Editura Universitatii
’’ Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi
Isaia, I. (2009), Saros Cycle in meteorology, Present Environment and Sustainable
Development”, Vol.3, Editura Universitatii ’’ Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi
Isaia, I. (2010), Oscillations and cycles of the air temperature in the Chatham Islands,
Present Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol.4, Editura Universitatii ’’
Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi
Isaia, I. (2011), Applications of Laplace Spherical Functions in Meteorology, Present
Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol.4, Editura Universitatii Al. I.Cuza –
Iasi.
Ion Isaia
298
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
DEAD WOOD – AN IMPORTANT ISSUE FOR FOREST
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Anca Măciucă1, Cătălin Roibu
Key words: wood, biodiversity conservation, forest ecosystems
Abstract. The importance of deadwood in forest ecosystems is widely recognized
today and it is used as indicator for the sustainable management of forests. The
purpose of researches carried out in five natural reserves and managed Romanian
forests was to determine and compare the amount, size, distribution and decay
classes of their deadwood. The data obtained in the mixed beech coniferous and
beech old growth forests can be used as reference values for the natural dynamic of
deadwood and can contribute to set the rules for the restoration of deadwood in
forest management.
Introduction
In Europe, for an appropriate and sustainable management of forest
ecosystems, a reliable monitoring system is an undeniable necessity. The
monitoring instruments used at European level are the National Forest Inventories
and ICP scheme for monitoring the effects of air pollution on forests. In time, after
a series of important events for the forest ecosystems conservation, like the
Convention on Biodiversity Conservation, Kyoto Conference, The Ministerial
Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPE), new variables became
necessary for assessing the state of forests and for establish future ways of action
for the best management of these forests.
After a period of concerted scientific efforts, criteria and indicators for
sustainable forest management were set; between them, dead wood was chosen as
an important indicator for the biodiversity conservation criteria (indicator 4.5,
adopted by the MCPE). It is also used as indicator in forest certification standards,
and it already became a recent added variable in some European National Forest
Inventories.
1 Assistent Prof., ”Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania, [email protected]
Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu
300
For a long time, in managed forests, the standing and lying dead wood was
considered useless and even dangerous for the forest health, and it was removed
during special cutting interventions called “sanitary measures”; plus, the trees are
cut and removed before reaching the old stage, and so, the dead wood amount in
managed forests is drastically reduced in comparison to natural forests. In the last
decades, a completely changed approach occurred, and the crucial importance of
dead wood in the forest ecosystem structure and functions is widely recognized.
Most often, dead wood components are standing dead or dying trees, fallen
logs, twigs and branches, stumps or even components of mature living trees like
branches, bark, twigs, roots. Veteran trees, partially rotten, with holes and cavities
are also very important for maintaining forest ecosystem structure and functions.
The factors which create deadwood in natural forests are natural selection, aging
process finalized with natural mortality and various disturbances like windthrows,
droughts, fungal or insect disease, fires. In managed forests, clearing and cutting
activities came to complete the factors list.
Dead wood is playing a complex role in forest ecosystems: from reducing
erosion and maintaining slope and soil surface stability, to biodiversity
conservation, forest regeneration (seedbed for plants) and carbon storage.
Dead wood, especially logs in different stages of decay, lying across slope, are
reducing soil and precipitation water movement down slope, i.e. reducing erosion
(Mccombe W., Lindenmayer D., 1999). Large logs have a geomorphologic role in
both terrestrial and stream ecosystems. In terrestrial ecosystems they accumulate
soil and litter on their upslope side creating new habitats for different forest species
and speeding decomposition. Logs can modify stream geomorphology creating a
chain of new rapidly flowing water and pools, which means new habitats for
aquatic species too (Stevens, 1997).
Another notable contribution of decaying dead wood is to nutrients recycling
process, which assure the forest continuity; this process plays also an important
role in the world carbon cycle and climate change. Dead wood, along with trees,
bushes litter and soil represent a carbon pool for a certain period, longer or shorter,
depending on the dead wood species, dimensions and climate conditions. If the
climate is cool, the decomposition of the deadwood is slow (like in temperate and
boreal forests) and carbon can remain sequestered for centuries. Anyway it is sure
that dead wood is a more suitable carbon pool in comparison with fast-growing
rotations of plantations (proposed as solution after the 1992 Kyoto Protocol)
because these are accumulating fast carbon, but it’s storage is very short, only a
few years; after that the wood is transformed into paper and other quickly
degradable products. In addition it can be said that old-growth forests and dead
wood are better carbon keeper in comparison with the young forests that replace
them.
Dead wood – an important issue for forest biodiversity conservation
301
The decaying process of dead wood has a fundamental influence not only in
forest sites geomorphology or carbon storage, but on forest biodiversity too.
Decaying takes a long period of time and has a sequence of phases depending on
species, position, age of dead trees and climatic conditions. For every phase,
different associations of fauna populations are specific: during the first phase,
which is shorter, insects and fungi (primary saproxylic species) are colonizing the
still hard dead wood (Dudley, Vallauri, 2004; Christensen, 2005). In the second
phase, longer than the first one, new species came to settle: secondary saproxylic
represented by predators of primary once or partially decomposed matter
consumers. This phase is the richest in fruiting fungi, including numerous red listed
species (Heilmann-Clausen, Christensen, 2003). In the last phase the decaying
process is finished and the scavenging species (millipedes, springtails etc.) are
mixing the wood residues with the forest soil. The bryophytes species prefers both
second and last phases of decomposition and their diversity is high if they have
sufficient air humidity (Soderstrom, 1988).
Standing and lying dead wood assure feeding sources and proper places for
nesting, mating, loafing and food storage for a large variety of animal species from
amphibians and reptiles to birds and mammals (Rahman, M., et al., 2008).
To summarize, species depending on all kinds of dead wood are: bacteria or
algae (especially in young dead trees), bryophytes, lichens, fungi, ferns, tree plants,
even flowering plants (on large woody debris), invertebrates, woodlice, millipedes,
flies, hoverflies, xylophages beetles and their predators, large longhorn beetles,
birds from large raptors, owls, to species who bore like woodpeckers or species
which take over nesting holes, reptiles, mammals like squirrels, martens, wild cats,
dormice, wood mice, shrews, bats, deer, even bears (if the snags have major
cavities large enough); in rivers and streams, coarse woody debris offer habitat for
algae, fly larvae and breeding fish.
Once the importance and the role of dead wood established, data regarding its
volume and its inhabitant species started to be gathered in numerous countries in
Europe and all over the world. In this context, the deadwood related researches in
Romanian forests were considered appropriated. Researches in forest reserves are
important because they can provide reference values regarding the deadwood and
precious information about the related biodiversity that can later be used in the
management of other forests.
1. Materials and methods
Researches were conducted in five sites, three protected natural old growth
forests, and two managed forests. The forests from the natural reserves are one
mixed beech-coniferous forest - Slătioara, located on the east side of Rarău
Mountain, at 800 – 1300 m altitude (Suceava county) and two beech dominated
Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu
302
forests, Suharău (340 m altitude) and Humosu (450 m altitude) located in Ibăneşti
hills (Botoşani county), and respectively Dealul Mare (Iaşi county). The managed
forests are mixed beech-coniferous forests, more than 80 years old, one located in
Obcina Voroneţului, near Gura Humorului town, at 470 m altitude, and the other,
Rîşca, located in the east side of Stânişoara Mountains, at 600 m altitude (both in
Suceava County).
Data were collected in randomly distributed plots of variable dimensions,
from 225 m2 to 1.6 ha. Dead wood is considered in this study the standing
deadwood or snags and lying deadwood with more than 5 cm diameter. For the
standing trees the breast height diameter and height were measured and for the
lying deadwood pieces, top, bottom diameters and length. For the lying pieces, the
volume was determined using the formula for a frustum of a cone (Roibu, 2010)
and for the standing trees, the volume’s double logarithmic equation (Giurgiu,
Drăghiciu, 2004). For every piece of dead wood the decay class (Christensen,
Hahn, 2003) was determined and registered (table 1). The first two classes of decay
correspond to the first phase of the decomposition process described above, the
next three to the second phase, and the last class to the last phase.
Tab. 1 – Decay classes (Christensen, Hahn, 2003)
Decay
Class
Bark
Twigs and
branches
Softness
Surface
Shape
1
intact or missing only in
small patches, > 50%
present hard or knife penetrate
1-2 mm
covered by bark,
outlineintact
circle
2
missing or < 50% only
branches>3 cm
present hard or knife penetrate less
than 1 cm
smooth, outline intact circle
3
missing missing begin to be soft, knife
penetrate 1-5 cm
smooth or crevices
present, outline intact
circle
4
missing
missing
soft, knife penetrate more
than 5 cm
large crevices, small
pieces missing,
outline intact
circle or
elliptic
5
missing
missing
soft, knife penetrate more
than 5 cm
large pieces missing,
outline partly
deformed
flat elliptic
6
missing
missing
soft, partly reduced to mould, only core of wood
outline hard to define
flat elliptic -covered by soil
2. Results and discussions
As expected, the difference regarding the amount of dead wood of the
managed and protected forests is significant. In Slătioara forest reserve, the amount
of deadwood reach the value of 163.69 m3/ha, and in Suharău beech forest 186.83
m3/ha. These values are comparable with the ones resulting from similar researches
in Romania and other European countries.
Dead wood – an important issue for forest biodiversity conservation
303
The amount of dead wood was determined in other Romanian natural forests
too: in Izvoarele Nerei beech reserve, it varies from 50 m3/ha at high altitude to 223
m3/ha at low altitude, with an average of 87 m
3/ha (Tomescu, Târziu, Turcu, 2011).
According to another research located in the same reserve the amount of dead
wood varies between 78 and 121 m3/ha (Radu, 2006). For Şercaia, Gemenele, and
Iauna Craiova forest reserves, the dead wood range from 49-128 m3/ha (Vrska et
al., 2000).
In Poland, in Bialowieza forest, protected since the 1300’s as a hunting
reserve, the dead wood amount varies between 87 and 160 m3/ha, and in Havesova,
beech forest reserve from Poloniny National Park, Slovakia, an average of 121
m3/ha of deadwood was found (Saniga, Schütz, 2001). In France, in the well
known Fontainebleau forest reserve, protected from logging since 1853, the
deadwood volumes are 142 to 256 m3/ha (Mountford, E., 2002). In United
Kingdom, at Ridge Hanger, beech forest reserve, the measured deadwood volume
was 273 m3/ha (Christensen, Hahn, 2003).
A special situation occurs in the other studied beech protected forest, Humosu,
where the deadwood amount is smaller, 89.6 m3/ha because a part of it, infested
with Lymantria dispar eggs, was removed with the Romanian Academy approval
for preventing an outbreak. A supplementary amount was illegally removed by the
local population, regardless the protection regime.
In Slatioara from the total amount, 129.22 m3/ha was fallen wood and the rest
standing dead trees. In Suharău, the amount of lying dead wood is 166.07 m3/ha,
and in Humosu 54.54 m3/ha.
For the managed forests the amount of total dead wood varies according the
human impact intensity: Rîşca forest is far from any human settlement and the
amount of deadwood is important (53.23 m3/ha of which 45.01 m
3/ha fallen
deadwood), while in Humor forest the deadwood value is 20.94 m3/ha (with 14.15
m3/ha lying deadwood). The reason for this diminished value is firewood removal
by tourists from the nearby camping area and by Humor inhabitants.
The national average amount of dead wood in European managed forests is
considerable diminished compared with natural forests and varies from 0.6 m3/ha
in Austria to 12 m3/ha in Switzerland (table 2).
Tab. 2 – Amount of deadwood in European managed forests (national averages)
Country
Dead wood
volume (m3/ha)
Country
Dead wood
volume (m3/ha)
Austria 0.6 Belgium 9.1
Germany 1-3 Finland 2-10
France 2.2 Luxembourg 11.6
Sweden 6.1 Switzerland 12
(Dudley, Vallauri, 2004)
Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu
304
In the natural old growth beech coniferous mixed forest, Slătioara, the
deadwood has diverse sizes and the volume is distributed in all diameter classes
(figure 1). The best represented are of course large diameter classes. The volume of
deadwood with 34 to 46 cm in diameter represents 33% of the total, and the one
with diameters over 54 represents another 40%.
Fig.1 – Distribution of lying deadwood
volume by diameter class Fig.2 – Distribution of lying deadwood
volume by decay class
Dead wood – an important issue for forest biodiversity conservation
305
This is very important because large trees are the most valuable for
biodiversity conservation. A similar volume distribution by diameter can be
observed in Suharau beech reserve where the volume of logs over 54 cm diameter
is 35% of total.
Fig. 3 - Ripley function for the deadwood spatial distribution in Suharău forest
In Humosu forest, the volume of the over 66 cm diameter class represents
40% of the total amount because of the stumps remained after sanitary measures.
For Rîşca managed forest, the 34-38 cm, 50-54 cm and 58-62 cm diameter
classes have the most important volumes, each reaching around 13% of total
amount indicating possible local wind felling favored by the annosum root rot
frequent in the area. The total amount of deadwood over 40 cm in diameter is 25.94
m3/ha amount considered enough for maintaining diverse saproxylic species. In
Humor the 22-26 diameter class is the best represented, with 21% of the total
amount, indicating a possible past wind felling. Similar to Humosu, the stumps left
after thinning or illegal wood removal (over 62 cm), have a notable volume which
represents 31% of the total amount. Only in Humor the amount of dead wood over
40 cm diameter is 8.87 m3/ha (under 20 m
3/ha) with negative consequences for
biodiversity conservation.
Regarding the distribution of deadwood volume by decay classes, the most
balanced is the Slătioara distribution, the dead wood exists in all decomposition
stages illustrating a normal and healthy functioning of the forest ecosystem
processes. In Suharău, the transition stages are not very well represented, but the
situation will improve because 36% of the volume is in the first class of
decomposition and will decay. In Humosu the sanitary removal of dead wood can
be easily noticed, the intermediate 3, 4 and 5 decay classes having a small volume
each. But in this case too, the first two classes are well represented (56%),
promising an improvement of the situation. In Rîşca forest more than one third of
the dead wood volume (36%) is in the third decay class, indicating a past
disturbance. The small actual amount of dead wood in the first decomposition class
Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu
306
for Humor forest is the proof of the human (especially tourists) pressure. Instead,
the rest of the deadwood volume has a balanced distribution.
Along with the size, volume and decay class of deadwood, the spatial
distribution has an influence on biodiversity too. Therefore, the spatial pattern of
deadwood was studied in Suharău natural beech forest. The distribution, according
to the Ripley function is a random one (L(t)), with partial tendency to aggregation
at low scale and to a uniform distribution at larger scale (figure 3).
The spatial pattern of the standing and dying deadwood in this natural forest
reserve (figure 4) illustrate the general random distribution with greater
accumulations near canopy gaps created by natural selection or wind felling.
Fig.4 - Spatial distribution of stumps and logs in the 1 ha plot, Suharău forest reserve
In natural forest reserves like Slătioara or Suharău according to the amount
and decomposition stage of dead wood, can be assumed that proper conditions
exists for the existence of diverse invertebrate fauna, bryophytes and fungi species,
including red listed ones similar with the species found in Izvoarele Nerei forest
reserve (Berducou, et al., 2006, in Tomescu, Târziu, Turcu, 2011).
In Europe, the State of Europe’s Forests 2011 report indicate that the amount
of deadwood varies a lot according to forest types, standing volume of the stands
and forest management. A slightly increment of deadwood volume was observed in
most of Europe’s regions in the last 20 years, the most likely as a result of the
reorientation towards a more nature-oriented management (Larsson, 2011).
There is a lack of information regarding the most appropriate volume
thresholds, size, decay class and distribution of dead wood for different forest types
and management intensity. Until this lack of information will be filled up, the
specialist offer some general values considered acceptable in the managed forests
for the moment: at least 20-30 m3/ha (Dudley, Vallauri, 2004). For biodiversity
Dead wood – an important issue for forest biodiversity conservation
307
conservation aims, forest areas must contain at least 40 m³/ha of dead wood for
sheltering diversified communities of saproxylic organisms (Coleoptera), and for
the conservation of invertebrate red list species, fungi, and birds, in forests must
remain at least 20 m³/ha of dead wood with a diameter over 40 cm (Winter, 2008).
Currently, in our country, the on-going National Forest Inventory collects data
concerning the deadwood volume, but information about the situation at national
level is not available yet.
Conclusions
The views that a clean forest, without dead wood is a healthy and more stable
forest, that deadwood brings fire and disease, that deadwood implies a risk for
tourists and visitors, and that a forest with downed trees is ugly and poorly
managed, are today obsolete.
The role of dead wood in maintaining the proper functioning, stability and
biodiversity of forest ecosystems is widely recognized.
Researches carried in five Romanian forests, three old growth forest reserves
and two managed forests shows that the amount of dead wood is considerably
higher in the natural forests, and it decreases along with the human impact intensity
augmentation: in Slatioara reserve, the dead wood amount is 163.69 m3/ha, in
Suharău beech reserve 186.83 m3/ha, in comparison with the managed forests
where the amount is 53.23 m3/ha for a moderate human impact and 20.94 m
3/ha for
a greater human pressure.
A special situation occurs in the other beech protected forest, Humosu, where
the deadwood amount is smaller, 89.6 m3/ha because a big part of it, was removed
with the Romanian Academy approval for preventing an outbreak.
The values obtained for natural forests are important as reference values in the
future management of forest ecosystems.
The on-going National Forest Inventory will play an important role in
collecting data about deadwood for sketching an image about it at national level. In
the future, the management plans will contain deadwood data too. This will be the
base for determining the most suitable management of dead wood.
The steps to be followed in the future are: first, completing the researches for
determining the amounts, size, decay class and distribution of the dead wood that
must be kept in different types of managed forests so that the deadwood could
fulfill all his functions in the forest, including in biodiversity conservation; then, a
standardized inventory and monitoring system is indicated to be implemented in all
the European countries, including Romania, so that the management measures
applied for the dead wood to be effective and all the information concerning
deadwood – comparable.
Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu
308
References: Christensen, M., Katrine Hahn [compilers], 2003, A Study of Dead Wood in European
Beech Forest Reserves, Nature-Based Management of Beech in Europe project
Christensen M., et al., 2005, Dead wood in European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest
reserves, Forest Ecology and Management, 210: 267–282.
Dudley, N., Vallauri, D., 2004, Dead wood – living forests, WWF Report, Gland,
Switzerland
Giurgiu, V., Drăghiciu, D., 2004, Modele matematico-auxologice şi tabele de producţie
pentru arborete, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 607p.
Larsson, T-J., et al., 2011, Deadwood in European Forests, „Deadwood and dying trees: a
matter of life and diversity” Symposium, May 15-19, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec,
Canada
Mccombe W., Lindenmayer D., 1999, Dead, dying, and down trees, in: Hunter M.L.
(ed.), Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press: 335–372.
Mountford, E., 2002, Fallen dead wood levels in the near-natural beech forest at La
Tillaie reserve, Fontainebleau, France, Forestry: Research note 75 (2): 203-208
Radu, S., 2006, The Ecological Role of Deadwood in Natural Forests, Environmental
Science and Engineering, no.3, p.137-141
Rahman, M., et al., 2008, Structure of coarse woody debris in Lange-Leitn Natural Forest
Reserve, Austria, Journal of Forest Science, 54, 2008 (4): 161–169
Roibu, C., 2010, Cercetări dendrometrice, auxologice şi dendrocronologice în făgete din
Podişul Sucevei aflate la limita estică a arealului, Ph.D. Thesis
Saniga, M., Schütz, J., 2001, Dynamics of changes in dead wood share in selected beech
virgin forests in Slovakia within their development cycle, Journal of Forest Science 47
(12): 557-565
Soderstrom L., 1988, The occurrence of epixylic bryophyte and lichen species in an old
natural and managed forest stand in Northeast Sweden, Biological Conservation,45:
169–178.
Stevens, Victoria, 1997, The ecological role of coarse woody debris: an overview of the
ecological importance of CWD in British Columbia forests, Res. Br., B.C., Min. For.,
Victoria, B.C. Work.
