victoria brief 30dec03 - lakenet - world lakes website

Second DRAFT Lake Victoria Not for Citation or Distribution

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Experience and Lessons Learned Brief for 1

Lake Victoria 2 3 4

Dr. Sixtus Kayombo* and Prof. Sven Erik Jorgensen** 5 6

*University of Dar es Salaam, Prospective College of Engineering &Technology, CW 7 &WSP Research Project, P.O.Box 35131 Dar es Salaam 8

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** Royal Danish University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Environmental 11 Chemistry, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100, Copenhagen Ø 12

13 1.0 Introduction 14 15 Lake Victoria is one of the most important shared natural resource of Eastern Africa. It holds the 16 World’s largest freshwater fishery largely based on the introduction of Nile Perch, which 17 supports an economically and socially important export fishery for the riparian countries around 18 the Lake. Lake Victoria is the second largest fresh water lake in the world, hosts 500+ cichlids 19 species, supports about 30million people, and source of River Nile and is fastest cichlid fish 20 evolution recorded. The common stresses to the lake with other lakes around the world are as 21 follows; eutrophication, fisheries exploitation, introduced exotic species, contaminants and 22 pollutants, and climate changes. Populations in the catchments are growing rapidly and the lake 23 itself attracts people because of the economic benefits it offers. The lake has a long retention 24 time hence, what enters the lakes will be in the lakes for a long time. The Lake produces about 25 170,000 tones of fish each year, with thousands of lakeshore residents employed in fishing and 26 fish processing.Lake Victoria and its catchment area are threatened by human activities. 27 Unfortunately, it is also among the world’s most imperiled ecosystems. The pollution sources to 28 the lake are, domestic and industrial wastewater, solid waste, sediment due to soil erosion from 29 the catchment area, agricultural wastes and atmospheric deposition. Introduction of the two 30 exotic fish species, pollutants and high growth of water hyacinth have resulted on loss of 31 biodiversity of the lake. Accelerated soil erosion and nutrient runoff, urban and industrial point 32 source pollution and biomass burning have induced a rapid eutrophication of the lake over the 33 last 50 years. Phosphorus levels have increased 2-3 times algal concentrations have increased 34 three to five times, and prolonged periods of anoxia in the lake bottom are much more common. 35 These conditions favor the growth of aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes). 36 Some of these threats (such as over-fishing) are in-lake issues while others (such as the excess 37 nutrient loads) originate from the lake’s catchment. The issues have caused considerable 38 hardship for the populations dependent on the lake for their livelihoods and have also reduced the 39 biodiversity of the lake’s fauna, most obviously the phytoplankton and the fish. Parts of Lake 40 Victoria, especially deeper areas, now are considered dead zones, unable to sustain life due to 41 lack of oxygen in the water. 42 As is often the case with ecological problems, these challenges do not recognize international 43 boundaries. Addressing these issues effectively and in a sustainable manner calls for an 44