Vrska, T., Hort, L., Odehnalova, P., Adam, D., 2000, Polom virgin forest after 22 years
(1973-1995), Journal of Forest Science 46 (4): 151-178
Winters, Susanne et.al., 2008, Possibilities for harmonizing national forest inventory data
for use in forest biodiversity assessments, Forestry, 81(1), p.33-44.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
WATER QUALITY OF SOME DRINKING WATER SOURCES IN
RURAL AREA OF BOTOSANI COUNTY
Paul-Narcis Vieru
1, Iolanda Sîncu
2, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru
3
Key words: drinking water, water source, water hardness.
Abstract. A significant risk for human health can result from exposure to natural or
toxic non-pathogenic contaminants which are ubiquitously present in the water
sources for population. The purpose of this study was to analyze the mineral content
of drinking water from surface and subterranean sources in 10 rural localities
(Răchiţi, Corni, Vârfu Câmpului, Dersca, Drăguşeni, Rădăuţi Prut, Dobîrceni,
Albeşti, Prăjeni, Frumuşica) of Botoşani County. According to the standardized
methods, the concentration of important ions, temperature, total pH, dissolved salts,
alkalinity, chlorides, hardness and some toxic metals (lead and cadmium) were
determined. The ratio of Ca/Mg, Na/total cations, SO4/Cl was recalculated. The
study showed variations of the ratio Ca/Mg and the presence of lead in stagnant
drinking water. A raised concentration of minerals and corrosivity can restrict the
use of water and can influence population health.
Introduction Water is the environmental factor at which the whole population is exposed.
An important request for a good health is providing human communities with
water, according to the hygienic- sanitary rules.
Many affections with higher incidence in certain geographical areas are
determined or favored by the chemical composition of drinking water. Water
consumption with a low or high content of mineral salts, fluorine, iodine, other
chemicals determines, in time, metabolic disorders of mineral salts in the body,
endemic goiter, cardiovascular diseases, chronic intoxications, cancer, etc.
Drinking water can also contain microelements, some of them with toxic
properties, lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu) whose presence can be put in
1 Botoşani Town – Hall, Environmental Protection Department, [email protected]
2 Environmental Protection Agency, Botoşani, Romania
3 PhD.Stud., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru
310
relation with the distribution systems degradation, with water aggressiveness
and/or corrosivity, and less because of natural background.
1. Material and methods
Samples collection and analysis was performed together with the specialists of
A.P.M. Botosani and D.S.P. Botosani within the above mentioned laboratories.
Samples collection. Water samples were drawn (double samples of ground):
- in the rural area from individual sources (fountains) and springs in 10 villages
of Botosani County;
- in the rural localities at the level of the water supply collective systems from
phreatic subterranean and surface sources (10 villages of Botosani County,
fig.1).
When choosing the localities, we intended to cover a large area of Botosani
County, but also the membership at watersheds of the Prut and Siret springs.
For metals analysis, water samples were collected in polyethylene vessels
conditioned with nitric acid for 24 h, washed and rinsed with doubly distilled
water. The samples kept at +5oC were acidified with 05 milliliters concentrated
nitric acid.
Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county
311
Physical-chemical analysis. Temperature and pH were determined at harvest,
and the conductivity was measured with Conductive-meter CD-2002 SELECTA,
calibrated with potassium chloride solution 0,01 mol/l, at 25oC. All chemical
analyses were performed according to the standard methods stipulated in the Law
458/2002: calcium (Ca) and total hardness (DT) by complexometric methods,
magnesium (Mg) by spectrophotometrical method with titanium yellow. Mohr
method by titration with silver nitrate was applied for determining the chlorides
(Cl-) and by titration with normal hydrochloric acid/10, we dosed the
carbohydrates (HC0-3). Sodium (Na
+) and potassium (K
+) were dosed by the flam-
photometric method and heavy metals by atomic absorption spectrometry in
acetylene flame. For routine analytic control we used standard control samples
(2,5 μg/l Cd and 20,0 μg/l Pb), which were reviewed after each 10 water samples.
Measurements for water samples were the average of three determinations and
they were accepted if the calculated standard deviation was less than 5%. The
analyzed data were processed in Excel.
2.Results
It is known that in Romania only 63% of the population is connected at public
(collective) systems of water supply, the rest of the population, mostly rural, being
dependent of the water quality in public and particular fountains or springs. In
Botosani County, too, in the rural area, the fountains are the only water sources for
85% of the localities.
Tab. 1 - The calcium and magnesium level (mg/l) in fountain water
Localities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mg2+
mm 93,23 97,30 24,32 20,42 60,31 92,55 105,05 37,97 51,56 79,40
max 242,70 315,90 287,95 156,62 197,31 195,51 240,28 249,04 147,86 352,15
Ca2+
mm 31,47 62,44 76,14 57,89 41,0 95,77 53,80 64,96 81,75 131,42
max 131,42 141,10 428,0 187,55 439,55 270,92 100,0 187,71 180,15 304,08
1.Răchiţi, 2.Corni, 3.Vârfu Câmpului, 4.Dersca, 5.Drăguşeni, 6.Rădăuţi Prut, 7.Dobîrceni,
8.Albeşti, 9.Prăjeni, 10. Frumuşica
Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru
312
Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county
313
Because of the drought of the last years, sources flow decreased, magnesium
ions (40,37-221,40 mg/l) and calcium (43,28-151,68 mg/l), chlorides (11-80 mg/l),
HCO3- (396,8 – 762,5 mg/l) becoming predominant (in the samples analyzed)
Drinking water from surface
sources processed by classic technology
(coagulation, filtration, disinfection) was appropriate in terms of chemical
parameters, with a reduced level of mineral compounds (Table 2).
Tab. 2 - Values of some chemical parameters of drinking water (surface sources)
Station Ca
2+
(mg/l)
Mg2+
(mg/l)
Cl-
(mg/l)
DT
(oG)
Alkalinity
(ml HCl
n/10)
Na+
(mg/l)
K+
(mg/l)
1 (A) 65,72 24,32 33 14,67 3,80 8,34 5,63
2 (A) 46,49 44,75 40 16,81 2,85 11,41 3,48
3 (C) 53,51 30,90 52 11,28 2,92 12,53 3,91
4 (A) 83,85 30,32 53 9,63 3,63 10,75 5,14
5 (C) 62,53 16,53 16 12,64 3,33 25,02 6,23
6 (C) 58,51 62,74 50 22,62 5,46 7,24 3,26
7 (B) 40,07 33,07 25 13,22 3,78 27,11 8,06
8 (B) 40,01 39,88 53 14,78 5,04 52,68 10,94
(A) Accumulation on a river; (B) Natural lake; (C) River;
1. Răchiţi, 2. Corni, 3.Vârfu Câmpului, 4. Dersca, 5. Drăguşeni, 6. Rădăuţi Prut,
7. Dobîrceni, 8. Albeşti
Water chemical analysis of six springs which, because of the constant flow are
used by the population in the rural area (Rachiti, Corni, Dersca, Draguseni, Prajeni,
Frumusica), showed variations of the investigated chemical parameters: 15-33 mg
Cl-, 56,11-159,69 mg Ca
2+/l, 65,2-160,17 mg Mg
2+/l, 83-160,12 mg SO4
2+/l, 36,11-
50,97 mg Na+/l, 4,73-39,2 mg K
+/l.
Corrosive water is “aggressive” water that can dissolve materials which it
comes in contact with. Water distribution systems to consumers (pipes, branchings
and taps) are made of copper, lead or alloys of other metals. Soft water, with low
hardness with pH < 7,5 or > 9,5 with a certain content of sulphates, chlorides,
alkalinity, can drag along these metals producing modifications of the water
physical properties (taste, colour) and affecting health in case of severe corrosion.
In order to evaluate the corrosive properties of water circulated through the
supply system in a centralized way, the following coefficient was calculated:
Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru
314
in milli-equivalents/l (the Ratio Larson-Skold). We also calculated the ratio Ca/Mg,
Na/total cations, SO4/Cl, the values being presented in Table 3.
Table 3.The ratio between different mineral compounds of drinking water from
different sources
Drinking
water
Ca/Mg K1 Na/total
cations
SO4/Cl
Fountains
water 0,68 - 2,41 0,46 - 0,8 0,094 - 0,25 0,16 - 0,52
Subterranean
sources 0,58 - 2,74 0,41 - 0,9 0,096 - 0,72 1,23 - 2,21
Surface
sources 0,93 - 2,76 0,21 - 0,55 0,091 - 0,58 0,11 - 0,75
Springs 0,54 - 2,06 0,31-1,05 0,06 - 0,43 1,56 - 4,72
Heavy metals (Pb and Cd) were determined in drinking water collected in the
morning (stagnant water A1) and in the evening (A2) from consumers which live in
houses and apartments (Rachiti, Radauti Prut, Albesti). The data analyzed obtained
when determining the Pb in the drinking water of Rachiti (houses) are presented in
fig.5
Fig.5 - Pb concentration in drinking water samples collected in the morning and in the
evening
Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county
315
The dotted lines which represent the value of maximum permissible
concentration (CMA=MPC) (10 μg/l) divide the graphic in four sectors. Most of
the dots are represented in sector 1, where the lead concentration both in the
evening and in the morning situated in the limits 0-10 μg/l. In sector 2 the dots
represent water samples in which Pb concentration in the morning exceeded MPC,
but it is in the MPC limits in the case of the samples collected in the evening.
Only in 10% of the samples, Cd was detected in concentrations under MPC
(0,001-0,0037 mg/l).
3.Discussions
The importance of water consumption with a high degree of mineralization
was proved by many studies which revealed a lower incidence of cardiovascular
diseases in areas where water is hard (Kousa , Havulinna, 2006).
Law 458/2002 doesn’t provide MPC for Ca and Mg, but in some European
countries there are recommended minimum and maximum limits for these macro
elements 40-80 mg/l Ca and 20-30 mg/l Mg .
In the present study, we found out that water in the fountains and subterranean
phreatic sources contain Ca and Mg in higher concentrations than water from
surface sources, where it exceeded MPC in the morning, but it is within the MPC
limits in the case of the samples collected in the evening.
Only in 10% of the samples, Cd was detected in concentrations under MPC
(0,001-0,0037 mg/l).
The ratio Ca/Mg is less than the optimum recommended value (2:1).
Obviously, the presence of HCO3-, SO4
2+, Cl
- anions in the water of these sources
in Botosani County contributes to increasing their mineralization degree.
An increased ingestion of Na and more recently an increased ratio of Na/K
were associated with hypertension, that’s why the concentration Na at 200 mg/l is
normalized in the water.
The maximum value for sodium was registered in the drinking water supplied
from subterranean sources – 84,53 mg/l. Positive correlations were observed
between the concentration of Na – HCO3-, K – Ca, DT – Cl and negative
correlations between the concentration of Ca – HCO3-, Mg – HCO3
- (table 4).
Concentration increases of the sulfate ion were not registered in the drinking
water of the surface sources, being known that the aluminum sulfate is used in
treating drinking waters.
In water distribution systems, metals corrosion (Fe, Pb, Cu) is frequently
produced, the water chemical characteristics circulated pH, alkalinity, TDS, SO42+
,
Cl-, Ca
2+, Mg
2+, having a very important role in the process of involving elements
with toxic properties. The study showed slight increases of lead concentration in
stagnant water (water samples collected in the morning) (0,028 mg/l). Only 10% of
Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru
316
the analyzed samples contained Cd in concentrations that did not exceed MPC
(maximum value 0,0037 mg/l).
Table 4. The correlation matrix for 8 quality parameters of drinking water (subterranean
sources)
Temperature Cl HCO3- DT Ca Mg Na K
(0C) (mg/l) (mg/l) (
oG) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
T(C) l
Cl(mg/l) -0.02287 l
HCO3-
(mg/l) -0.44119 -0.14465 l
DT(oG) -0.37262 0.823515 0.308747 l
Ca(mg/l) 0.026473 0.586009 -0.79071 0.258758 l
Mg(mg/l) 0.889166 -0.02462 -0.51986 -0.31431 0.229661 l
Na(mg/l) -0.11897 -0.45659 0.750925 -0.27925 -0.86098 -0.29188 l
K(mg/l) -0.42296 0.319135 -0.25243 0.286016 0.665168 -0.02693 -0.38715 l
Taking into account the values of the K1 coefficient, we appreciate that
drinking water is slightly corrosive (subterranean sources) (K1 = 0,2-0,65) and very
corrosive in case of springs and some fountains (K1 -0,65).
Conclusions
1. In the chemistry of the phreatic subterranean waters investigated, used for
non-centralized (fountains, springs) and centralized supply, we found out that
Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county
317
cations predominate, the concentration average (in mg/l) being in the order Mg2+
>Ca2+
> Na+> K
+ , and for the main anions it was HCO
3- > Cl> SO4
2+.
2. The calculation of the ratio between the main ions showed that Na is not the
main cation, being in inferior concentrations MPC, and the ratio Ca/Mg does not
have the optimum value recommended in most of the water samples.
3. Slight increases of the Pb concentration in stagnant water were discovered
in the drinking water of the locality, and the calculation of the Kl coefficient
(Larson-Skold) allowed evaluations of the corrosivity of water from different
sources.
The analytic control of drinking water quality allows reconsideration of
environmental problems, which can appear in some geographical areas, including
those in which the drinking water quality is involved, to establish correlations with
the health of the exposed population, and where it is the case, establishing long-
term health programs.
References: Backer L.C. 2000, Assessing the acute gastrointestinal effects of ingesting naturally
occurring high levels of sulphate in drinking water, Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci, 37(4): 389-
400
Cech I., Smolensky M.H., Afsar M., 2006, Lead and cooper in drinking water fountains -
information for physician South Med J, 99(2): 137-42
Kousa A., Havulinna A.S., 2006, Calcium:Magnesium ratio in local groundwater and
incidence of acute myocardial infection among males in rural areas, Environ Health
Perspect, 114(5): 730-734
Sarin P., Snoeyink V.L., Bebee J., 2004, Iron release from corroded iron pipes in
drinking water distribution system, Water Res, 38(5): 1259-1269
Roseborg J., Nihlgard B., 2006, Concentration of inorganic elements in 20 municipal
waters in Sweden before and after treatment - links to human health, Environ Geochem
Health,
Rylander R., 2005, Magnesium in drinking water and cardiovascular disease –
anepidemiological dilema, Clin Calcium, 15(11): 1773-77
Zietz B.P., deVergara J.D., 2003, Cooper concentrations in tap water and possible effects
in infant's health - results of a study in Lower Saxony-Germany., Environ Res, 92(3):
129-138
***Legea 458/2002 privind calitatea apei potabile.
Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru
318
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CONTRIBUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTIONS
SPECIALISTS TO SUSTAINABLE LOCAL AND REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN ROMANIA
Liliana Petrişor1, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
2
Key words: GIS, university centers, potential influence, territorial development,
sustainable spatial development
Abstract. While sustainable development involves acquiring the equilibrium of
four pillars – economic, social, environmental and cultural, it also has a spatial
dimension, which must also balance these criteria. To achieve it, urban and
spatial planning, though different by scale and objectives, represent participative
processes demanding the presence of inter- and multidisciplinary teams. The
paper examines in detail the particular issue of the involvement of specialists
with a background in environmental protection in the elaboration and
coordination of such plans, focusing on their spatial distribution and potential
area of influence. The results of GIS-based spatial analyses indicate that the
distribution and influence are uneven, concentrating around large university
centers.
Introduction
If attempting to summarize the essence of the “sustainable development”
concept, it can be described by balancing three traditional pillars – economic,
social and environmental (Bugge and Watters, 2003), to which a fourth cultural one
was added by the Oagadougou Summit of Francophony (Iliescu, 2005). Such a
balance must be achieved by the development policies also in a territorial
perspective (Petrişor, 2008).
The spatial policies are materialized in urban and spatial planning, differing
by scale, but also by aim – urbanism refers to punctual interventions, while spatial
planning provides for the general guidelines (Petrişor A.-I., 2010). Regardless of
their scale and specific objectives, both aim for a sustainable spatial development.
1 Lecturer Ph.D., “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urbanism, Bucureşti, Romania,
[email protected] 2 Ph.D., Romanian Registry of Urban Planners, Bucureşti, Romania, [email protected]
Liliana Petrişor, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
320
The process of spatial planning is participative (Lacaze, 1990). Meeting
economic, social and environmental needs in a spatial perspective requires a tight
collaboration of specialists with different backgrounds (Petrişor, 2006).
Nevertheless, the planning process must be coordinated by an urban planner
specialized in urbanism, who can interpret the scientific evidence provided by the
specialists with different backgrounds from a spatial perspective and use their
conclusions in the decision making process. The planning process requires in
addition negotiation skills in order to defend the project in front of the authorities
habilitated by law to approve it (Lacaze, 1990).
This paper aims to use statistical evidence to look at the contribution of
specialists in environmental protection (ecologists, engineers and geographers) to
spatial planning by analyzing their spatial distribution. Since the urban areas are at
the core of environmental deterioration, generating pollutants and expanding over
the natural systems (Petrişor and Sârbu, 2010; Petrişor et al., 2010), a particular
attention will be given to the presence of environmental protection specialists
attested to contribute to urban and spatial plans in large cities and their potential
areas of influence.
1. Urban planners In the beginning, several legal definitions must be stressed out (Romanian
Registry of Urban Planners, 2010). First of all, the concept of “urban planner”
needs to be explained. The term is preferred to “urbanist” for two reasons. First, it
expresses clearly that the person is a practitioner, as urbanists could be also
theorists (Choay, 2011). Second, since the concept of “urbanism” has many
definitions, ranging from art or science to activity and system of regulations
(Petrişor A.-I., 2010), the term points again toward the practical side. An urban
planner is a practicing specialist in urban planning, with legally attested rights of
signature.
While professionals with a background in planning – architecture or urbanism
(the latest are relatively new in Romania, as the first class has graduated in 2002) –
are entitled by law to coordinate the process based on their specific qualification
proven by the academic transcripts, connected professionals – engineers,
sociologists, ecologists, geographers, economists etc. – are mainly responsible for
the elaboration of specific chapters, based again on their background, and can
coordinate entire plans only in specific circumstances.
Both categories are entitled to add the qualification “urbanist” to their
professional background upon the attestation of their rights of signature by the
Romanian Registry of Urban Planners. While those with a background in planning
receive the attestation immediately, after the verification of their educational
background and professional portfolio, connected specialists must in addition be
Contribution of environmental protections specialists to sustainable development
321
examined by a commission and prove their extensive knowledge of the legal
requirements related to urban and spatial planning and present in detail their
specific work experience in this field (Fig. 1). Upon the attestation of their rights of
signature, their professional title becomes, as stated before, “engineer-urbanist”,
“sociologist-urbanist”, “ecologist-urbanist” etc.
2. Specialists in environmental sciences involved in urban and spatial
planning
By law (Romanian Registry of Urban Planners, 2010), urban and spatial
planning specialist responsible for the elaboration of specific chapters dealing with
environmental issues can have the following backgrounds: urbanism, landscape,
geography, biology, ecology and engineering. They are entitled to request rights of
signature for the chapters “nature and environmental quality”, “protection and
development of the natural heritage” and “environmental quality”. Among the
professionals other than architects and urbanists, only geographers and some
engineers can also coordinate the elaboration of spatial plans, but not of the urban
plans.
Fig.1 – Procedure for the attestation of the signature rights – connected specialists
Since its foundation in 2004, the Romanian Registry of Urban Planners
attested the rights of signature for 1488 architects, 138 urbanists, 79 conducting
architects (lesser educational credits) and 131 specialists with a background in
Before 2002 After 2002
6 years
experience
Connected fields
Bachelor’s in con-
nected fields - 180-
240 credits
Master’s in
urbanism - 120
credits
Examination for the attestation of signature
rights; granting of professional title
Registration
2 years – professional practice
Master’s in
urban & spa-
tial planning -
120 credits
Registration
Connected fields
2 years –
professional
practice
At least 6
years
experience in
urban &
spatial
planning
Graduate stu-
dies in urban &
spatial
planning
Examination for the attestation
of signature rights
Liliana Petrişor, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
322
environmental sciences, out of which 3 are entitled to coordinate the elaboration of
urban plans and 25 of spatial plans.
3. Geographical distribution of environmental sciences specialists with
attested rights of signature in urban and spatial planning
The distribution of environmental sciences specialists is presented in Table 1
in relationship to their county and attestation of the rights of signature for the
elaboration of specific chapters or coordination of the elaboration of urban and
spatial plans.
The distribution displayed in Table 1 is mapped in Fig. 2. The figure indicates
using the darker shades counties with most specialists. As it can easily be seen, the
specialists are distributed unevenly, and most counties do not benefit upon the
presence of attested environmental specialists able to contribute to the coordination
and elaboration of urban and spatial plans. The underlying causes are that the
specialists are grouped around large cities with a strong tradition in education, as
they are most likely graduates of these university centers – Bucharest, Cluj Napoca,
Iaşi and, to a lesser extent, Timişoara (Petrişor L. E., 2010).
Table 1. Distribution of environmental sciences specialists entitled to elaborate parts or
coordinate the elaboration of urban and spatial plans by county
County Elaboration of
chapters
Coordination of urban
plans
Coordination of
spatial plans Total
Argeş 1 1
Bacău 1 1
Bihor 1 3 4
Bucharest 13 1 9 23
Cluj 10 6 16
Covasna 1 1 2
Galaţi 1 1
Gorj 1 1
Ialomiţa 2 2
Iaşi 3 3
Prahova 1 1
Sălaj 1 1
Satu Mare 1 1 2
Suceava 1 1
Teleorman 1 1
Timiş 1 1
Contribution of environmental protections specialists to sustainable development
323
4. Potential territorial influence of environmental sciences specialists with
attested rights of signature in urban and spatial planning
The potential influence of environmental sciences specialists was assessed
using a spatial analysis technique called radial basis functions, which produces
extrapolation surfaces by creating a special type of neural networks passing
through the values from which extrapolation originates (Johnston et al., 2001). The
centers used in extrapolation are the actual geometric county centers. The method
was used to generate five areas of influence based on the magnitude of influence,
displayed in Fig. 3 using darker shades for increasing influence.
Fig.2 – Showing the distribution of specialists
entitled to elaborate parts or coordinate the
elaboration of urban and spatial plans by
county
Fig.3 – Showing the areas of potential
influence of specialists entitled to elaborate
parts or coordinate the elaboration of urban
and spatial plans by county
The areas of influence clearly show that the environmental sciences specialists
who can influence the process of elaborating urban and spatial plans and contribute
to writing specific chapters concentrate around the large university centers
(Bucharest, Cluj Napoca, Iaşi and Timişoara), but also indicate other two nuclei
positioned in the counties Covasna and Bihor.
Conclusions
While the legislation provides for the involvement of environmental planning
specialists in the elaboration of urban and spatial plans since 2004, very few
Romanian specialists have taken this advantage. Most of the attested specialists are
concentrated around the large university center and can influence the surrounding
counties, suggesting an uneven distribution. Its consequence is that a large number
of counties lack specialists that know the territorial reality of their area and are able
to contribute to its sustainable spatial development.
Liliana Petrişor, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
324
References Bugge H. C., Watters L. (2003), A Perspective on Sustainable Development after
Johannesburg on the Fifteenth Anniversary of Our Common Future: An Interview with
Gro Harlem Brundtland, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 15:359-
366.
Choay Françoise (2011), For an anthropology of the space [in Romanian], Biblioteca
Urbanismul. Serie nouă, Bucharest, 271 pp.
Iliescu I. (2005), For the sustainable development [in Romanian], Editura Semne,
Bucharest, 188 pp.
Johnston K., Ver Hoef J. M., Krivoruchko K., Lucas N. (2001), Using ArcGIS
Geostatistical Analyst, ESRI Press, Redlands, CA, 316 pp.
Lacaze J.-P. (1990), Methods of urbanism [in French], 2nd edition, Presses Universitaires
de France, Paris, 127 pp.
Petrişor A.-I. (2006), Role of the ecologist in urbanism [in Romanian], Amenajarea
Teritoriului şi Urbanismul 6(3-4):34-35
Petrişor A.-I. (2008), Toward a definition of sustainable spatial development [in
Romanian], Amenajarea Teritoriului şi Urbanismul 7(3-4):1-5.
Petrişor A.-I. (2010), The Theory and Practice of Urban and Spatial Planning in
Romania: Education, Laws, Actors, Procedures, Documents, Plans, and Spatial
Organization. A Multiscale Analysis, Serbian Architectural Journal 2(2):139-154.
Petrişor A.-I., Ianoş I., Tălângă C. (2010), Land cover and use changes focused on the
urbanization processes in Romania, Environmental Engineering and Management
Journal 9(6):765-771.
Petrişor A.-I., Sârbu C. N. (2010), Dynamics of geodiversity and eco-diversity in
territorial systems, Journal of Urban and Regional Analysis 2(1):61-70.
Petrişor Liliana Elza (2010), Involvement of urban and spatial planning specialists in
developing urban and rural areas [in Romanian], Amenajarea Teritoriului şi
Urbanismul 10(1-2):44-47.
Romanian Registry of Urban Planners (2010), Regulation on obtaining the rights of
signature for spatial and urban plans and for the organization and functioning of the
Romanian Registry of Urban Planners, Official Gazette 577:7-25.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SPECTS OF THE FOG PHENOMENON IN BACAU CITY
Doina Capşa
1, Valentin Nedeff
2, Ema Faciu
2, Gabriel
Lazăr
2, Iulia
Lazăr
2,
Narcis Bârsan2
Keywords: the fog phenomenon, geographical positioning, atmospheric calm.
Abstract.The importance of knowing the fog phenomenon results from the fact that
different industry, especially in transport, it can seriously disrupt this activity by
reducing visibility. This paper analyses the recorded data as fog phenomenon varies
according to the main meteorological factors in Bacau City.
Introduction
Bacau City, the capital of the district with the same name is located in the NE
of Romania, in the lowland formed by the common valley of the Bistrita and Siret
rivers.
Fig. 1 - The cartographical representation of Bacau in the context of the geographical
positioning at the national level (www.harta-romaniei.ro/; www.sportman.ro/).
Bacau City is the capital of the district Bacau and it is located in NE of
Romania corresponding to the coordinates 46° 35’ N, 26
° 55’ E. Its surroundings
represent a vast and complex geographical area with many specific peculiarities.
The slopes on the left of the Siret river are always steep and tall, they are
1 Meteorologist, Ph.D. student, Regional Weather Forecasting Service, Bacău, Romania,
[email protected] 2 “Vasile Alecsandri“ University of Bacau
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
326
accompanied by fragments of terraces and those on the right are slower and they
have a wide unfolding of the terraces. (ANM 2008, www. arpmbc.anpm.ro).
The common valley of the two rivers looks like a depression corridor with
north- south orientation with an opening to the west side, Bistrita valley and a
narrowing to the south, “ the Siret gate” , overlapping to the contact between the
hills of the Tutova and the Carpathian peaks Pietricica- Barboiu.
The meadow steps and the flat or slightly sloping terraces stand as typical
forms of the relief, with the eastern and south- east exhibition having a good
drainage of groundwater (ANM 2008, www. arpmbc.anpm.ro).
The meadows and the terraces near the city are used for the practicing of the
agriculture and high terraces are used for fruit growing and viticulture. The terraces
favoured the construction of the ways of communication and they facilitated the
spreading of the constructions (www. arpmbc.anpm.ro).
Fig. 2 - The cartographical representation of Bacau- the delimitation of
the urban and peripheral areas.
Bacau City is located at just 9,6 km upstream of the confluence of Siret-
Bistrita, at an altitude of 160,056 m
1. Climatic aspects in the city of Bacau The climate of the city of Bacau is temperate - continental, with cold winters
and hot dry summers, the result of the action of a complex of natural factors
(general circulation of the atmosphere, the solar radiation, the landscape) and
anthropogenic factors, the city itself having an essential role in creating its own
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city
327
mezoclime by a number of factors that constantly manifest (the materials of
construction, the rugged profile, the green spaces) respectively through secondary
factors (the artificial heating, the polluted atmosphere ). The simultaneous action of
these factors lead to the biogeochemical disturbance at the level of the system, the
direct result being the urban discomfort (Gârţu 1991, ANM 2008).
This area of confluence and the Bistrita river corridor favor the channeling air
masses over its weather conditions characterized by winds from the south and
south- east, alternating with periods of atmospheric calm (average speeds of the
wind (1,5m/s), the condition which characterizes the area most of the year and the
frequent appearance of thermal inversion situations. These thermal inversions (the
situation where a blanket of cold air is positioned under a blanket of warm air) can
occur under a stationary atmospheric front of high pressure coupled with low wind
speeds (Stefan 2004, Tasnea and Sarbu 1984).
In these conditions the atmospheric chemical mixtures between the
atmospheric components and pollutants are slowed down, as well as reducing
process, and the pollutants can be accumulated at low altitudes, close to the level of
the ground (Dayan and Lamb 2005, Bogdan and Marinica 2007).
2. General aspects of the fog phenomenon
The importance of knowing the fog phenomenon results from the fact that in
different economic branches, especially in transport (land, air and naval) it can
seriously disrupt this activity by reducing visibility.
The provision of this phenomenon is a major difficulty, on the one hand
because of the multitude of meteorological parameters which it depends on
temperature, wind, pressure, humidity and on the other hand it depends on the local
conditions (orographic). Because of this latter factor the general methods should
have a strictly local application (ANM 2008, www. arpmbc. anpm. ro).
According to the international standards, the fog is a phenomenon that reduces
the visibility to less than one kilometre. This phenomenon consists of small water
drops suspended in the air.
The fog is formed when the moist air is cooled and it reaches to its point of
dew, it becomes saturated and the vapours from the air are condensed forming tiny
drops of water. The principle of the fog formation is the same as in cloud
formation, except that this is a cloud which touches the ground (Bogdan and
Marinică 2007, Gârţu 1991, Mureşan and Croitoru 2008).
The water drops which form the fog are very small, the diameter of the drop is
about 2/100 mm and the distance between them is about 2 mm, so more than 100
diameters. The fog drops don’t float in the air, as one might think, they fall like all
the heavier bodies than the air, but the speed of fall is very small due to the very
small volume. The forces that act on the drop are: the resistance force of the air and
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
328
the closed sensitive weight, but they have opposite meanings, the fall of the fog
drops is extremely slow, a fall on the lowest ascendant current it stops it or even it
reverses it. The fall speed of a fog droplet with a diameter of 2/100 mm is about 1,3
cm/s. (Mureşan and Croitoru 2008, Tasnea and Sarbu 1984).
The total mass of the drops which constitutes the fog is 2g/m3, lower to the
water mass existing in the air in the vapour state. However the number of drops is
very high, from 2 grams of water we can get a half billion of drops with the 2/100
mm diameter. When the drops that form the fog are quite big, the fog wets the
objects which touches them, and if their size continues to grow up then it turns into
drizzle.
The fog opacity is a remarkable fact, considering the total mass of the
particles of the water extremely small. The maximal distance of visibility of the
objects during the fog it is proportional to the radius of drops and it is inversely
proportional with the mass of water from cubic meter and the fog intensity is
characterized by the maximum distance where the objects can be seen and from
where it comes the name of the fog: 100 m, 20 m, etc (Mureşan 2008, INMH
1986).
The fog has a whitish color due to air cooling, it is generally formed very
quickly but it is dissipated very slowly. The general conditions of forming the fog
are: a very high humidity and a wind that blows not too weak (if the temperature is
below zero degrees, the drops freeze resulting the hoar frost), not too strong (in this
case we can’t talk about the fog formation).
2.1. The classification of the fog
2.1.1. The advection fog. For producing this type of fog it is required the
presence of a warm and humid air mass and another cold and dry air. This is a very
persistent fog because its superior surface is very important for the production of
the condensation (fig.3.a). The thickness of this type of fog varies between 100 m
and 1 km and it increases where there is a cooling at the top of the layer. The
dissipation of this type of fog is very slow because it takes a reheating of the cold
surface (it produces the disruption of the thermal equilibrium air- ground) (Stefan
2004, Meteorological Institution 1963).
2.1.2 The radiation fog. This fog is formed during the clear nights following
after a warm day during which the evaporation was high, a situation where the
moist air could cool long enough for forming the fog provided not to be wind. The
conditions of formation of this type of fog there are also conditions of beautiful
time (fig. 3.b).
The wind speed is almost zero (less than 10 km/h), the air is very moist and
the clear sky will allow the production of the radiation fog. The air close to the soil
surface is cooled by conduction in order to reach the dew point and the formed
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city
329
water drops produce a thin film of fog. The air continues to cool, increasing the
number of water drops thickening the fog, it becomes opaque to infrared. The
upper layer continues to cool, increasing the thickness of the fog. The dissipation is
produced by heating from the sun or by the intensification of the wind. The
radiation fog is generally formed in large spaces such as airports, highways, fields
and it is the type of fog that disrupts the circulation of the planes and of the cars
(Iordachescu 2011, ANM 2008).
2.1.3 The smog is a type of fog whose method of training can be represented
schematically in Figure 4. a.
Fig. 3 - The graphical representation of the phenomenon of fog formation: a) the formation
of the advection fog; b) the formation of the radiation fog (Iordachescu 2011).
Fig. 4 - The graphical representation of the phenomenon of fog formation: a) the smog
formation; b) the formation of the expansion fog (Iordachescu 2011).
The emission of the gases from the large cities may form an extended haze in
the absence of the wind, where the gas tends to remain on the ground because of
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
330
the water particles (the moisture), blocking the vertical displacement. The
quantities of gas are accumulated in order to form a toxic fog, that it represents the
smog. This fog phenomenon could be confused with the misty and dry air where
there is dispersed dust (Mureşan and Croitoru 2008, Mureşan 2008).
2.1.4 The expansion fog is formed only in the mountains or in the hilly areas
as it is illustrated in Figure 4 b). This type of fog is formed in the valleys due to
high moisture, to a down wind and to a slope which are more or less stepped. The
wind pushes the moist air on the slope, it meets the cold air from the altitude and
thus creating fog expansion. The mode of the production of this type of fog can be
explained by the fact that when a moist and a stable air mass cools adiabatically
along a slope and the wind has speeds less than 5 km/h the fog is formed, and if the
wind has speeds bigger than 5 km/h, the fog is broken forming Stratus type clouds
(Iordăchescu 2011, Ştefan 2004).
2.1.5. The evaporative fog is a type of fog contrary to the mists of advection, it
requires a warm surface and a very cold air mass (the difference of temperature
between ground and air must be very big) and it can be represented schematically
as in Figure 5 a). A mass of cold air reaches above a surface as the hot liquids and
the temperature of the air is smaller than the temperature of the water, the air
becomes saturated favoring a rapid condensation and resulting the formation of
large amounts of water drops. Such a fog of reducing thickness it is formed on the
lakes and on the rivers (Iordăchescu 2011, Tasnea and Sarbu 1984).
Fig. 5. The graphical representation of the phenomenon of fog formation: a) the
formation of the evaporative fog; b) the formation of mixing fog (Iordăchescu (2011).
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city
331
Fig. 6 - Synoptic conditions producing fog on the 16. 12. 2006 (www.wetterzentrale.de).
2.1.6. The mixing fog is a phenomenon that can be explained by the graphical
representation in the Figure 5 b). The warm and moist air and the cold and humid
air (with different densities) will mix producing the fog phenomenon on a small
area, the visibility being bigger than 1 km.
In Figure 6 there are some cartographical examples with satellite view of the
synoptic conditions producing fog (on the 16. 12. 2006).
3. Results and discussions
In order to achieve a more detailed analysis of the fog phenomenon in Bacau
City, the main meteorological data were processed during 2005- 2010.
In Figure 7 the wind directions are presented in Bacau City.
Fig. 7 - The wind direction in Bacau City.
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
332
Analyzing the chart above it can be noted that geographical position of Bacau
causes airflow to be oriented on the North- South direction, the winds from the
west and east being blocked by existing landforms, respectively by hills.
Fig. 8 - The graphical representation of mean values for the frequency of the winds
on the S- SE and on the N- NV direction and the number of the days when the fog
phenomenon was present between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 9 - The graphical representation of the average values for the winds
frequency on the S- SE direction and the graphical representation of the
periods of atmospheric calm between 2005- 2010.
In Figure 8 the average values are presented for the winds frequency on the S-
SE and N- NV direction and the number of the days when the fog phenomenon was
present between 2005- 2010.
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city
333
In Figure 9 the average values are presented for the winds frequency on the S-
SE direction and the periods of atmospheric calm are also presented as well as the
number of days when the fog phenomenon was present between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 10 - The graphical representation of the average values of the number of days
when the fog phenomenon was present, the frequency of the atmospheric calm and
the values of the monthly temperatures between 2005 - 2010.
In Figure 10 the average values of the number of days are presented when the
fog phenomenon was present, there are also presented the monthly distribution of
the average frequency of the periods of atmospheric calm as well as the values of
the monthly temperatures from 2005 to 2010.
In Figure 11 the monthly distribution of the average of the number of days is
represented when the fog phenomenon was present and the average of the monthly
total precipitations it is also represented between 2005- 2010.
In Figure 12 a graph is presented where the weather phenomena were
correlated to each other and they are presented in the graphs above, the intensity of
the winds on the N- NV and S- SE direction, the number of days when the fog
phenomenon was present as well as the average of the monthly total precipitations
between 2005- 2010.
Analyzing the graphs above can appreciate the fact that this area of confluence
and the Bistrita river corridor favor the channeling air masses over Bacau City. In
the weather conditions characterized by winds from the south and south- eastern
sector alternating with periods of atmospheric calm (the average speeds of the wind
(1,5 m/s), it registers a specific situation of the Bacau area that causes frequent
thermal inversion situations.
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
334
Fig. 11. Graphical representation of the average number of days of fog
phenomenon and average monthly rainfall t in the period 2005-2010.
Fig. 12. The graphical representation of the winds frequency on the N- NV and
S- SE direction, the number of days when the fog phenomenon was present and
the average of the monthly total precipitations between 2005- 2010.
In order to analyse the fog phenomenon in Bacau for any time of year, there
were made graphical representations for the entire analysed period, the
phenomenon was analysed at the level of each calendar month (Figures 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24).
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city
335
Fig. 13 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
January between 2005- 2010
Fig. 14 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
February between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 15 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
March between 2005- 2010.
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
336
Fig. 16 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
April between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 17 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in May
between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 18 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in June
between 2005- 2010.
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city
337
Fig. 19 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in July
between 2005- 2010
Fig. 20. The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in August
between 2005- 2010
Fig. 21. The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
September between 2005- 2010.
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
338
Fig. 22 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
October between 2005- 2010
Fig. 23 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
November between 2005- 2010
Fig. 24 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in
December between 2005- 2010.
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city
339
Analyzing the graphs above we see that in January, February, November and
December the meteorological conditions determined the increasing of the fog
phenomenon in this period. In these months the maximum of days is recorded
during the analyzed period where the fog phenomenon was produced respectively
17 days in December of 2010. This time of the year corresponds to the cold period
of winter where the temperatures are low and the wind direction is primarily from
N- NV but the precipitations are weak in quantity.
During the specific period of spring the fog phenomenon occurred mainly in
April when in 2008 there have been three days with fog.
In the months of autumn the fog phenomenon was recorded in each of the
analyzed six years respectively to a minimum of two days in 2010 and a maximum
of 7 days in 2008.
Excluding June when the fog phenomenon didn’t occur in summer, the fog
phenomenon was recorded sporadically about one day per month throughout the
analyzed period 2005- 2010.
Conclusions
The importance of knowing the fog phenomenon results from the fact that in
different industries, especially in transport (land, air and naval), it can seriously
disrupt this activity by reducing visibility.
The provision of this phenomenon is a matter of major difficulty, on the one
hand because of the multitude of meteorological parameters that depend on
temperature, wind, humidity and on the other hand because of the local conditions
(orographic). According to this latter factor the general methods should have a
strictly local application.