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ecosystem-oriented approach that includes international cooperation. Key to an ecosystem-level 1 understanding of the issues facing the Lake Victoria basin is the availability of useful and timely 2 information on the status of environmental parameters. Information requirements range from 3 documenting water quality on the lake to conducting an inventory of land cover to assessing of 4 watershed characteristics. One of the most pressing needs is for the documentation and 5 monitoring of the distribution of water hyacinth. The baseline data though not much exhaustive 6 have been gathered for practical solution to the deteriorating lake. 7 8 To reverse the Lake deterioration, the three EAC Partner States agreed to implement the Lake 9 Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP) whose major objective is to restore a 10 healthy, varied lake ecosystem which is inherently stable and which can support, in a sustainable 11 way, the many varied human activities. LVEMP, which is funded by International Development 12 Association (IDA) and Global Environment Facility (GEF) became operational in 1997. The 13 total funding for the project was USD 75, 636,000 being funded by IDA and GEF. The riparian 14 states contributed 10% of the total budget (LVEMP, 2003). Project implementation has focused 15 on the management and control of water hyacinth, improvement in the fisheries management and 16 fisheries research, water quality monitoring, management of industrial and municipal wastes, 17 conservation of biodiversity, catchment forests and wetlands, sustainable land use practices and 18 capacity building. However, the project has achieved to a large extent on the research outputs 19 other than the main objective on the lake Victoria environmental management. 20 21 The riparian government’s have started to coordinate their responses to the management of the 22 fisheries sector, but have yet to develop a coordinated plan of action for managing the lake and its 23 catchment across all sectors. However, the recent formation of the East African Community 24 (EAC) and the development of its Protocol for Sustainable Development of the Lake Victoria 25 Basin are the beginning of such a response. In spite of these recent, positive developments, there 26 remains a tension between managing the lake to benefit the riparian communities and managing 27 the lake to benefit the downstream countries of the Nile. The riparian countries acknowledge the 28 latter responsibility through treaties and their participation in the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI). 29 However the project has indicated clearly the pollution sources, the quantities, the causes of the 30 biodiversity and the current condition of the catchment area. The destructed wetlands have been 31 addressed by the project and its important and the buffering capacity for the non point sources 32 pollution. To solve the problem is by taking action through participatory approach among the 33 riparian states. 34 35 2.0 Background 36 37 Lake Victoria is the world's second largest freshwater lake, by surface area, second only to Lake 38 Superior (31,280 square miles). It is bordered by Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. It stretches 412 39 km from north to south between latitudes 0°30'N and 3°12'S, and 355 km from west to east 40 between longitudes 31°37' and 34°53'E. The lake is situated at an altitude of 1,134m above sea 41 level. It has a volume of 2,760 km3 and an average depth of 40m. The maximum depth is 80 m. 42 Lake Victoria is the largest in Africa, with a surface area of 68,800 km2.and the catchment area of 43 193,000km2. Table 1 shows the morphometric data for lake Victoria. The values in bracket for 44 Table 1.0 shows the percentage. Burundi and Rwanda, although not riparian, lie within its 45 catchment. It contains numerous islands and has a highly indented shoreline estimate as 3460 km 46


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long. The total shoreline of the lake is 3435 km long. Figure 1 shows the catchment area of Lake 1 Victoria. The flushing time (Volume/average outflow) is 138yrs and the residence time is 23yrs. 2 3

Table 1 Morphometric data for lake Victoria 4 5

Figure 1 Lake Victoria and its Catchment area 6 7 2.1 Drainage basins 8 9 The Rivers flowing into the lake from Tanzanian catchment are; Mara, Kagera, Mirongo, 10 Grumeti, Mbalageti, Simiyu and Mori (LVEMP, 2001). The main rivers flowing in the lake from 11 Kenyan catchment area are, Nzoia, Sio, Yala, Nyando, Kibos, Sindu-miriu, Kuja, Migori, Riaria 12 and Mawa from Uganda the rivers are, Kagera, Bukora, Katonga and Sio (LVEMP, 2003). The 13 Kagera, which drains Burundi and Rwanda and part of Uganda, is the single largest river draining 14 into the lake. However, rivers entering the lake from Kenya, which contains the smallest portion 15 of the lake, contribute over 37.6 % of the surface water inflows (Table 2). About 86% of total 16 water input falls as rain and evaporative losses account for 80% of the water leaving from the 17 lake (Okanga, 2001; Cowi, 2002). The mean annual rainfall based on rainfall data from year 18 1950 to 2000, ranges between 886mm to 2609mm. The mean evaporation rate over the Lake 19 Victoria is ranging between 1108 to 2045mm per year (COWI, 2002). 20 21 The Nile River is the only surface outlet, with an outflow of 23.4km3/yr (Mott MacDonald, 22 2001). The long term average discharges from the river basins in the catchment based on data 23 from year 1950 to year 2000 are as shown in Table 1.0. 24 25

Table 2. Long term average discharge from river basins in Lake Victoria catchment area 26 (COWI, 2002) 27

28 Much of the inflow to the lake from the rivers originates from Tanzania while insignificant flow 29 originates from Ugandan rivers. The mass balance of water in the lake based on the inflow and 30 outflow is as shown in Table 3. The outflow in the White Nile is correspondingly larger than the 31 inflow from the catchment. The sum of the flows gives a small positive inflow of 33m3/s which 32 accounts for the rise in the lake water level of about 1.0 m between January 1950 and December 33 2000 (COWI, 2002). 34 35