At the mesoscale, the fog is a short term phenomenon, therefore, it is difficult
to analyzed and to predict.
As a main conclusion of the study, we noticed that the months with the most
days where the fog had occurred there were those from the cold season respectively
those of the transition from warm season to cold season- in autumn, at the
transition from cold season to warm season- in spring, with a maximum in
December followed by November, January and February.
In March, April, May, June, August and September, the number of recorded
days is one to three days during a calendar month and the minimum is recorded in
July when the fog phenomenon wasn’t observed.
The altitude, the urban environment, the depression corridor which is
characteristic to the area and the fact that warm masses of tropical home reach in
Bacau City, they seem to be responsible for the large number of days with fog, it is
bigger with 2 to 4 days than the average feature area east of the country.
Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
340
References: Dayan U. and Lamb D., (2005), Global and synoptic-scale weather patterns
controllingwet atmospheric deposition over central Europe, Atmospheric
Environment 39, pp. 521 - 533.
Bogdan O. and Marinică I. (2007), Hazarde meteo-climatice din zona temperată: geneză
şi vulnerabilitate cu aplicaţii la România, Editura “Lucian Blaga”, Sibiu, pp 422.
Gârţu M. (1991), Câteva consideraţii asupra fenomenului de ceaţă în zona municipiului
Bacău, lucrare internă A.N.M. Bucureşti.
Iordachescu Ş. (2011), Prognoza ceţii în regiunea Olteniei, lucrare internă, C.M.R Oltenia.
Mureşan T. and Croitoru A.E. (2008), Considerations on fog phenomena in the North-
Western Romania, lucrare internă Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai Cluj.
Mureşan T. (2008), Ceaţa în zona culoarului Someşului Mic în intervalul 1987 - 2007,
lucrare internă A.N.M.
Ştefan Ş. (2004), Fizica atmosferei, Bucureşti, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti.
Tasnea D. and Sarbu V. (1984), Unele aspecte privind producerea ceţii, funcţie de
temperatura şi umezeala aerului, Studii şi cercetări meteorologice A.N.M.
Administraţia Naţională de Meteorologie - ANM (2008), Clima României, Editura
Academiei Române.
Institutul Meteorologic (1963), Condiţiile meteorologice care favorizează producerea şi
menţinerea ceţurilor pe aeroporturile Bacău, Iaşi, Suceava, Culegere de lucrări,
pp.137 – 142.
Institutul Naţional de Meteorologie şi Hidrologie - INMH (1986), Instrucţiuni pentru
observarea, identificarea şi codificarea norilor şi a fenomenelor meteorologice.
www. arpmbc.anpm.ro;
www.wetterzentrale.de.
www.harta-romaniei.ro/.
www.sportman.ro/
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
FACTORS THAT INCREASE DRYNESS PHENOMENON ON
SMALL RIVERS IN PRUT BASIN (ANALYSIS OF
CONDITIONALITIES)
Florin Vartolomei 1
Key words: dryness, small basin, factors, intensity, Tinoasa, Prut.
Abstract. This study aims to analyze factors causing increased of dryness
phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin. Are analyzed, the non-climate
components of the landscape (relief, geology, soil, vegetation) and climatic
factors on corresponding area (rainfalls). In reporting the number of years that has
occurred dryness to number of years of observations showed that the frequency of
the dryness phenomenon is over 90% for basins with areas less than 5 km2. The
maximum period recorded without flow for small rivers in this basin was 292
days in 1987 on Ciurea hydrometric station closing Tinoasa catchment (A = 4.71
km2) and 326 days on Humăria hydrometric station (A = 1.65 km
2) in the same
basin. Should be noted the role of factors determine increasing phenomenon,
namely geology (groundwater un-interception) and wooded areas (if smaller
quantities of precipitation).
Introduction
The objective of this study is to determine the characteristics determinative
factors of dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin.
For this aim Ciurea hydrometric station on Tinoasa representative basin was
selected, for reasons of necessary information convenience, continuity and
accessibility of data string.
Studies on minimum flow in this basin have been made by various authors
over time (Chiriac, V., 1962, Pantazi, M., 1971, Păduraru, A., Popovici, V.,
Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., 1973 and 1974, Topor, N., 1964, Vartolomei, F., 2004,
etc.) in the context of planning and economic water exploitation in this basin or to
establish relations in synthetic schemes framework about hydrographic network
use in Romanian Water Department, also to prepare the management Plan in Water
Department Prut – Iaşi.
1 Lecturer PhD., Spiru Haret University, Bucureşti, Romania, [email protected]
Florin Vartolomei
342
1. Study area
Location and morphometric features: Prut basin is located in eastern part of
Romania, the catchment area is 10,970 km2 in Romania, and together with related
areas in Ukraine and Moldova occupies 28,396 km2 (Diaconu C., 1969).
Geological conditions: under this Prut basin overlaps three structural units:
Moldavian Platform (up to fault Falciu-Plopana) Bârlad platform (between faults
Fălciu-Plopana and Adjud-Oancea) and Covurlui platform, each presenting a
socket covered with a folded blanket with monoclinal parties willing (Băcăuanu V.
et al., 1980).
Relief: looks like a large set of inter-looking bridges, hills separated by wide
valleys, carved in monoclinal sedimentary. General slope of the landscape, south-
south-east, in addition to the orientation of major valleys, reflect an obvious
adaptation to the structure. Monoclinal structure favored the emergence of positive
and subsequent valleys. Main steps to be taken in morphology, have values of 300-
500 m in the north-west, 300-400 m in the central part, 150-200 m in the north-east
and south and have a relatively balanced distribution. Altitudes of 500 m are few
and isolated. The lowest rates are found along the Prut river corridor (130 m on
Oroftina in north, 32 m near Ungheni and less than 15 meters to the confluence
with the Danube) (Băcăuanu, 1968).
Climate: due to its majority position in the extra-Carpathian regions away
from the influence of Atlantic air masses, but wide open to continental air masses
action from the east, north-east and north, Prut basin receives moderate quantities
of precipitation. Prut Basin superimposed on the Plain of Moldavia, is directly
exposed to continental air masses, the air from the west to lower the surrounding
physical and geographical units frequently suffer föehn processes, precipitation is
low, ranging generally around 500 mm (Radauţi 564 mm, 529.4 mm in Iaşi
(Octavia Bogdan, 2007).
2. Analysis of factors that determine the intensity of dryness phenomenon
in small rivers
The most important role in increasing intensity of dryness phenomenon is the
natural factors which are substrate (relief, geology, soil, vegetation), on the one
hand, and climatic factors on corresponding area on the other hand (rainfalls)
(Păduraru A., V. Popovici, 1972).
Geology influences the amplification of phenomenon that drying up the rivers
because there are often cases where the minor bed thalweg not intersect
groundwater. The immediate effects are that underground supply is not permanent
for surface drainage areas, this is only occurring due to precipitation fallen on the
surface basins (Table 1).
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin
343
Vegetation, by the most influential component of the vegetation cover, forest,
influence by withholding altogether less than 15-20 mm rainfall for their falling
after long periods of drought.
Tab. 1 - Physico-geographical and morphometric features of Tinoasa representative basin
on Ciurea hydrometric station
River Hydro
station
Area (A
în km2)
Basin
mean
altitude
(H in m)
Basin
mean
slope
(I in
%)
Forest
coeff.
(Cp in
%)
Vegetati
on type Soils
Humăria Humăria 1,60 270 17,0 95,4
Deciduo
us
forests
Red
preluvosoil
Tinoasa Ciurea 4,17 272 15,9 63,0
Deciduo
us
forests
Pastures
Tipical
preluvosoil
Red
preluvosoil
Pseudorendzi
ne
Fig. 1 - Relationship rain (precipitation layer in mm)-flow (flow in l/s) in Tinoasa
experimental basin on Ciurea hydrometric station
The soil can influence the phenomenon intensity by the presence of draining
gray podzolic soil containing a large percentage of clay, over 20%, and no water
storage capacity that can extend drain surface.
Florin Vartolomei
344
The landscape as an physical-geographical substrate factors may influence
dryness by presence of relatively small slopes of 15-17%.
Rainfall proper to excessive continental climate has annual amounts of 630
mm, but are unevenly distributed in time, with a strong torrential regime (Fig. no.
1).
3. Results and discussions
In such conditions as we mention above dryness phenomenon production rate
is 40-50% for basins with an area of 15-20 km2 and 90% for basins with areas less
than 5 km2 (Fig. no. 2 ).
If the Tinoasa representative basin on Ciurea flow throughout the year there
was only in 1980 (the period of observation of 35 years from 1969 to 2003).
The mathematical expression of dryness frequency phenomenon is given by
the function:
f = (n / N) * 100
where n - number of years that has dryness occurred, N -number of
observations years.
Fig. 2 - Frequency of dryness phenomenon occurrence based on catchment areas
Annual average duration of dryness phenomenon denoted by Ns (in days) has
also very high values. On hydrometric station closing Tinoasa basin (area A = 4.17
km2) Ns value is 131 days (Fig. no. 3).
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin
345
0
40
80
120
160
0 10 20 30 40
A(km2)
Ns
(zile
)
Fig. 3 - Relationship between multi-annual average duration of dryness phenomenon and
basin area
The figure above shows the relationship between Ns (days) and basin area,
(such as Ns = f (A)), which shows average annual duration of dryness phenomenon
(ie Ns) over 120 days to areas less than 4.5 km2.
An important phenomenon on dryness duration is distribution in time of
rainfalls.
The maximum period recorded without flow for small rivers in this basin was
292 days in 1987 on closing hydrometric station in Tinoasa catchment (A = 4.71
km2) and 326 days on Humăria hydrometric station (A = 1.65 km
2) from the same
basin (Fig. no. 4).
Fig. 4 - Maximum duration without registered flow probability in Tinoasa basin (on the
vertical axis is the number of days without flow recorded)
Rainfalls in 1987 were 470 mm. Not the same thing happened in 1986
when they fell less precipitation - only 381 mm, less than 89 mm in 1987. However
Florin Vartolomei
346
Ns value was lower, only 255 days. This was because more precipitation fell in the
spring when humidity was high and favored leakage (Fig. no. 5).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Ns
(zil
e)
Fig. 5 - Variation in annual number of draining phenomenon days on experimentally
Tinoasa basin-Ciurea hydrometric station in 1969 to 2003 period
Synthetic relationship between the maximum probability of the dryness
phenomenon with 1% (Nsmax1%) and basin area exceeding 330 days in basins with
less than 5 km2 area and more than 330 days in the basins of the same category but
with high forest cover (Fig. no. 6).
Fig. 6 - Synthesis relationship of Nsmax1% = f (A)
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin
347
For dryness mapping in Prut basin hydrographic network map was used on
1:100,000 scale, encoding streams from Atlas of Water Cadastre in Romania,
Volume I of 1964 and maps from Atlas of draining rivers in Romania, scale
1:200,000, published in 1974.
To characterize the phenomenon of drying up on rivers Prut basin the
following categories was established (Table no. 2):
Tab. 2 - The phenomenon of dryness for rivers in Prut basin
Dryness type
No of river segments
on 1:100,000 scale
(between
confluences)
Total lengh of
rivers (km)
draining permanent rivers 29 470
rivers with draining every year 30 22
rivers with draining every few years 35 971
rivers with rare draining 44 1381
rivers with dryness and stationary water
in natural conditions 32 2
rivers with dryness and stationary water
in anthropogenic conditions 30 5
rivers with dryness and water shortages
in the channel in anthropogenic
conditions
29 3
rivers with draining in unknown terms
secării 56 464
permanent rivers 479 1601
TOTAL (including channels) 764 4919
(after Atlas of draining rivers in Romania, with additions).
-draining permanent rivers, which include rivers that flow only in high rainfall
every several years;
-rivers with draining every year, which includes courses with draining
appearance in every year, although in a few years from 30-40 years there has been
drying up completely;
-rivers with draining every few years, which includes courses with long period
draining appearance in average every 2-5 years;
-rivers with rare draining, which includes courses with long period draining
appearance more once than five years;
-rivers with dryness and stationary water in natural conditions;
-rivers with dryness and stationary water in anthropogenic conditions;
Florin Vartolomei
348
-rivers with dryness and water shortages in the channel in anthropogenic
conditions;
-rivers with draining in unknown terms.
It should be noted that the rivers sectors considered are appropriate to
1:100,000 scale maps, including channels identified in Prut floodplain sectors
between Iaşi and Galaţi.
The base was Atlas of draining rivers in Romania, by 5 partially maps related
to Prut basin on 1:200,000 scale, in addition to the information which has been
studying the bibliographic sources (Chiriac, V., 1962, Diaconu, C ., 1961,
Mociorniţă, C., Dinca, A., Niţulescu, M., 1963, Păduraru, A., Popovici, V.,
Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., 1973, Topor, N., 1964).
10% 0%
20%
28%0%0%9%
33%
0%
draining permanent rivers
rivers with draining every year
rivers with draining every few years
rivers with rare draining
rivers with dryness and stationary water in natural conditions
rivers with dryness and stationary water in anthropogenic conditions
rivers with dryness and water shortages in anthropogenic conditions
rivers with draining in unknown terms
permanent rivers
Fig. 7 - Share of river segments in Prut basin by draining categories
The analysis of the map shown in Fig. no. 8 and share of rivers segments by
dryness category illustrate in Fig. no. 7 may draw the following conclusions:
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin
349
Fig. 8 - Map of draining river in Romanian sector of the Prut basin (after Atlas of draining
rivers in Romania, with amendments)
Florin Vartolomei
350
-draining permanent rivers (which includes rivers that flow only in high
rainfall every several years) totaling 470 km and are located mainly in the Bahlui
basin, but also Sitna and Miletin;
-drying up rivers every few years (which includes courses with long period
draining appearance average every 2-5 years) totaling 971 km and are
characteristic of Jijia, Miletin and Sitna tributaries;
-rare-draining rivers (which includes courses with long period draining
appearance, more than once every five years) account longest (1381 km), about ¼
of the length of courses in Romanian sector of the Prut basin;
-unknown rivers in draining terms including most channels, analyzed as part
of the river system, located in Prut floodplain.
Conclusions
On small experimental basin can be accurate calculations and assessments
about:
-multi-annual average number of days with dryness phenomenon;
-maximum number of days with draining phenomenon recorded;
-number of days with draining phenomenon by 1% probability;
-monthly maximum number of days with draining phenomenon recorded;
-appropriate probability.
Frequency of draining phenomenon production is over 90% for basins with
areas less than 5 km2. The maximum duration recorded without flow for small
rivers in this basin in 1987 was 292 days on closing station hydrometric of Tinoasa
catchment (A = 4.71 km2) and 326 days on Humăria hydrometric station (A = 1.65
km2).
Be mentioned the role of factors determining the increase of draining
phenomenon, namely geology (groundwater un-interception) and wooded areas (if
smaller quantities of precipitation).
Bibliography: Băcăuanu, V., (1968), Câmpia Moldovei-studiu de geomorfologie, Editura Academiei, p.
163, 176-177, Bucureşti.
Băcăuanu, V., Barbu, N., Pantazică, Maria, Ungureanu, Al., Chirac, D., (1980),
Podişul Moldovei - Natură, om, economie, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, p. 98-
129, Bucureşti.
Bogdan, Octavia, (2007), Caracteristicile precipitaţiilor din sectorul vestic al văii Prutului
(România), Studii şi cercetări de Geografie, Editura Academiei Române, tom. LI-
LII/2004-2005, p. 13-28, Bucureşti.
Chiriac, V., (1962), Seceta meteorologică la Iaşi, Hidrotehnica, Gospodărirea Apelor,
Meteorologia, nr. 3, p.221-224, Bucureşti.
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin
351
Diaconu, C., (1969), Elementele statistice ale reţelei hidrografice a României,
Hidrotehnica, nr. 12 Bucureşti.
Mociorniţă, C., Dincă, A., Niţulescu, M., (1963), Repartiţia scurgerii pe sezoane şi luni
în cadrul anului mediu pe râurile din R.P.R., Studii de Hidrologie, vol. V, p. 3-20,
Bucureşti.
Pantazică, Maria, (1971), Scurgerea minimă pe râurile din nord-estul Moldovei, Analele
Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii Al. I. Cuza, Iaşi, Seria Geografie, Tom XVII, p. 51-59,
Iaşi.
Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., (1972), Influenţa zonalităţii verticale a elementelor fizico-
geografice asupra scurgerii medii multianuale, Lucrările Simpozionului de
Geografie Fizică a Carpaţilor, p. 307-316, Bucureşti.
Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., (1973), Scurgerea medie lunară
minimă multianuală şi asigurată 80% din perioada iunie-august pe râurile
României, Studii de Hidrologie, vol. XLI, p. 113-135, Bucureşti.
Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., (1974), Analiza factorilor
meteorologici care au generat scurgeri minime remarcabile pe râurile României în
perioada 1950-1970, Studii de Hidrologie, vol. XLII, p. 99-118, Bucureşti.
Topor, N., (1964), Ani ploioşi şi secetoşi în R.P.R., C.S.A., Institutul Meteorologic,
Bucureşti.
Vartolomei, F., (2004), Aspecte ale scurgerii minime în bazinul hidrografic Prut, Analele
Universităţii „Spiru Haret“, Seria Geografie, Nr. 7, pag. 71-74, Bucureşti.
* * * (1964), Atlasul Cadastrului Apelor din R.P.R., C.S.A. (D.G.G.A.), vol. I, partea I şi II,
Bucureşti.
* * * (1960, 1959, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958), Anuarul Hidrologic, C.S.A. (I.S.C.H.),
Bucureşti.
* * * (1974), Atlasul secării râurilor din România, Institutul de Meteorologie şi
Hidrologie şi I.G.F.C.O.T., p.73, Bucureşti.
Florin Vartolomei
352
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
MONITORING DATA PROVING HYDROCLIMATIC TRENDS IN
SIRET HYDROGRAPHIC AREA
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor1
Key words: territorial system, land management, environmental deterioration,
uncontrolled development, anthropization, CORINE.
Abstract. The relationship between the natural and anthropic components of
territorial systems or complexes of coupled socio-economic and natural systems is
changing in time under the effect of socio-economic and political drivers. One way
of looking at it is through the changes of land cover and use, which are connected
also to the dynamics of the eco-energies during the anthropization process. The aim
of this paper is to perform an analysis of long-term land cover and use changes of
the Romanian territory, hypothesizing that the transition period, with its more or less
benefic economic periods, was characterized by an uncontrolled development
resulting in important environmental impacts. The results confirm the hypothesis
and underline several phenomena; some of them are antagonistic (decline and
development of agriculture, deforestation and afforestation or reforestation), and
others, such as urbanization, seem to occur mainly in one direction. The most
affected areas are the limit of North-East and Center regions (due to deforestations)
and the area around Bucharest and the shoreline (due to urbanization).
Introduction
Two Earth sciences – ecology and geography – have developed a systemic
approach to define their object of study. While describing the same spatial reality,
ecologists called it “ecological system” (Botnariuc and Vădineanu, 1982;
Vădineanu, 1998, 2004) and geographers, “territorial system” (Ianoş, 2000). An
extensive review of the literature on the two concepts has indicated that
correspondences can easily be made between them based on the spatial scale
(Petrişor, 2011). In addition, their structure is similar and it consists of natural and
anthropic elements (Petrişor and Sârbu, 2010).
These conceptual considerations naturally lead to the question: provided that a
system (ecological or territorial) is spatially delimited (Vădineanu, 1998), what is
1 Lecturer Ph.D., “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urbanism, Bucureşti,
Romania/ [email protected]
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
354
the relationship of the natural and anthropic subsystems? Vădineanu (1998) shows
that man-dominated systems tend to expand over the natural ones, transforming
and simplifying them; this process is called anthropization. Ianoş (2000) believes
that the transformation can be appreciated through the consumption of primary
eco-energies, defined as the “initial energy of a territorial system before the
intervention of man as a conscious factor in its structure”. If a key feature of
systems, diversity, is also accounted for, biodiversity tends to decrease during the
process, while geodiversity, equivalent to eco-diversity, increases (Petrişor and
Sârbu, 2010).