Table 3 Average inflows and outflows from the Lake Victoria (COWI, 2002) 36 37 The topography around the lake is flat allowing satellite lakes and wetlands to predominate. The 38 catchment area of Lake Victoria is slowly being degraded due to deforestation. The increase in 39 human population in the riparian area has put pressure on the forests for agricultural land, timber, 40 firewood and habitation. This deforestation, coupled with bad agricultural practices, has 41 degraded the soil leading to siltation along the rivers into the lake. Agro-chemicals and industrial 42 effluents are now polluting the lake, while deforestation, soil erosion, and increasing human and 43 livestock populations have all contributed to increased nutrient loading because of changing land 44 use patterns. Wetlands are reclaimed for agriculture, industrial development and human 45 settlements, while others are drained to control human disease vectors. Some are excessively 46


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harvested for making mats, baskets, and chairs. Many of the wetlands have received too much 1 pollution to the extent that they cannot perform their filtration function efficiently. Therefore, 2 pollutants normally retained by wetlands enter the lake unchecked, thus further contributing to 3 the deterioration of lake water. 4 5 2.2. Social Economic 6 7 The fishery of the lake Victoria is major source of income to the fishing communities, 8 government tax revenue and protein for the local communities. Lake wide fish production is 9 estimated at between 400 – 500 metric tons with Tanzania landing 40%, Kenya 35% and Uganda 10 25%. The landed value of this catch is between USD 300 – 400 million annually. Up to 500,000 11 tones of Nile perch are caught annually in the lake. Other important commercial fish species 12 include Nile tilapia and Mukene (Rastrineobola argentea). The fishery, together with associated 13 industries, provides an annual fish export earnings of US$ 600 million, of which US$ 240-460 14 million is paid directly to fishers (Ntiba et al., 2001). Other major economic benefits in the basin 15 include; provision of freshwater, a rich agricultural area for production of cash and food crops, 16 transport across the lake, water for agricultural and industrial use, waste water disposal and 17 hydroelectric power. The lake provides recreational values for the riparian populations. Plants 18 from the riparian areas and associated wetlands provide fiber, fodder and fuel wood. About 30 19 million people depend directly or indirectly on the Lake Victoria and its catchment area in East 20 Africa including Rwanda and Burundi (LVEMP, 2003). This constitutes about one third of the 21 population of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda estimated to be 90 million. Over 70% of the 22 population of the three countries is engaged in agricultural production mostly as small scale 23 farmers such as sugar, tea, coffee, maize, cotton, livestock keeping, horticulture within the lake 24 catchment. 25 26 While specific socio-economic data are difficult to obtain for the catchment population, the gross 27 economic product of the lake catchment is estimated to be of the order of US$3-4 billion 28 annually, providing a per capita income in the range of US$90-270 p.a (World Bank. 1996). The 29 population of the riparian municipalities of the three countries is growing at above 6% per annum 30 that is among the highest in the world. The population of the area is concentrated in and around 31 the municipal centres with the population growth is 3.6 and 7.6 for the districts and 32 municipalities. 33 34 The lake is the source of the White Nile and thus, is an important asset for all countries within the 35 Nile Basin. The waters originating from the lake provide hydropower through its only outlet, the 36 Nile River, at Owen Falls in Uganda and other power plants lower down the river. The power 37 from the two plants at Owen Falls provide 260MW, part of which is exported to Kenya. These 38 waters also support extensive irrigated agriculture schemes in Egypt, ecological values in the 39 Sudan and other wetlands, an important tourism industry on the Nile River, and navigation and 40 transport over large distances in the lower river. 41 42 3.0 Biophysical Environment 43 44 3.1 Water Quality 45 46