While conceptually clear, these processes lack a methodology for assessing
the transformation rate. It is far easier to look at the physical changes, reflected by
the modifications of land cover and use. According to Jensen (2000), land cover
represents a description of what is actually there from a biophysical viewpoint, and
land use identifies how human communities utilize what lies on the surface of the
Earth. In an even more pragmatic sense, the United States use the two-level
Anderson’s classification (Anderson et al., 1976); the first level reflects land cover
and the second land use. The European Union utilizes the three-level CORINE
classification (de Lima, 2005). While the first one reflects land cover, the second
and third correspond to a more or less detailed description of land use in man-
dominated systems or typology of natural systems (Petrişor et al., 2010).
Previous research over the Romanian territory, using CORINE data and
focused on urban systems, has indicated that socioeconomic and political issues are
the most important drivers of the changing relationship between natural and man-
dominated systems, reflected by land cover and use changes (Petrişor et al., 2010).
At the same time, micro-scale analyses have shown that the spatial distribution of
land cover and use changes is tightly related to the one of eco-energies (Ianoş et
al., 2011).
Nevertheless, the use of CORINE data is subject to several limitations. First,
the analysis of an entire continent using a unitary methodology makes such
inventories possible only at large intervals of time and the available data describe a
past situation; we can only rely on 1990 data, 2000 data made available in 2004
and 2006 data made available in 2010. While the data have the advantage of being
free of charge, the analysis of small territorial units reveals errors due to
misclassification. To overcome these limitations, the present study is carried out at
the scale of the national territory and of the regions of development, which also
change slower (Vădineanu, 2004). From the territorial standpoint, land cover and
use changes reflected by CORINE data are appropriate for analyzing changes in the
higher levels of the Nomenclature of Units for Territorial Statistics (NUTS)
hierarchy (Petrişor, 2008).
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania
355
The concept of sustainable development has been defined by Brundtland
(1987) as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. However, in interpreting
its definition, it is important to find a balance between its traditional pillars –
economic, social and environmental (Bugge and Watters, 2003), to which a fourth
cultural one was added in 2004 (Iliescu, 2005). The relationship between the pillars
is often a conflict, especially in developing countries. For example, the literature
often cites what Indira Ghandi said at the United Nations in 1972 Stockholm
meeting: “poverty is the worst form of pollution” (Iliescu, 2005).
From this perspective, Romania offers an interesting case study. The long
transition period resulted into a decline of the large industrial units, which led to a
decrease of pollution (O’Brien, 2005). Moreover, the decline of the communist
intensive and extensive agriculture and its transformation into a subsistence activity
(Iorgulescu Polimeni and Polimeni, 2007) should be more visible and reflected by
land cover and use changes. Similarly, deforestations due to the change of
ownership from the state to people who reclaimed their property (Roman, 2009)
ought to be reflected by land cover and use changes. Last but not least, the real
estate boom has been visible through the magnitude of urbanization phenomena
(Petrişor et al., 2010).
The aim of this study is to analyze long term environmental modifications of
the Romanian territory and its subunits reflected by land cover and use changes,
hypothesizing that the transition to an open market economy was an uncontrolled
process with serious negative environmental consequences visible at the spatial
scale of the entire country.
1. Data and methods
The CORINE data used in the study were made available free of charge by the
European Environment Agency. Two data sets were used to reflect changes
occurred between 1990-2000 (available on the Internet at the address
http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/corine-land-cover-1990) and 2000-
2006 (http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/corine-land-cover-2000). Data
are available in a shape format, used by the Geographical Information Systems
(GIS). Nevertheless, a few changes are required. First, the projection needs to be
changed from Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area used in the European Union to
Stereo 1970 used in Romania. Also, a subset clipped by the administrative borders
of Romania was derived and further split by the limits of the regions of
development. Two different sets were used for the two periods.
The analysis consisted of identifying each change according on its code and
filling in the information for two fields. The type of change was either “land
cover”, if the code changed its first digit, and “land use”, otherwise. The
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
356
underlying cause was determined case-specifically, relying mainly on the final
code.
For the man-dominated systems, the term “urbanization” was used for land
cover changes resulting into the transformation of areas belonging to other classes
(natural, agricultural, wetland or water) into urban areas; unlike Petrişor et al.
(2010), we used the same term for land use changes within the urban areas
indicating the completion of construction works or densification of constructions.
For the natural areas, of particular interest were the forests. While the
transformation of forests into transitional areas was ascribed to deforestations, the
reverse could be due to two phenomena, which cannot be distinguished without
knowing the concrete field reality: afforestation is the conversion from other land-
uses into forest, or the increase of the canopy covers above the 10% threshold,
achieved through plantations or natural regeneration, while reforestation is the re-
establishment of forest formations after a temporary condition with less than 10%
canopy cover due to human-induced or natural perturbations (Dutcă and Abrudan,
2010).
In a similar way, two antagonistic phenomena were the development or
decline of agriculture. The first was defined as either a land cover change of other
areas into agricultural ones or conversions due to a clear interest in agriculture,
such as the conversion of pastures into orchards or permanent crops, while the
second phenomenon was its opposite.
3. Results and discussion
The changes are mapped in Fig. 1 and 2. The two images exaggerate the
magnitude of changes for a better visualization.
Similar to the conclusions of Ianoş et al. (2011), it can easily be seen that the
area most affected by land use changes during 1990-2000 covers the Oriental
Carpathians. This is mainly due to deforestations. Other important areas are the
surroundings of Bucharest and the sea shore area covered by resorts, where
increased land cover changes are due to the increase of urbanization (Petrişor et al.,
2010). The pattern is similar during the next period.
The overall situation of the changes according to their causes is displayed in
Fig. 3. For both periods, the image depicts all changes, and land cover and use
changes separately. It can easily be seen that for the first period deforestations and
their opposite, afforestation or reforestation, as well as the other two antagonistic
phenomena, the decline and development of agriculture, make up most of land
cover and use changes.
Nevertheless, when looking at land cover changes, urbanization is the most
important driver, while the two antagonistic phenomena affecting agriculture and
forests are reflected by land use changes. The latter two phenomena have a more
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania
357
profound cause, as they represent the consequence of the activities generated by the
decision to retrocede properties and changes of ownership resulted from
decentralization. These remarks sustain our hypotheses according to which the
effects of these activities against the environment were negative and dramatic.
Fig. 1 - Land cover and use changes in Romania between 1990-2000. Land use changes
appear in green and land cover changes in red. The sizes of the areas affected by land cover
and use changes are exaggerated to allow for a better visualization
The second period is characterized more by deforestations, which have a high
share in all changes. They dominate land use changes, while land cover changes
depict the real estate boom. The latest cannot be seen in the overall changes, as the
areas affected have a small share compared to the huge percentage covered by
agricultural and natural areas of the Romanian territory. The second cause of land
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
358
use changes during this period is the decline of agriculture, documented by
Bordânc (2008).
The spatial distribution of changes by region of development is shown in Fig.
4. The image looks at the area (hectares) affected by changes. Nevertheless, the
actual area is not the best measure in this case, as Bucharest-Ilfov, even though the
smallest region, is also the most dynamic, including the land cover and use
changes. For this reason, the area affected by changes was compared to the total
surface of the region, and the results are displayed in Fig. 5.
Fig. 2 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 2000-2006. Land use changes
appear in blue and land cover changes in orange. The sizes of areas affected by land cover
and use changes are exaggerated to allow for a better visualization
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania
359
DrainingDevelopment of agricultureForestationsFloodsUrbanizationAfforestation/reforestationDamsDecline of agricultureDeforestationsDesertificationUnknown
Development of agriculture
Forestations
Floods
Urbanization
Afforestation/reforestation
Decline of agriculture
Deforestations
All changes, 1990-2000 All changes, 2000-2006
Draining
Development of agriculture
Forestations
Floods
Urbanization
Development of agriculture
Forestations
Floods
Urbanization
Land cover changes, 1990-2000 Land cover changes, 1990-2000
Development of agriculture
Urbanization
Afforestation/reforestation
Dams
Decline of agriculture
Deforestations
Desertification
Unknown
Development of agriculture
Urbanization
Afforestation/reforestation
Decline of agriculture
Deforestations
Land use changes, 1990-2000 Land use changes, 1990-2000
Fig. 3 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 1990-2006 by underlying
cause.
The results indicate that the North-East and Center regions were mostly
affected during both periods; the changes are due to deforestations (Roman, 2009).
During 1990-2000, another affected region is the South-East. Some of the
phenomena responsible for it are the decline of agriculture, but also the
urbanization of the coastal area (Petrişor et al., 2010). De-urbanization of cities that
lost their industrial function is responsible for important land cover changes in the
South-West region (Petrişor et al., 2010). When accounting for the area of the
region, the only ones affected by important changes in both periods are the Center
and North-East; again, this is due to the massive deforestations. They are followed
by the South-East region during the first period, for the already mentioned reasons,
and by Bucharest-Ilfov in the second. The explanation is that the strong
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
360
urbanization of former agricultural administrative units around Bucharest
(Peptenatu et al., 2010) reached its peak.
Buc.-IF
Centru
NE
NV
S
SE
SV
V
Buc.-IF
Centru
NE
NV
S
SE
SV
V
All changes, 1990-2000 All changes, 2000-2006
Buc.-IF
Centru
NE
NV
S
SE
SV
V
Buc.-IF
Centru
NE
NV
S
SE
SV
V
Land cover changes, 1990-2000 Land cover changes, 1990-2000
Buc.-IF
Centru
NE
NV
S
SE
SV
V
Buc.-IF
Centru
NE
NV
S
SE
SV
V
Land use changes, 1990-2000 Land use changes, 1990-2000
Fig. 4 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 1990-2006 by region of
development (hectares affected by changes).
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania
361
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
Buc.-I
F
Cen
tru NE
NV S SE SV V
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
Buc.-I
F
Cen
tru NE
NV S SE
SV V
All changes, 1990-2000 All changes, 2000-2006
Fig. 5 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 1990-2006 by region of
development (hectares affected by changes compared to the total area of the region).
Provided that a detailed analysis by region of development, period, type and
underlying cause exceeds the aim of this paper, such data are presented only in
Table 1 for further references, but not extensively discussed.
Conclusions
The paper aimed to test the hypotheses according to which the transition from
communism to democracy and an open market economy results in uncontrolled
development, which in its turn is at the core of important environmental impacts, in
terms of both nature and magnitude.
The analyses of Romania and its regions of development as a case study
support the underlying hypotheses. Several antagonistic phenomena were revealed;
their origin is in changes of ownership, most of them resulted from the decision of
the government to retrocede the properties, including agricultural land and forests.
As a consequence, the decline of agriculture and deforestations affected important
parts of the territory, especially the Carpathian massifs situated at the limit of the
North-East and Center regions of development, where significant deforestation
occurred.
Table 1. Land cover and use changes in the Romanian regions of development by type and
underlying cause.
Reg. Underlying cause
Period All changes Land cover Land use
Change ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06
Bu
ch.-
lfo
v
Urbanization 884 910 834 910 49
Decline of agriculture 275 275
Development of agriculture 194 194
Deforestations 152 152
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
362
Table 1. Land cover and use changes in the Romanian regions of development by type and
underlying cause.
Reg. Underlying cause
Period All changes Land cover Land use
Change ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06
Cen
ter
Development of agriculture 30 30
Plantation of forests 267 267
Floods 859 859
Urbanization 314 1110 314 1110
Afforestation/reforestation 14994 130 14994 130
Dams 156 156
Decline of agriculture 8240 1250 8240 1250
Deforestations 31873 17521 31873 17521
Development of agriculture 14423 159 14423 159
Unknown 260 260
NE
Drains 597 597
Development of agriculture 10876 385 850 41 10026 345
Plantation of forests 442 442
Floods 423 423
Urbanization 1137 2097 1041 2097 96
Afforestation/reforestation 20765 256 20765 256
Decline of agriculture 17288 2705 17288 2705
Deforestations 17293 15400 17293 15400
Unknown 44 44
NV
Development of agriculture 5058 109 433 0 4625 109
Plantation of forests 85 2 85 2
Floods 81 81
Urbanization 358 1504 358 1504
Afforestation/reforestation 11344 141 11344 141
Decline of agriculture 4620 1344 4620 1344
Deforestations 13577 13247 13577 1344
Unknown 199 199
S
Development of agriculture 1535 106 105 13 1430 93
Plantation of forests 21 21
Floods 246 12 246 12
Urbanization 468 630 404 493 64 137
Afforestation/reforestation 5507 176 5507 176
Decline of agriculture 15031 644 15031 644
Deforestations 1831 4790 1831 4790
Unknown 174 174
SE
Development of agriculture 2923 587 967 18 1956 569
Plantation of forests 866 866
Floods 747 747
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania
363
Table 1. Land cover and use changes in the Romanian regions of development by type and
underlying cause.
Reg. Underlying cause
Period All changes Land cover Land use
Change ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06
Urbanization 3001 1427 2355 1339 647 88
Afforestation/reforestation 16636 264 16636 264
Dams 438 438
Decline of agriculture 29514 518 29514 518
Deforestations 3177 1955 3177 1955
Desertification 102 102
Unknown 219 219
SV
Drains 475 475
Development of agriculture 3384 16 542 2842 16
Plantation of forests 7 72 7 72
Floods 931 931
Urbanization 3089 1197 2938 1197 151
Afforestation/reforestation 11948 1232 11948 1232
Decline of agriculture 6833 325 6833 325
Deforestations 3867 1295 3867 1295
Unknown 55 55
V
Development of agriculture 1437 53 195 1243 53
Floods 50 17 50 17
Urbanization 351 542 351 542
Afforestation/reforestation 9585 8 9585 8
Decline of agriculture 5020 51 5020 51
Deforestations 2843 2130 2843 2130
Unknown 26 26
At the same time, the real estate boom, more visible after the year 2000,
affected the areas around Bucharest and the coastal region, determining significant
environmental impacts. Other important phenomena were due to the decline of
cities loosing their industrial function.
The lack of control is visible mainly through the fact that antagonistic
phenomena occurred simultaneously, increasing the affected area. In a controlled
and planned development, involving a wise land management, the development of
agriculture would take place exactly in the areas that were actually abandoned after
being returned to the owners, who are no longer interested or cannot practice it,
instead of requiring the transformation of lands with other destination into
agricultural areas.
More importantly, while deforestations are obvious, the antagonistic
phenomenon resulting into an increase of the area covered by forests is not
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
364
necessarily a planned process (plantation of trees), as it could occur spontaneously
through reforestation or by afforestation due to natural regeneration.
Last but not least, urban development appears to take the shape of sprawl as
opposed to a controlled process.
References: Anderson J. R., Hardy E. E., Roach J. T., Witmer R. E. (1976), A Land Use And Land
Cover Classification System For Use With Remote Sensor Data, Geological Survey
Professional Paper 964.
Bordânc F. (2008), Regional Analysis of the Rural Space in Dobrudja [in Romanian],
University Press, Bucharest.
Botnariuc N., Vădineanu A. (1982), Ecology [in Romanian], Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucharest, 438 pp.
Brundtland Gro Harlem (1987), Our Common Future, WCED, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
Bugge H. C., Watters L. (2003), A Perspective on Sustainable Development after
Johannesburg on the Fifteenth Anniversary of Our Common Future: An Interview with
Gro Harlem Brundtland, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 15:359-
366.
de Lima M. V. N. (2005), IMAGE2000 and CLC2000 Products and Methods, Land
Management Unit, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability,
Ispra, Italy, 150 pp.
Dutcă I., Abrudan I. V. (2010), Estimation of forest land-cover change in Romania,
between 1990 and 2006, Bulletin of the Transylvania University of Braşov Series II:
Forestry, Wood Industry, and Agricultural Food Engineering 52:33-36.
Ianoş I. (2000), Territorial systems. A geographic approach [in Romanian], Editura
Tehnică, Bucharest, 197 pp.
Ianoş I., Petrişor A.-I., Ilinca Stoica Valentina, Sârbu C. N., Zamfir Daniela, Cercleux
Andreea Loretta (2011), The different consuming of primary eco-energies and their
degradation in territorial systems, Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental
Sciences 6(2):251-260.
Iliescu I. (2005), For the sustainable development [in Romanian], Editura Semne,
Bucharest, 188 pp.
Iorgulescu Polimeni R., Polimeni J. M. (2007), Multi-scale integrated analysis of societal
metabolism and Jevons’ paradox for Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland,
Romanian Journal of Economic Forecasting 4:61-75.
Jensen J. R. (2000), Remote Sensing of the Environment. An Earth Resource Perspective,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 544 pp.
O’Brien T. (2005), The Environment and Transition in Romania and Hungary, Griffith
Journal of the Environment 1:1-25.
Peptenatu D., Pintilii R., Drăghici C., Stoian D. (2010), Environmental pollution in
functionally restructured urban areas: Case Study – The City of Bucharest, Iranian
Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 7:87-96.
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania
365
Petrişor A.-I. (2008), Levels of biological diversity: a spatial approach to assessment
methods, Romanian Review of Regional Studies 4(1):41-62.
Petrişor A.-I. (2011), Systemic theory applied to ecology, geography and spatial planning.
Theoretical and methodological developments, LAMBERT Academic Publishing
GmbH & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 172 pp.
Petrişor A.-I., Ianoş I., Tălângă C. (2010), Land cover and use changes focused on the
urbanization processes in Romania, Environmental Engineering and Management
Journal 9(6):765-771.
Petrişor A.-I., Sârbu C. N. (2010), Dynamics of geodiversity and eco-diversity in
territorial systems, Journal of Urban and Regional Analysis 2(1):61-70.
Roman T. (2009), The Forest of Romania: a Social - Economic’s Dramma, Theoretical
and Applied Economics 6:57-64.
Vădineanu A. (1998), Sustainable development [in Romanian], Editura Universităţii din
Bucureşti, Bucharest, 248 pp.
Vădineanu A. (2004), Management of development: an ecosystemic approach [in
Romanian], Editura Ars Docendi, Bucharest, 394 pp.
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
366
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
REUSABLE ENERYGY, MAJOR PREOCUPATION FOR THE
REDUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT’S POLLUTION
Nicolae Rusan1
Key words: climatic reusable energy, Aeolian, solar panels, biogas, hydro energy
Abstract. Assessing the The work with the title reusable energy, major
preoccupation for the reduction of the nature’s pollution, analyses a part of the
sources of the reusable energy, presently used worldwide and countrywide, in
Romania. From all the reusable sources, Aeolian energy became known as the
biggest evolver worldwide, and likewise, in Romania, over the past years. Modern
civilization is conditioned on a bigger scale to satisfy the necessity and consumption
of energy, elements that are indispensable towards technology, and the continued
development of the quality of life. Today, there are investment efforts, technical
intelligence, for the usage of unconventional energy. Towards these investments,
there is a constant preoccupation for the capitalization of the potential energy that
contains the seas and the oceans. The progressive wastage of the fossil fuels, and the
necessity to conserve the environment, imposed 2 important characteristics for the
new sources of energy: as much time possible and the lack of nuisance to avoid the
pollution of the environment.
Introduction
In the last decades, more than ever, unconventional energy
sources,(ecological), that were not capable of being capitalized until the present
time, portrays huge preoccupations for scientists, and the ones who are implicated
in the economical sectors (especially the energetic ones).
And there are three reasons for this, and these are:
- the energy resources are exhaustible,
- the energetic industry that is based on conventional fuels causes the most
pollution, which regenerates greenhouse gases, and so it has a substantial
contribution to global warming,
1 Meteorologist PhD at Centrul Meteorologic Regional Transilvania Sud Sibiu, Romania,
Nicolae Rusan
368
-on the other side, to assure that there is a durable development that will
beneficiate the future generations.
The vast problem of the environment in the context of the durable
development is concentrating to fight the pollution elements, the related and the
inevitable development of the industrial and human activities, to prevent
environment pollution, adaption, assimilation and application of the nature’s needs.
In the present time, in Romania, the political side of the environment
protection concentrates in the following priorities: the monitoring of the water
quality and the state of the forests, the protection of bio diversity and the wet
zones, the fight of the economic effects of worldwide scale, the solving of the acute
problems, like the diminution and capitalization of the deserts and ecological
agriculture, the promotion of the clean technology, the transformation of the human
settlement in durable locations.
We have to be aware that harsh actions towards the environment have an
effect on itself, an equilibrium that is one of the essentials to the survival of the
human race, plants and animals.
Contents
One of the economical sectors with a big impact towards the environment is
the energetic one.
Worldwide, energetic politics were orientated based on the effects of the
petrol crises, towards:
-the reassurance of the energy which was necessary for the built of the
economy.
-the reassurance of the energetic security
-the improvement of the impact, which the energetic sector had towards the
ambient environment at local and regional levels
The economical and political integration of Romania, in the UE structures,
which shows the respect for the imposed conditions of two important documents
from the energetic field: The Treaty of the Energy Bok and the Protocol for the
Energetic Efficiency, that set out the co-operation conditions in the energetic field
and that contain the following important provisions:
-the promotion to stabilize the energy prices marketwise
-the reflection of the costs and benefactions that refers to the environment on
the whole energetic cycle
-the promotion of the efficient energy, the usage of pure fuels and the reusable
energy resources.
Through the Protocol for the Energetic Efficiency, the signatory countries,
including Romania, are obliged to stabilize and implement the strategy of energy
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution
369
growth on the whole energetic package, resources –production-transport-
distribution-utilization.
The major problems that overshadow the pollution and degradation of the
environment are coherent to how the energy is produced, transported, stocked and
utilized.
The main actions of energetic politics that are taken into account by the
majority of the country to reduce the impact towards the environment are:
-the growth of the energetic efficiency
-the reduction of the contribution of fossil fuels towards the production of the
electric energy
-the promotion, development and growth shared by the usage of the
regeneration of energy resources.
The scenario of the energetic worldwide plan, on long term, which is the most
favorable in the durable development, is the one that realizes an equilibrium with
the environment: stabilized stocks, and relatively limited nuclear deserts, and the
reduced emission of greenhouse gases, which can be reabsorbed in a natural way,
into the environment.
This means resorting to the reusable energy, which should play an essential
role in the future.
Of all the reusable sources of energy (solar, Aeolian, geo thermal, marine
waves, hydro energy, biomass, etc), it is estimated that the Aeolian energy, hydro
energy, biomass energy, and that which is obtain from the sun, is the most used.
Fig.1 – The scheme for the production of reusable energy in 2020
Research carried out on a worldwide plan, for the Aeolian energy, shows that
this can assure 5 times more energy, that of which is being used at the present time.
This way, it will be necessary that 12.7% of the dry surface be occupied by parks
with Aeolian turbines (Apostol, Jianu, 2007).
Nicolae Rusan
370
The production of the aeoliene motors, depend a lot on the frequency of the
wind, of the land, and its geographical position, which can take us to a close
analysis of the hour, monthly, annual and seasonal value, and also the probability
and certainty of the production of the different wind speeds.
Based on wind sates and studies conducted, in geographical terms, the
Romania region with the greatest potential aoelian energy is located in the east of
the country, including the mouth of the Danube, Delta, and the Romanian seaside
of the Black Sea, and the Moldova and Dobrogea plateau, insufficient in the
practical capitalization. (Rusan, 2008) (fig.2)
Fig.2 – The Romanian Map with the repartition of the wind environments (ANM
Bucharest Source)
Romania has the greatest Aeolian potential from South-East Europe. A
research made by the Erste Bank positions Romania on the second place on the
European scale regarding the ideal location for the built of a Aeolian park.
According to the national strategy of the capitalization of the energy resources
from 2003, to 2015, in Romania, there Aeolian parks should be put into action with
the capacity to produce over 280MW each, and a total capacity of 3000 MW, so
approximately 1500 Aeolian aggregates (conf. AREE). The biggest 20 Aeolian
projects in Romania, with an installed power of 2463.5 MW, is found in Constanta,
Tulcea and Galati, first place being Constanta (Transelectrica).
On the Romanian Map, the Aeolian locations are very different to the
potential that is being displayed by the wind environment, which is used in the
energetic studies (fig.3).
Specialists in this field say that there are three important factors that matter
most in deciding of a location to invest in the Aeolian energy field. Firstly there is
the wind, which has to have a big frequency and speeds over 3 m/s, to be able to
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution
371
put the Aeolian aggregate in motion and this is why the best zones are Dobrogea
and Moldova. Secondly there is the possibility of a connection to the electric
network, and Dobrogea begins to lose its attraction because of numerous
production projects of electric energy, not only and the Aeolian segment, and in the
receiving network, it does not permit the development of some big projects.
Fig.3 – Map of Romania, with the locations of the Aeolian aggregations
In contradiction to the other sources of energy, wind power is inexhaustible, it
does not pollute the environment and it does not emit acid rain or amplifies the
greenhouse effect. Aeolian energy has one of the most inexpensive technology
productions, with costs between 4 and 6 eurocents per kilowatt/our.
Aeolian turbines can be built near farms, improving the rural economy, where
the wind intensity is bigger than in other areas. Also, the turbines do not affect
farm activities because it occupies a relatively small area.
One of the biggest advantages of these generators is represented by their
longevity, without any supplementary investments when they are being installed.
In order to succeed, the Aeolian energy has to be appropriate to the cost of
conventional energy. However, in this case, the competitive side of the price has to
depend on the activity of the air masses from that particular zone. Even if in the
last decade the cost of the production of Aeolian energy decreased, a bigger
investment is necessary in this field rather than in the thermo central field. To
become more profitable, there needs to be more finance projects for the
development of the production technology. The biggest disadvantage is that the
wind does not have continued activity and it cannot create energy all the time, and
the wind power cannot be stocked and utilized when it is needed, like the solid
fuels.
Zones with intense wind activity are usually found in isolated places, away
from the cities, where energy is necessary. Even though Aeolian energy plants have
lesser influence on the environment in comparison with other energy plants, there
Nicolae Rusan
372
are complaints due to the noise that is being produced by the propellers, static
effect, but also due to the birds that die because of the impact they have with the
generators’ propellers. Nowadays, these problems have been solved or more
reduced through the technological progress or through the good position of the
energy plants.
We consider that the utilization of the Aeolian energy remains a priority of the
present and future time and for Romania too.
Another important source of energy obtained from the reusable sources is the
hydraulic energy, a mechanic energy formed from the water’s potential energy,
given by the difference between the level of water between the accumulation and
central lake, especially from the kinetic energy of the moving water.
Worldwide, hydro energy represents the second biggest source of energy
production from the reusable sources. It is not a wonder that this technology,
already tested, became such a predominant thing is Romania.
The most recent estimations show that the potential of hydro energy of
Romania is approximately 32.000 GWh/year. According to the project of Energetic
Strategy of Romania from 2011-2035, authorities will continue the program of
realization for the hydroelectric centrals, with approximately 1.400 MW until 2035
At the end of 2010 the capacity installed at Hidroelectrica was of 6.438,11
MW. From this total capacity, a power of 276.74 MW is installed in 162 centrals
with less power or equal to 10 MW, so micro hydro central (MHC). According to
information given from the CEO of Hidroelectrica, in the company’s records there
are 93 dams of different importance and dimensions. (information given for “Green
Report”) (fig.4).
Fig.4 – Hydro central from Portile de Fier
The advantage of this type of energy is that is has a high efficiency, small
prices, having a long lifetime and does not pollute.
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution
373
Another inexhaustible and clean source is the solar energy, which,
unfortunately, in Romania does not represent the interest that the Aeolian energy
receives by the people.
Even though Romania has an important solar potential, until 2015 there will
not be a plan to develop this energy due to the dominant Aeolian energy, and from
the point of view of resources that will beneficiate of certificates, the biggest part
will play the Aeolian energy (source GE Energy).
According to Transelectrica, the request for energy in Romania will double in
approximately 20 years. Also, according to the Energetic Strategy of Romania, the
solar potential of the country can generate 1.2 TWh per annum of energy, so 2.5%
form the annual nation consumption. In the west of the country, Campia Romana,
Dobrogea, and the south of Moldova, are the best zones for these kinds of
investments (fig.5).
The first investors in this field came with projects for solar energy and the
biggest project is made for the town of Gataia, Timis, which spreads on a surface
of 86 hectares, with an installed power of 32 MWh. Also in this town, there is the
making of another smaller project, only on 20 hectares, with a power of 2.99 MWh
(source Transelectrica) (fig.6).
Fig.5 – Map with sunshine time in
Romania
Fig.6 – Solar panels
Another zone, where reusable energy can be developed could be the biogas
zone. To produce biogas, the materials that are needed can be any organic product,
which can be fermented by micro organisms, but it has to be known that the prime
material has to agree with the environment in which the microorganisms develop
and produce activities, which occurs at the digestive layer and, finally to the
production of biogas. Prime, organic materials from different surroundings can be
used to obtain biogas.
One of the biggest sources of biogas is the result of mud, which forms from
the used waters from the exhaust stations, and so it develops a desert. It should be
Nicolae Rusan
374
capitalized at all the exhaust stations from the huge urban congestions. Also deserts
produced from animals in agricultural farms could be fuels instead of waste. Also
household waste, under landfills, forms a gas that is shameful not to be used. This
is a zone where investments should be educated and that can play and important
role in the production of reusable energy (GE Energy) (fig.7).
Fig.7 – Station where production of biogas takes place
As far as geo thermal sources are concerned, the Panonica depression, which
contains the west side of our country, including Banat and the west of the Apuseni
Mountains, is a rich zone in geo thermal deposits.
Fig.8 – The circuit of the geothermal water for the warming up of a house
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution
375
For over 100 years, around Oradea, drilling was made and geo thermal waters
have been explored in therapeutic purposes. In the last quarter of a century,
systematic actions for prospect and evaluation of geothermal deposits have been
made, and also of hydrocarbons in this side of the country. From this it was found
that West Campia, in all the geological formations, there can be found varied
aquifers layers with capacity and thermo physic properties. Thermal flows at
surface have values of 85 MW/m squared, bigger than in other zones. The thermic
level of the geo thermal waters from the west is reduced: 30- 90 degrees Celsius.
Because of this, these can be used in special therapeutic ways, the preparation of
warm household water, etc.
In Oradea and Bihor, warm household water is produced for 800 apartments,
to warm baths, vegetable greenhouses, pools, and hotels. In Timis, the geo thermal
water is used for warmth, in therapeutic ways, and for the warming up of the
household water (fig.8).
Another source of reusable energy is the marine energy. The marine energy is
also understood as the energy from waves, energy of currents and also the energy
of the water. For the Black Sea, there is a difference in the temperature between the
surface and deep water, a reason why the thermic energy is only present for a short
period of time and this form of energy does not represent an interest in any form.
For us, the marine energy that deserves to be taken into consideration is the energy
of the waves.
Conclusion
Humans are conflicted in this century with some major problems like the
energy, water and alimentation, this being resolved by the preoccupation for a
durable development.
Concerning the reusable energy at national level, Romania shows important
sources the same as they have been presented while in work. On first place, there is
hydro energy, followed by Aeolian energy biomass, solar and geo thermal. At the
same time as the entry into the European Union, Romania has become close to all
the states of the Union, towards fighting pollution in the environment and for the
reduction of any emissions, to maintain equilibrium between man and nature.
References: Apostol, L. (2003), Unele aspecte privind potenţialul de risc climatic al vântului în
Subcarpatii Moldovei, Anal. Univ. Ovidius − Geogr., I, Constanţa.
Apostol, L. (2004), Clima Subcarpaţilor Moldovei, Edit. Univ., Suceava, 439 p.
Apăvăloae. M., Apostol, L., Pârvulescu, I. (1986), Posibilitati de valorificare a
potenţialului energetic eolian în partea de nord-vest a Podişului Moldovei, Stud. şi
Cercet. de Meteorolog., vol. Omagial, ,, 100 ani de la infiintarea I.M.H. ”, I.M.H,
Bucureşti.
Nicolae Rusan
376
Bogdan, Octavia (1993), Influenţe topoclimatice induse de lacurile de acumulare cu
exemplificare la Porţile de Fier I (Defileul Dunării), S.C.G.-XL, p. 93-104.
Patrichi Silvia, (1984), Câteva caracteristici cadastrale pentru calculul energiei vântului,
cu referire specială la zonarea vitezelor energetice, pe teritoriul României, Studii şi
cercetări „Fundamentarea meteorologică şi hidrologică a resurselor energetice
neconvenţionale” INMH, Bucureşti, p.169-198.
Popa Anestina, Tuinea, P. (1997 ), Particularităţi ale distribuţiei spaţio – temporare ale
vitezelor maxime anuale ale vântului în Podişul Moldovei, Lucr. Sem. „D. Cantemir”,
13-14 /1993 – 1994 , Iaşi.
Rusan, N. ( 2010 ), Potentialul energetic eolian din partea de est a Romaniei, Editura
Univ. „Lucian Blaga” Sibiu, 257 p.
Ţâştea, D., Lorentz, R., Bâzâc, Gh. (1976 ), Zonarea vitezelor maxime anuale ale
vântului pe teritoriul României, Studii şi Cercetări , I / 2, p. 441 - 457 , INMH,
Bucureşti.
* * * (1983), Geografia României, I, Geografia Fizică, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti, 662 p.
* * * (1984), Fundamentarea meteorologică şi hidrologică a resurselor energetice
neconvenţionale, Studii şi Cercetări , INMH, Bucureşti, 388 p.
www.naturaenergy.ro
www.adrcentru.ro
www.energieeoliană.org
http://instalatii-solare-eoliene.ro/
http://www.sunairenergy.com
http://www.agir.ro/univers-ingineresc/energia_eoliana.ro
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SOME THERMIC DIFFERENCES IN THE SOUTHERN
METROPOLITAN AREA OF IAŞI
Costel Alexe1
Key words: air temperature, thermic differencies, Iaşi metropolitan area.
Abstract. The regimen of air temperature in the Iaşi municipality and the
metropolitan area is a complex one, highlighted by the particularities of the average
annual temperature, soil temperature, average monthly temperature, the frequency of
days with different values of temperature and inversions of temperature.
Introduction
With a surface of approximately 800 km2, the metropolitan territory occupies
the south-eastern part of Iaşi County, situated on the contact area between the
Central Moldavian Plateau and the Moldavian Plain, the general features of the
relief being dictated by the monoclinal structure of the rock strata and the evolution
of the denudational process from the Pliocene to the present. The differentiated
erosion based on the geologic structure and the paleogeography evolution of the
relief gave birth to a contact area between the Moldavian Plain and the Central
Moldavian Plateau, named “the Coast of Iaşi” (David 1921) which imposes itself in
the relief through altitudes larger with up to 350 m. The altitudinal differences
between the Bahlui Valley (which passes through the median area of the Iaşi
metropolitan area, 35-40 m) and Păun Hill (407 m, situated south-east of Iaşi City)
impress themselves on a series of differences between the climatic elements which
characterize this area. The relief energy of over 250 m and the general orientation
of Bahlui Valley on the east-west direction have some consequences on the
dynamics of the air masses or on the origination of specific meteorological
phenomena. The difference in altitude between the Coast of Iaşi and the Bahlui
Valley can lead to the appearance of light foehn processes of the air masses when
the air circulation is from the south or south-east, impressing some specific
characteristics of the climate in the southern part of the Iaşi metropolitan area.
1 PhD. Student, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
Costel Alexe
378
Fig. 1 - The Iaşi metropolitan area. Regional context and physical-geographic base
1. Database
In this study the author has utilized the data regarding the air and surface
temperatures recorded at the Iaşi weather station, located at 47°10’ N lat. and
27°36’ E long., at an altitude of 102 m. For the analysis of the characteristics and
the air and surface temperature varations in the Iaşi metropolitan area, I have taken
into consideration a number of 49 years, in the 1961-2009 interval, for the Iaşi
station. At the same time I have used, processed, analyzed and interpreted the data
from the PoduI loaiei station between the years 1967-1993, totaling a string of data
of 27 years and from Bârnova for the 2003-2009 period, adding for these the string
of data to the common period (1961-2009) with the ones recorded at the Iaşi
weather station, which has been utilized as a reference station.
2. The surface soil temperature – spatial differentiations
The average annual soil temperature is distributed in the direction dependent
on the solar radiation distribution, the dynamics of the atmosphere and the local
geographic particularities and the extremely varied physical and chemical
properties of the soil impress on the thermic regimen of the surface significant
deviations from the averages of the diurnal and annual cycles. The values of the
temperature recorded at the surface of the soil follow closely, but with a certain
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
379
inertia, the annual cycle of solar radiation, thus during the year there is a recorded
maximum, generally in July, and minimum, preponderantly in January.
Among the local modifier factors which highlight the differences inside the
territory the most important are the altitude, the shape of the relief, the slope
orientation and latitude.
For the studied time interval, at the Iaşi weather station, the thermic
multiannual average of the surface air temperature has been 11.3°C, 1.6°C higher
than the air temperature at 2 m from the ground for the same interval (9.7°C), the
11°C isotherm permeating deeply on the Bahlui Valley corridor up to upstream of
PoduIloaiei. At the Bârnova weather station the thermic multiannual average of the
soil is with the same 1.2°C higher than the air (8.3°C), while at PoduIloaiei the air
temperature is 1.9°C lower than the soil (11.5°C) (Tab.1).
Tab. 1 – The average °C temperatures of the surface of the soil in the Iaşi metropolitan area
MonthYear Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Avg.
Iaşi -3.8 -2.0 3.3 12.1 20.1 24.5 26.0 24.6 17.8 10.5 3.6 -1.4 11.3
PoduIloaiei -4.1 -2.2 3.3 12.4 20.7 25.1 26.5 25.0 18.1 10.6 3.6 -1.4 11.5
Bârnova -4.7 -3.0 1.1 10.1 17.1 21.5 23.8 22.7 16.2 8.7 2.6 -2.7 9.5
Tab. 2 - The extremes of the annual temperatures at the surface and at 2 m above ground
Station Period Place Min. Year Max. Year
Iași 1961-2009 soil 9.3 1980 13.9 2007
air 8.0 1985 11.8 2007
PoduIloaie 1967-1993 soil 9.5 1980 13.3 1990
air 7.9 1980, 1985 11.2 1990
PoduIloaie* 1961-2009 soil 9.5 1980 14.0 2007
air 7.9 1980, 1985 11.6 2007
Bârnova 2004-2009 soil 9.7 2006 12.4 2007
air 8.5 2006 10.2 2007
Bârnova* 1961-2009 soil 7.3 1980 12.4 2007
air 6.6 1985 10.2 2007
*: prolonged string of data (1961-2009)
The great annual variance of the climatic element is highlighted also by the
annual averages, the lowest and the highest. Thus, the soil temperature has varied
between 9.3°C, the annual average recorded in 1980 and 13.9°C in 2007. From the
analysis of these thermic values of the soil, correlated with those of the air, it is
highlighted the role that the soil temperature has in influencing the temperature
Costel Alexe
380
averages of the air above, the years 1980 and 2007 representing years with extreme
values for the air temperature at 2 m above ground. The year 2007 represented the
year with maximum annual average of the soil, this being 13.9°C. In the year 1980
there was recorded the extreme annual minimum both for the air surface
temperature and for the air temperature at 2 m above ground, both for Iaşi weather
station and the PoduIloaiei and Bârnova stations (tab 2).
Fig. 3 – The spatial distribution of the annual average
temperature at the ground in the Iaşi metropolitan area
A similar situation can be also observed at Bârnova, where the year 2007
represents the year with the highest annual average, both for the air temperature at
the surface of the ground (12.4°C) and at air temperature at 2 m above ground
(10.2°C). The high temperatures of 2007 are highlighted and supported by the fact
that that year has the highest temperatures (on the surface and above ground) both
for Iaşi and PoduIloaiei weather stations, for the entire observation period (1961-
2009), thus the average annual temperature at ground level, at Iaşi, was 13.9°C,
which generated the highest annual average at 2 m above ground, namely 11.8°C.
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
381
It can be observed thus that through its particularities, the soil impresses its own
characteristics on the air above, assuming the role of active, subjacent surface.
3. Air temperature
The temperature of the air represents the most important climatic element.
Although it presents a large degree of variability in time and space, the laws of its
distribution are more stable than those of atmospheric precipitation. The air
temperature is an essential element in determining climatic individuality, having an
active role in the dynamics of the atmosphere, thanks to the uneven distribution,
both horizontally and vertically, which generates differences in atmospheric
pressure, the engine of atmospheric circulation. At the level of the Iaşi metropolitan
area the determining factor for the air temperature variability is represented by the
relief which acts on the parameters of air temperature through altitude, slope
orientation and pitch. The thermic modifications generated by the city surface,
although substantial, overlap with the general climatic variations, specific to the
region in which the Iaşi metropolitan area is located.
In the Iaşi metropolitan area, the urban crowd of the city, although not
presenting a large development on the vertical axis of built surface, can influence
air temperature values. Thus, for the period 1894-1943; 1945-1975, analyzing the
multiannual average temperature of the air for the two stations that functioned
simultaneously in Iaşi, Iaşi-boarding-school and Iaşi-Airport, can be observed a
plus 0.3°C at the Iaşi-boarding-school station, compared to the Iaşi-Airport station
(9.4°C) (tab. 3).
Tab.3 – The average monthly and annual temperature in Iaşi municipality, at Boarding-
School and Airport weather stations
To highlight the thermic particularities in the south of the Iaşi metropolitan
area I have considered necessary the comparative analysis of the air temperature at
the Iaşi weather station with the Bârnova one (47°.00″ lat. N; 27°.34″ long. E) for
the 2004-2009 period and Ciurea (1985-2009).
The temperature data recorded at the weather stations Iaşi, PoduI Iloaiei,
Ciurea and the meteorological radar Bârnova are insufficient to be able to
determine with precision the spatial distribution of the air temperature
characteristics. Still, starting from knowing the monthly and annual values of the
thermic vertical and horizontal gradients, using a hypsometric map and applying
laws regarding the temperature distribution on slopes based on their orientation I
Costel Alexe
382
have made through successive interpolations and extrapolations, different maps in
which the spatial distribution of temperature cannot be much different than the real
one.
In the Iaşi metropolitan area, the average annual temperatures influenced by
local factors (altitude, positioning of relief forms inside the depression, exposure to
the sun, slope inclination, level of vegetation covering etc.) have an uneven
distribution. On the plain of Bahlui, where frequent accumulations of cold air
occur, the average annual temperatures are 0.4°C lower in January and 1°C higher
in July and 0.4°C higher than the annual average.
In the Iaşi metropolitan area, where the differences in altitude between the
bottom of valleys and the prominent parts of the relief do not exceed a few hundred
meters, the influence of altitude is visible in the rise of average annual temperatures
from the higher regions, Bârnova (8.3°C) to the lower, Iaşi (9.7°C), which shows
the important role of relief that acts constantly on the genesis and development of
atmospheric processes and phenomena (Stoenescu, Tastea, 1962).
The annual distribution of air temperature in the studied area is the resultant of
all the factors that contribute to the formation of the thermic regimen of our
country’s territory, in time and space. Thus, the Iaşi metropolitan area with average
multiannual values lower than 10°C is part of the area of influence of the masses of
cold air which enter Romania’s territory from the north and east, at similar latitude
and altitude, Oradea having an average annual temperature higher with 0.4°C
(Bâzâc, 1983).
For the Iaşi metropolitan area, the average multiannual temperature for the
1961-2009 interval had a value at Iaşi of 9.7°C, at PoduIloaiei of 9.6°C, at Ciurea
of 9.4°C, while at Bârnova the average temperature was 8.3°C. (tab. 4)
Tab.4 – Average monthly and annual temperatures in °C in the Iaşi metropolitan area
Iaşi city, with an average multiannual amplitude of 25.1°C for the period
1894-1943; 1945-1975, has been included in the category of regions with high
average annual amplitudes (Erhan, 1979) with values higher than the area beyond
the Oriental Carpathians where the higher frequency of maritime air masses
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
383
hovering over than Transylvanian basin determines a slight decrease of the
continentallevel of the climate.
In the metropolitan area the value of the average annual amplitude in the
analyzed period is 25.9°C in Iaşi, 29.4°C at Ciurea, 25.8°C at PoduIloaiei and
24.7°C, but it even reached 30°C (in the year 1963 reaching 35.2°C at Iaşi and
35.5°C at Podu Iloaiei). The lowest value of the average annual amplitude reached
20.1°C in 1989, but it dropped even below 20°C at Ciurea and PoduIloaiei reaching
19.3°C in the same year.
Fig.4 – The spatial distribution of the average annual temperature in
the Iaşi metropolitan area in the 1961-2009 interval
Over a normal year the air temperature registers seasonal, monthly and diurnal
variations, dependent on latitude and altitude and other factors (slopes etc.) which
render the annual course of the air temperature based on characteristic time
intervals, often utilized in various domains.
In the metropolitan area the climate is characterized by the existence, in
general, of springs and autumns with similar average temperatures, sign of a
Costel Alexe
384
temperate transitional climate, of summers with average annual temperatures which
rise at over 18°C for the entire metropolitan area, with a multiannual average of
20.4°C at Iaşi and 18.6°C at Bârnova. The winters, for the entire analyzed area, are
very cold with temperatures dropping below -1.0°C. (tab.5)
Tab. 16 – Average seasonal and semestrial temperatures in the Iaşi metropolitan area
From the analysis of the thermic differences between the months of the year it
can be observed that the modification of the average air temperature values from
one month to another is done slowly in the summer and winter months, more
evident thermic contrasts being recorded in the transitional season months.
In the spring, the maximum difference between May and March has been
21.9°C in the year 1996, registering values of 20.0°C in other two cases, in the
years 1969 and 2003, in the analyzed period for the Iaşi weather station.
In the winter, the thermic characteristic is given first and foremost by a high
atmospheric stability, the masses of polar and arctic continental air, strongly cooled
over the snow covered surfaces in European Russia stagnating for a longer period
over this region. Likewise, once installed, these masses of air continue the cooling
process through radiative phenomena, reaching an even higher stability.
In this season, for Iași and the entire metropolitan area the average
temperatures are negative, with the mention that the lowest values are recorded in
the Bahlui Valley (fig. 21), while in the higher neighboring areas the temperatures
are higher, this type of distribution characterizing the inversions of temperature.
These meteorological phenomena have the highest frequency and constancy in the
winter months and low areas in Moldova. For the Bahlui Valley, in the winter, the
inversion phenomenon is very frequent, the air temperature being sometimes with
up to 10-15°C lower than the temperature of the low altitude hills in the region.
(Gugiuman, 1968).
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
385
The summer is characterized, evidently, by the highest average seasonal
temperatures for the entire metropolitan area, registering a multiannual average of
20.4°C at Iaşi, 10.4°C higher than the preceding season.
In the summer the average temperatures correlate best with altitude, the
vertical thermic gradient being the largest. The values exceed 20°Cat Iaşi and
PoduIloaiei (at 90-100m) and drop at about 19.8°CatCiurea at 18.6 atBârnova at
396 m altitude (fig. 4).
Fig 4 – The spatial distribution of the air temperature in the winter (left) and
summer (right) in the metropolitan area
In the autumn, the average temperatures return to values close to those in the
spring season, however the springs are colder than the autumns due to thermic
inertia which manifests coming out of the winter, and the autumns have higher
values due to the fact that air cooling is produced slower than for the soil, the
waters and the whole active surface have accumulated in the summer season a
thermic reserve which they release gradually to the air above.
Analyzing the thermic gap (the difference between the highest and lowest
temperature value) in the territory of the metropolitan area of the two semesters, it
results that it is about 14°C, registering values of 15.2°C at Iaşi, 15.0°C in
PoduIloaiei, 14.7°C at Ciureaand 14.4°C at Bârnova. The average temperature of
the cold semester, calculated from the monthly averages in the October-March
interval has positive values for the entire studied area (2.1°C at Iași and
PoduIloaiei, 2.0°C at Ciurea or 1.1°CatBârnova).
Costel Alexe
386
In the warm semester the vertical distribution conforms to the usual thermic
stratification of the troposphere, which marks a drop in temperature on the vertical
(Fig. 37). Thus, in the metropolitan area, for the 2004-2009 period, it can be
observed that at Ciurea the temperatures are 0.9°C lower than at Iaşi (18.0°C) and
at Bârnova they are 1.9°C lower than at Iasi, the altitudinal difference of 260 m
putting its mark on things.
The average multiannual amplitude of the warm semester has varied in the
studied period between 3.4°C at Ciurea and 3.8°C at Iaşi and PoduIloaiei, with a
multiannual average of 3.5°C at Bârnova.
During the year, the average monthly temperature varies in direct proportion
to the amount of solar energy received by the terrestrial surface and the inertia
imposed by nature to the active surface, the lowest values being in the month of
January and the highest in the month of July, as for which the air temperature
registers two important moments, namely that the annual minimum in the coldest
month of the year corresponds to January and the annual maximum of the hottest
month of the year to July.
From the analysis of the monthly average values of air temperature, it results
that at Iași they have a normal gait, painting an upward curve in the first part of the
year, as a result of the rise in intensity of solar radiation, with a maximum in the
month of July, after which the variation curb turns downward, dropping to a
minimum in the month of January.
Therefore, the minimum monthly value of the air temperature at Iaşi is
registered in the month of January, with a value of -3.0°C, and the maximum in
July, when it reaches 21.2°C, resulting in a monthly multiannual amplitude of
24.2°C. The lowest multi-monthly value of the month of January was recorded at
Bârnova (-3.7°C), and the lowest at Ciurea, with 0.2°C higher than at Iaşi and with
only 0.9°C higher than at Bârnova, although the altitude difference between the
two stations is about 286 m (tab. 5)
In the month of January, the calculation of the multiannual average shows the
fact that the average monthly temperature is the lowest, being on average of -
3.0°C at Iași and -3.1°C at PoduIloaiei, lower on the average with 0.7°C compared
to Bârnova (-3.7°C), which is located at an altitude of 396 m, due to the
accumulation of cold air in the valleys of the metropolitan area.
In the month of January the oscillations of the thermic average, based on the
dynamics of the atmosphere, have been very high, being on average of 5°C. For the
analyzed period, the month of January has been in some cases a warm month, as
has been for example the January of 2007 with an average of 3.8°C at Iaşi, with a
deviation of 6.8°C compared to the multiannual average of the month of January.
January 2007 was an especially warm month for the entire metropolitan area,
values of over 3°C being recorded at Bârnova (3.4°C) and Ciurea (3.6°C).
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
387
Tab. 17 – Average monthly and annual temperatures (°C) in the Iaşi metropolitan area
Fig.5 – The spatial distribution of air
temperature at semestrial level in the Iaşi
metropolitan area
The month of July is not always the hottest due to fluctuations in the general
circulation of the atmosphere. In 61% of the cases the month of July is that of
thermic maximum, being followed by August with 27% of cases, then June with
12% of cases. The lowest monthly average has been of 18.6°C at Iaşi in 1979, with
a deviation from the average of 2.6°C, and the highest monthly average has been
recorded in July 2007, having a value of 25.4°C, 4.2°C higher than the multi-
monthly average of the month of July (21.2°C). For the analyzed period, at Iaşi, in
49% of cases the month of July has a temperature higher than the multi-monthly
average.
The diurnal regimen of the differences in temperature between the city and its
surroundings has been highlighted by numerous researches, undertaken in cities
from different regions of the world. These have shown that during the whole year
Costel Alexe
388
the maximum differences in temperature between the city and the neighboring rural
settlements are produced in the evening, at around 21:00 o’clock, and the
minimum, at noon at around 14:00. The appearance of the largest thermic
differences at 21:00 o’clock can be explained by the strong heating of urban
constructions during the day and the crossed emission of infrared radiations in the
evening, when the surrounding field has already cooled.
The slower warming of the city and the faster one of the clear field renders the
noon thermic differences minimum.
Fig. 6 - The spatial distribution of the average air temperature in the months
of January and July in the Iaşi metropolitan area
In the winter the city stays warmer than its surroundings even at noon, but in
the spring, autumn and sometimes summer it is colder than its surroundings. The
values of the negative differences are extremely small however. (Ciulache, 1980)
In the metropolitan area, during the year, the diurnal average amplitudes
present differentiations based on the season, the lowest diurnal thermic amplitudes
being recorded in January, with values of 4.7°C at Iaşi and the highest values of
thermic amplitudes are in July (9.5°C).
Spatial differentiations appear also in the case of the absolute maximum and
minimum temperatures. The absolute maximum temperature in the metropolitan
area was recorded at Iaşi(40.1°C) in July 2007, when the synoptic conditions were
given by the presence of anticyclones of thermic nature in the north of Africa and
above the Arabian and Anatolian peninsulas, the extensions of which, towards
eastern Europe, favored conditions of clear sky and atmospheric calm and a
pronounced warming of the weather. (Mihăilă, 2006).
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
389
Close values have also been recorded at Iaşi, thus, 40.0°C at the Iaşi-
Boarding-school weather station (July 27, 1909) and +39.6°C atIaşi Airport station
(August 18, 1946). Then, in both cases, over northern Africa, south-west Asia and
East Europe, anticyclone areas persisted for a prolonged time, which favored over
the Romanian territory a clear sky and a pronounced warming of the atmosphere.
In order to have a term of comparison, it is useful to know that the absolute
maximum for the whole country has been 44.5°C, recorded on August 10, 1951, in
the town of Ion Sion, today called Râmnicelu, from Bărăganul Brailei.
In the Iaşi metropolitan area the maximum annual temperature is recorded
mainly in the month of July but also in the month of August the absolute maximum
annual temperature has a high frequency, registering together with July more than
80% of the cases.
Tab. 6 - The absolute maximum monthly and annual temperatures, absolute minimum
monthly and annual temperatures and the difference between them in the Iaşi metropolitan
area
For the Iaşi metropolitan area, the absolute maximum recorded temperature
was of 40.1°C, recorded at the 22nd
of July 2007, and the absolute minimum of -
30.6°C, recorded on January 20th 1963, thus resulting in the absolute thermic
amplitude of 70.7°C (tab. 28).
The absolute minimum temperatures were recorded in conditions favorable for
the occurrence of strong frosts through the advections of cold, arctic, continental
air and radiative cooling in an anticyclone environment.
Calculating the annual average of absolute minimums it is found that the
lowest value was of -5.8°C, recorded in the year 1963, and the highest value of the
annual average of the absolute minimum was of -0.1°C, recorded in the year 1975.
Costel Alexe
390
The multiannual average of the annual absolute minimums was of -2°C, compared
to -1.9°C which was recorded at Oradea.
For the time interval taken into consideration the absolute minimum value of
air temperature was recorded in the year 1963, being a value of -30.6°C, higher
with 4.4°C than the absolute minimum recorded for the entire time interval in
which there have been made meteorological observations at Iaşi (Erhan, 1979). For
the analyzed periods the absolute minimums have been of -31.2°C at PoduIloaiei
(January 16, 1985) and -26.2°C at Bârnova (January 23, 2006).
4. Thermic inversions
Thermic inversions represent those atmospheric situations in which the air
temperature rises with altitude, which means that in the lower areas the air has a
lower temperature and a higher density. In the case of the metropolitan area the
frequency of the appearance of this phenomenon, coupled with the periods of the
year favorable for its occurrence presents a special, practical importance because
their occurrence favors the appearance and lasting for a longer period of time of
phenomena specific to the pollution of urban atmosphere. It is known the fact that
air temperature drops as altitude rises, with 0.5-0.6°C/100m, but the local
conditions and the dynamic of the atmosphere can introduce important variations in
the vertical distribution of air temperature.
In order to determine the thermic inversions in the metropolitan area there
have been calculated the average diurnal thermic differences between the average
daily temperatures recorded at the weather stations in Iaşi (102m), Ciurea (110m)
and Bârnova (396m), in the 2004-2009 interval.
Tab. 7 – The frequency of thermic inversions (%) in the metropolitan area (2004-2009)
The average annual number of cases with thermic inversions at Iaşi, in terms
of daily average temperatures is 9%, with a larger frequency in the winter and
autumn months. Thus, at Iaşi the large number of thermic inversions is recorded in
January (23%), while at Ciurea it is recorded in October (24%) (tab. 34)
For the analyzed period it can be observed that both at Iaşi and at Ciurea, the
minimum number of cases with thermic inversions was recorded in 2008, when the
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
391
phenomenon was observed in 17 cases at Iaşi and, respectively, 43 cases at Ciurea,
with a recorded maximum in 2009 for Iaşi (90 cases) and in the years 2005 and
2006 for Ciurea (39 cases).
The tracking of daily average thermic differences between Iaşi and Bârnova
highlights negative presences in the winter, spring and autumn months, with values
between -0.1°C and -7.1°C, the maximum value of inversion being recorded on
February 1st 2004.
In the case of the diurnal average thermic differences between Iaşi and
Bârnova, in the winter months, the fact can be observed that the highest frequency
of thermic inversions is produced in January (23%), December (19%) and February
(17%). Thermic inversions are recorded during all seasons in the year, including in
July (1%), but there are also months in which this phenomenon is not observed,
namely the months of May and June.
The large number of cases with thermic inversions in the months of October,
November, December and January is due to the higher frequency of the anticyclone
circulations, and the intensification of thermic convection at the end of the spring
and beginning of the summer determines a fall in their number.
Fig.7 – The frequency of temperature inversions (%) between the weather stations Iași–
Bârnova (2004-2009)
In terms of maximum temperatures I have determined a monthly frequency of
thermic inversions at Iaşi of 17% in the months of December and January, and
similar values in February and November, 8% and 9% respectively, these
representing maximum monthly values, and for the summer months, when
inversions have a lower frequency they are 2% in August and 1% in June and July,
resulting in a multiannual frequency of 5% thermic inversions at Iaşi.
Taking into consideration minimum temperatures the frequency of thermic
inversions at Iaşi is much higher, registering a maximum value in the autumn and
Costel Alexe
392
spring months (49% in September and 44% in April). Among the winter months
the highest frequency of thermic inversions belongs to the month of January (32%),
followed by December (24%) and February (23%). For the analyzed period the
annual average of thermic inversions by minimum temperatures is 31%, with a
maximum number of inversions recorded in 2009, 129 cases.
Conclusions
For the studied time interval, at the Iaşi weather station, the multiannual
thermic average of soil temperature was 11.3°C, 1.6°C higher than the air
temperature 2m above ground for the same interval (9.7°C), highlighting in this
way the role that soil temperature has in influencing the temperature values of the
air above it. The extreme annual averages of temperature, at the surface of the soil
and at 2 m above ground, were recorded almost in the same years. (Iaşi – annual
maximum: soil:13.9°C, 2007; air:11.8°C, 2007); (PoduIloaiei – the annual
minimum, soil:9.5°C, 1980; air: 7.9°C, 1980, annual maximum, soil: 14.0°C, 2007;
air: 11.6°C, 2007); (Bârnova – annual maximum, soil: 12.4°C, 2007; air: 10.2°C,
2007).
The average annual temperature decreases as altitude increases from 9.7°C
recorded at the Iaşi weather station, the station with the lowest altitude in the
metropolitan area (102m), to 9.4°C at Ciurea, only to measure an 8.3°C
multiannual average at Bârnova, at 396 m altitude, registering a tendency to
increase in the latest years.
The analysis of data regarding the average monthly values of air temperature
for the metropolitan area have highlighted the month of January as the coldest of
the year, with a multiannual average for Iaşi of -3.0°C, -2.8°C at Ciurea and -3.7°C
at Bârnova and the warmest month of the year being July, with a multiannual
average of 21.2°C at Iaşi, 21.0°C at Ciurea and 19.2°C at Bârnova.
Regarding the multiannual average amplitude of air temperature the fact
emerges that it has a value of 25.9°C at Iaşi, 29.4°C at Ciurea, 25.8 at PoduIloaiei,
being calculated through the average of all annual amplitude averages for the
analyzed interval and not 24.2°C, as it would result from the difference between
the months of July and January, because these in the studied interval have
represented only 61% and 59% respectively, months with thermic maximum and
minimum at the Iaşi weather station.
The absolute minimum temperature recorded at Iaşi was -30.6°C and it was
recorded on the 20th of January 1963, and the absolute maximum was 40.1°C,
recorded on the 22nd
of July 2007, the absolute thermic amplitude having a value of
70.7°C.
From the analysis of data from the three weather stations in the metropolitan
area the fact results that thermic inversions occur in 9% of cases in a year between
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi
393
IaşiandBârnova and 20% of cases in a year between Ciurea and Bârnova, starting
with September until March, with a maximum of 23% in January, according to the
daily averages. If we take into consideration also the minimum and maximum daily
averages, it can be observed that the frequency of inversions in the minimum
averages is 31% compared to the 5% recorded in the case of the daily maximums.
Bibliography:
BâzâcGh. (1983), The influence of relief over the main characteristics of the climate of
Romania, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti.
Ciulache St. (1971),Topoclimatology and microclimatology, Bucureşti
Ciulache St. (1980), The city and climate, Bucureşti.
Donisă I.,Erhan Elena (1974), Course of climatology R.S.R. Fac. BIol. – Geogr., Univ.
“Al.I. Cuza”, Iaşi.
Erhan Elena (1963), Microclimatic observations in the area of Iaşi city. The regimen of
air temperature; An. şt. ale Univ. “Al.I.Cuza”, Tom. IX, Iaşi.
Erhan Elena (1971), Climatic differentiations in the urban and peripheral urban area of
the city of Iaşi,Lucr. şt., Seriageografie, Înst. Ped. Oradea.
Erhan Elena (1979), Climate and microclimates in the area of the city of Iaşi, Edit.
“Junimea”, Iaşi.
Gugiuman I., Petraş Eugenia (1963), The role of the dynamics of the atmosphere and
geographic factors in determining the regimen of air temperature in the east part of
Romanian R.P.” An. Şt. ale Univ. „Al. I. Cuza”, Tom. IX, Iaşi.
Gugiuman I. (1967), A few problems regarding the climatology of the cities in Romania,
ASUCI – GG, Secţ. II, Tom. XIII, Iaşi.
Gugiuman I. (1975), The influence of relief on the climate diversification in Romania, The
works of the national colloquium of applied geomorphology and geomorphological
cartography, SSGRSR, Iaşi
Gugiuman I., Cotrău M. (1975), Elements of urban climatology, Edit.Academiei R.S.R.,
Bucureşti.
Gugiuman I., Erhan Elena (1962), Microclimates in the area of the city of Iaşi and its
surroundings, An. Şt. ale Univ. „Al. I. Cuza”, Tom. VIII, Iaşi.
Mihăila D. (2006), The Plain of Moldavia, climatic study, Edit. Univ. Suceava.
Stoenescu St. M., Mihai E. Cristescu St., Cazacu G., Iliescu M., Oprescu A. ( 1969) ,
Particularities of the regimen of diurnal oscillations of air temperature, Collection of
works of Bucharest Meteorological Institute.
(1983) – The geography of Romania, vol I, Edit.Academiei R.S.R., Bucureşti.
(1994) – The geography of Romania, vol IV, EdituraAcademiei, Bucureşti.
(2008) – The climate of Romania, Bucureşti.
Costel Alexe
394
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
THERMIC DIFFERENCIATIONS IN THE IAŞI MUNICIPALITY
DURING A HEAT WAVE. CASE STUDY JULY 10-20 2011
Liviu Apostol1, Costel Alexe
2, Lucian Sfîcă
3
Key-words: thermic differentiations, heat wave, Iaşi municipality, case study
Abstract: With a surface of approximately 800 km2, the metropolitan territory of
Iaşi city is extremely differentiated in terms of the way in which the physical-
geographic base is occupied, with important implications for the spatial
differentiations of the climatic elements. For the identification of the thermic
differentiations at the level of urban area of the city of Iaşi a series of thermo-
hydrometric sensors was utilized (DT171) for determining temperature and air
humidity, placed in different spots of the city, through which we tried to identify the
influence that this exerts over the thermic regimen in different synoptic conditions.
In this respect we chose as case study the heat wave produced in the period July 10-
20th 2011 that highlights some differentiations in the manner of heat propagation at
the level of the entire urban area.
Introduction
In the interior of the metropolitan area, the municipality of Iaşi, the second
city in terms of population and occupied surface, due to an additional quantiy of
heat emitted with the burning of industrial fuels and gases, and also due to the
surfaces of asphalt and cement, to which is added the large concentration of
population, is outlined as an island of urban heat in the Iaşi metropolitan area, with
variable intensities.
Besides, since a long time ago I. Gugiuman characterized Iaşi as a thermic
island in the regional landscape, because the air temperature in the city is much
differentiated than the one in its surroundings, noticing that the average
temperature of the urban atmosphere is 1.1°C higher than the atmosphere
temperature in the outskirt area of the city (Gugiuman, 1968).
1 Prof. PhD., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected] 2 Phd. Student, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected] 3 Lecturer PhD., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
396
In the metropolitan area of Iaşi the influence of the urban environment on the
air temperature is very noticeable in the cold season, when the difference between
the city and surroundings can reach and even exceed 1°C, these differences in the
rest of the year are greatly reduced, so much that in the summer they do not appear
at all or are only 0.1°C – 0.3°C, and the multiannual average values render them
null. There is the fact to underline that the size of the thermic differences between
the city and surrounding area is in direct proportion to the dimensions of the city.
These differences of temperature between cities and neighboring towns, with
values that oscillate on average annualy between 0.5°C and 1.5°C, that apparently
doesn’t mean much, reach real dimensions if we take into consideration the fact
that the annual difference of 1°C corresponds in latitude to the distance of 200km,
and in altitude of 150-200m. Thus, the difference between Bucuresti (10.9°C) and
Iaşi (9,7°C) of 1.2°C can be compared to that of 1.1°C (between Bucuresti and
Filaret and Bucuresti-Baneasa) (Ciulache, 1980).
1. Database
For the identification of thermic differentiations at the level of the entire urban
area of the city of Iaşi there was utilized a series thermo-hydrometric sensors
(DT171) for determining the air temperature and humidity, placed in different spots
of the city (fig. 1) through which we tried to highlight the influence that this exerts
over the thermic regimen in different synoptic conditions.
Fig. 1 – The sensor placement at the level of the Iaşi municipality
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave
397
Also, Modis satellite images were utilized, in infrared domain, for satellite
determining of temperature differences in the Iaşi municipality in the July 8-20th
2011 interval.
2. Synoptic conditions
A dorsal of warm air of north-African origin associated to an anticyclone
regimen at ground level favored the formation of the heat wave that manifested
itself in the south-east of Europe in the July 8-20th interval (fig. 2). We can mention
that from a synoptic standpoint these are typical conditions for the formation of
heat waves in our country during the summer.
The maximum temperatures at national level reached 38°C at weather stations
in the western part of the country, and in Moldova the maximums were close to
36°C (Source: ANM). Judging by these values we cannot talk of an exceptional
heat wave, as long as we were 4-6°C below the absolute maximum values of the
month of July at national and regional level. The distinct mark of this heat wave
was its duration. Based on the data from the UAIC, Iaşi weather station – we can
extrapolate the analysis to the whole of extra Carpathian Moldova – we are talking
about 13 consecutive days with maximum diurnal temperatures of over 30°C, the
average climatic duration of these heat waves for the territory of Romania being
between 7 and 10 days.
Fig. 2 - Temperatura aerului la nivelul suprafeţei de 850 hPa(stânga) şi la nivelul
de 2m (dreapta) în data de 15.VII.2011 în Europa (wetter3.de)
To better understand the meteorological conditions that we have crossed we
can say that the average maximum temperature of this heat wave at Iaşi was of
32.1°C, value which corresponds to the normal climatic values of the same
parameter for the entire month of July in Athens. Thus, a heat wave that enables us
Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
398
to extrapolate the results of this study for all the heat waves that can manifest in the
region of the Moldavian Plain in the summer months.
3. Thermic differentiations induces by the heat wave
The thermic complexity of the city in its entirety compared to the peripheral
urban area is generated by the multiple characteristics of the active surface and
highlights some thermic differentiations existent between the different zones of the
city at topo and microclimatic levels.
The analysis of data from the July 10-20th 2011 period taken from the
measurements made with the thermo-hydrometric sensors DT171 comparative with
the data provided by the Moldova regional meteorological Center in Iaşi highlights
some extremely important aspects (fig.3):
- all of the observation spots in the city recorded higher values than the
weather station at the airport (25.6°C) with at least 1 degree Celsius, less than the
sensor in Copou which registered values of 24.9°C; this situation reflects the
particular microclimatic conditions of parks and public gardens in the Iaşi
municipality, these being 3-4°C cooler than the surrounding regions in terms of
average temperatures and with up to 6-7°C in terms of maximum diurnal
temperatures.
Fig. 3 – The average, maximum and minimum temperature in the Iaşi municipality in the
observation spots in the July 10-20th 2011 period
- the strong heating of asphalt and concrete surfaces, to which it is added the
presence of pollutants, lead to a rise of air temperature in contrast with the
neighboring areas. Thus, in the RATP area and Podu Roş area is recorded a thermic
average in the analyzed period of 28.8°C, and 28.5°C respectively, these values
being able to be considered representative for the intensely circulated neighboring
arteries or for those with industrial or commercial use.
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave
399
- in such synoptic conditions the city, on the whole, is warmer with 1.5-2°C
than its neighboring regions in terms of average temperatures, with 3-4°C wamer in
terms of maximum temperatures and with up to 2.5°C warmer with respect to
minimum temperatures.
Fig. 4 – The distribution of average air temperatures in the Iaşi municipality in the July 8-
20th interval obtained based on the Modis images
The same differences are highlighted also through the processing of Modis
images – infrared domain – for the July 8-20th 2011 interval. The images based on
which the map of the distribution of temperature in the Iaşi municipality was
processed (fig. 4) were taken for our country at 15:15 hours, which confers them a
special climatic value through the proximity to the moment of generation of the
maximum diurnal temperature. Based on this result can be outlined the island of
urban heat of the Iaşi municipality which is very well delineated in the central area
of the municipality having as central point Podu Roş. We can mention that the
temperatures were higher than those at the official weather station in an area
between Piaţa Unirii, the Alexandru cel Bun neighborhood, Nicolina, Moldoplast,
Tudor Vladimirescu and Independenţei blvd.
To underline the microclimatic diversity of the area that overlaps on the Iaşi
municipality there have been calculated coefficients of determination between all
the observation spots (tab. 1). It thus stands out the homogenous thermic behaviour
Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
400
of the central region of the city that circumscribes Piaţa Unirii, the industrial zone
(Moldoplast) and the Alexandru cel Bun neighborhood, the determined coefficients
of determination between these spots being over 0.90. Instead, the coefficients of
determination between the observation spot at the Anti-hail Center, located in the
eastern part of the municipality, outside the urban center, underline the contrast
between the thermic regimen from inside the island of urban heat and its outskirts.
Besides, a series of linear correlations made between the data coming from
the Iaşi weather station and some observation spots in the municipality highlight
some significant differentiations. If between the Iaşi weather station and the Podu
Roş and Hotel Select observation spots, there aren’t significant correlations in
terms of temperature values produced in the analyzed interval, between the station
and the observation spot in the area of the Anti-hail Center the correlation is
significant, due to the spatial proximity of the two spots and the location of both
observation spots outside the island of urban heat.
Tab. 1 – The coefficient of determination (R-squared) between the temperature observation
spots in the Iaşi municipality in the July 8-20th 2011 interval
Select RATP Podu Ros Moldoplast Copou ACB Antigrindina
Select 1
RATP 0.88 1
Podu Ros 0.8 0.93 1
Moldoplast 0.9 0.97 0.92 1
Copou 0.9 0.92 0.83 0.92 1
ACB 0.89 0.95 0.93 0.96 0.92 1
Antigrindina 0.69 0.76 0.82 0.78 0.72 0.84 1
A decisive role in the spatial-temporary variations of the values of the climatic
elements is attributed to the strictly local physical-geographic factors and
especially to the way in which the terrain is covered with various constructions that
imprint on the air temperature in the urban area specific particularities compared to
the area surrounding the city.
Instead, the values of the coefficients of determination between the official
weather station and the Podu Roş and Hotel Select observation spots drop below
0.50 (fig. 5, fig. 6, fig.7), not as much because of the thermic differences between
these spots, but due to the disparities that are produced in the diurnal regimen of
temperature between the center and the outskirts.
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave
401
Fig. 5 – Linear correlation between the air temperature at the Iaşi weather station and the
observation spot at the Anti-hail Center
Fig. 6 – Linear correlation between the air temperature at the Iaşi weather station and the
Podu Roş observation spot
Fig. 7 – Linear correlation between the air temperature at the Iaşi weather station and the
Hotel Select observation spot
Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
402
Fig. 8 – Horary thermic differences betwee the Iaşi weather station and Podu Roş (left) and
the Iaşi weather station and Copou Park (right) în the July 8-20th 2011 interval
Fig. 9 – Isopleths of horary thermic differences between the Iaşi weather station and
the Podu Roş observation spot (July 8th and 20th 2011)
Fig. 10 – Isopleths of horary thermic differences between between the Podu Roş and Copou
Park observation spots (July 8th and 20th 2011)
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave
403
The detailed analysis of horary differences between the Iaşi weather station
and the observation spots placed in the interior of the urban area highlights a
multitude of situations. In synthesis, at the level of the horary analysis, in general
the observation spots in the city are cooler than the outskirts of the city in the first
part of the day (with up to 3-4°C around 9:00 hours) but much warmer in the
second part of the day and during the night, the largest horary differences being
recorded in the 18:00-22:00 interval (up to 6-8°C in Podu Roş or Moldoplast). The
appearance of the largest thermic differences at 20:00-21:00 hours is explained
through the strong heating of the subjacent surface in the city during the day and
the crossed emission of infrared radiation in the evening, when the clear field has
already cooled (fig. 8, fig. 9, fig.10).
If the lower morning temperatures are the direct result of the lower degree of
sunshine in the interior of the city, the differences during the evening and night
represent the true expression of the island of urban heat that the Iaşi municipality
generates.
Conclusions
The analysis of data from the July 10-20th 2011 period taken from the
measurements made with the thermo-hydrometric sensors DT171 comparative with
the data provided by the Moldova regional meteorological Center in Iaşi highlights
some extremely important aspects:
- all of the observation spots in the city registered higher values than the
weather station at the Airport (25.6°C) with at least one degree Celsius, lower than
the sensor in Copou that recorded values of 24.9°C;
- the strong heating of asphalt and concrete surfaces, to which it is added the
presence of pollutants, lead to a rise of air temperature in contrast with the
neighboring areas. Thus, in the RATP area and Podu Roş area is recorded a thermic
average in the analyzed period of 28.8°C, and 28.5°C respectively;
- the arboreal vegetation is the one that imprints the most important climatic
characteristics in the case of parks, thus the air temperature measures values lower
with 2-3°C, compared to the residential areas;
- the maximum differences of temperature between the city and the
surroundings are produced in the evening, around 20:00-21:00 hours, reaching
7.8°C in Podu Roş and Moldoplat, and the minimum, at noon around 14:00 hours,
when the heating of the city is lower than the clear field.
References: Ciulache, S. (1971),Topoclimatology and Microclimatology, Bucureşti
Erhan Elena (1963), Microclimatic observations in the area of Iaşi city. The regimen of
air temperature. An. şt. ale Univ. “Al.I.Cuza”, Tom. IX, Iaşi
Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
404
Erhan Elena (1971), Climatic differentiations in the urban and surrounding area of Iaşi
city. Lucr. şt., Seria geografie, Înst. Ped. Oradea
Erhan Elena (1979), Climate and microclimates in the area of Iaşi city, Edit. Junimea, Iaşi
Gugiuman, I. (1967), A few problems regarding the climatology of the cities in Romania,
ASUCI – GG, Secţ. II, Tom. XIII, Iaşi.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
PAPER SUBMISSION
Articles, including tables and graphics, are to be submitted in Romanian and
English in the case of Romanian speaking authors and only in English for the
non-romanian speaking authors.
Papers are published in English.
Color figures are admitted for publishing only if they aren’t suggestive in
black and white format.
Page setup: top: 4.8 cm; bottom: 4.8 cm; left: 4 cm; right: 4 cm; gutter: 0 cm;
header: 5.8 cm; footer: 4.8 cm; paper size: A4 (21 x 29.7 cm).
Line spacing: single (1 row); character spacing – spacing: normal.
Font: Times New Roman; font size: 11.
First page: 3 blank rows between header and title.
Papers title: capital, font size: 12, bold, centered, a blank row.
Authors’ name and surname, mark with 1, 2, 3
: small letters, font size 11, bold,
centered. 1, 2, 3,
affiliation and e-mail for each author: small letters, font size: 11, bold,
centered; 2 blank rows.
Key-words: maximum 6, in English; a blank row.
Abstract: font 10, lowercase; normal, 2000 characters maximum. The abstract will
be indented to the left and right with 0.95 cm (Format – Paragraph – Indentation
– Left (Right) – 0.5 cm); 2 blank rows. Abstracts should be submitted also in
English.
Text of the paper: loweracase, font 11; line spacing: single (1 row); subtitles
(numbered 1.,2.,…), with capital letters, font 11, bold, 1 tab (paragraph), (1.27
cm). Before and after the subtitle will be left a blank row; Sub-subtitles
(sections), (numbered 1.1., 1.2.,…), lowercase, font 11, bold, 1 tab (paragraph),
(0.95 cm); after the text, a blank row.
References: lowercase, font 10, bold, centered; a blank row; the succession of the
works in authors’ alphabetical order (and chronological for authors with more
than one paper, first the single author ones). Font 10; justified; line spacing:
single; character spacing: normal. The authors’ name will be staggered with a
centimeter from the rest of the text. Settings: Format – Paragraph – Indentation
– Special – Hanging: 1 cm. Authors’ name and publishing year, e.g.: Popescu,
V., Ionescu, Elena (women’s first names in full) (2007), paper’s name in italics,
then normal, journal’s name, volume, number, publishing house, locality.
Tables will be inserted, as a rule, after their mention, without outrunning the
page’s format (13.5 cm x 18 cm); font will not be more than 11; numbering will
be Arabic figures (Tab. 12). Font size: 10, lowercase. Line spacing: single.
406
Character spacing: normal. Below the table, in the left side, will be specified, if
needed, the source of the table’s information, font size: 9. Before the title of the
table and after the table will be left one empty row each.
Figures (charts, maps, images) will be integrated in text, as a rule after their
mention in the text; the image size will not exceed the paper size; the font will
be lower than 11, normal; the figures will have below a title (font size 10, Fig.
3).
Paper submission: for every current year, the paper will be submited in electronic
form, maximum 12 pages, at the editor adress, [email protected], before
30th
of March.
Reviewing process
The English version will be first reviewed by proof readers from the language
point of view and it will be accepted or resent to the author for translation revision.
Then, the Editorial Advisory Board designates, among its members and according
to the specialization, one or two reviewers for each paper. As an exception, it can
resort to famous specialists depending on the field of some papers. Romanian
reviewers will receive their variants in Romanian.
The Editorial Advisory Board members, in charge of the volume’s content, will
present, according to the grid, to the editorial office, their conclusions regarding the
paper’s value, a comparison to the present day status of knowledge in that
particular field, an evaluation of the originality degree and of the observance of
deontology during research and paper elaboration and a recommendation for
accepting or rejecting the paper. Authors of rejected papers will receive a written
motivation for the rejection. Reviewing process is confidential.
Information
You can visit the review web site http://pesd.fpage.org/ , for editing rules,
information about peer review process and previous volumes of the review.