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The eutrophication of the lake is one of the major indicators of the pollution of the lake. The 1 water quality in the lake has decreased since 1930’s as the water has become more turbid with a 2 secchi depths decreasing from 5m to one meter or less in the early 1990’s (Bugenyi et al., 2002). 3 Low secchi depth was an indication that access of pollution to the lake was minimum due to 4 several factors. The population in the catchment area, industrial activities, deforestation, 5 application of artificial fertilizer, domestic wastewater and other factors were at its low stage to 6 produce significant of pollution loading to the lake. Generally the human activities in the 7 catchment area were of insignificant to massive flow of pollutant to the lake. The market value of 8 fish industry was low and also the means of transport between the towns in the catchment area 9 even to other countries was not highly developed. The wetlands around the lake were not 10 destroyed due to farming and other activities as such helped to buffer the lake water quality. 11 12 The currently observed decreased secchi depth to 1.0m is associated with many factor; Pollution 13 pressures are increasing and pollution impact by municipal and industrial discharges is visible in 14 some of the rivers feeding the Lake and along the shoreline, such as the shallow Winam Gulf 15 (Kisumu), near Mwanza and Kampala. Among the sources of pollution are a number of basic 16 industries such as breweries, tanning, fish processing, agro-processing and abattoirs. Small-scale 17 gold mining is increasing in parts of the Tanzanian catchment, leading to contamination of the 18 waterways by mercury. Increased nutrient flows are coming mostly from rural areas. The other 19 significant source of nutrients to the lake is due to the nitrogen and phosphorous released from 20 soil particles washed off the land by erosion, burning wood-fuels, and human and animal waste 21 from the areas surrounding the Lake. From the urban areas, the main source is untreated sewage. 22 Land use has intensified and human and livestock population increased, especially along the 23 lakeshores and on the islands of the lake Victoria. Generally all human activities in the lake 24 catchment area did not have environmental management and conservation practices. These 25 negative impacts arise due to poverty, poor know-how and increased human activities in the 26 catchment area as a result of the rapid increase of the riparian population. Hence it may be 27 concluded that the major sources of nutrients to the lake are, agricultural activities, industrial 28 wastewater, domestic wastewater, and nutrients carried by inflowing rivers to the lake and 29 atmospheric deposition (LVEMP,2003). 30 31 Nutrient concentration in the lake in form of phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter are useful 32 for eutrophication of the lake caused by excessive growth of algae. Hence quantification of 33 nutrient loading to the lake is one step towards control of the sources. This section of the report 34 gives the quantification of the pollution loading to the lake as was reported by the LVEMP. 35 36 3.1.1 Pollution loading due to urban wastewater and runoff 37 38 The evaluation made by Cowi, (2002), indicates that there are in total of 87 large towns in the 39 catchments area being distributed as follows; 51 towns in Kenya, 30 towns in Tanzania and 6 40 towns in Uganda. Based on the data on sewage flow and the nutrient concentrations, the pollution 41 loading to the lake originating from the urban area from the riparian countries are as shown in 42 Table 4. 43 44

Table 4. Pollution loading to the lake due to urban wastewater and runoff 45 46


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The data in Table 4 considered a reduction of loading through other methods of treatment by 1 50%. The reduction of pollution loading through the river system before reaching the Lake was 2 not included. Figure 2 to Figure 4 show the distribution of the nutrient in the catchment area 3 resulting from urban development (point source pollution). Note that according to study done in 4 2001 and reported by LVEMP as wastewater report, indicated that the pollution loading to the 5 lake from the urban areas in the catchment area was 6,955t-BOD/yr, 3028t-Total-N/year and 6 2,686 t-Total P/year (Wastewater Report, 2001). These figures represents the pollution loading 7 from the urban areas close to the lake shore without consideration of the pollution loading 8 originating from towns located far away from the lake shore and which drain in lake Victoria via 9 streams and rivers. 10 11

Figure 2. Distribution of point sources, BOD (kg/day) (COWI, 2002). 12 13

Figure 3. Distribution of point sources, Total-phosphorus (kg/day) (COWI, 2002). 14 15

16 Figure 4. Distribution of point sources, Total-nitrogen (kg/day) (COWI, 2002). 17

18 3.1.2 Pollution loading due to industrial activities 19

20 The pollution loading to the lake due to the industrial activities in the catchments area is as 21 shown in Table 5. The total number of industries in the catchment area is 68, of which 16 22 industries are in Kenya, 34 in Tanzania and 18 industries in Uganda (COWI, 2002). The pollution 23 loading to the lake originating from industries has been estimated based on the production rate or 24 amount of water used. 25 26

Table 5.0 Industrial loading to the lake (COWI, 2002) 27 28 3.1.3 Pollution loading due to rivers 29 30 Rivers also have impact on lake water quality as they act as transporters of pollutants to the lake. 31 The rivers bring lot of soil erosion from the catchment area and hence at their outlets the water is 32 more turbid and shallow than other parts of the lake. Example Winam Gulf is comparatively 33 shallow, having a maximum depth of 35m and a mean depth of 6m. Generally the gulf is more 34 turbid than the main body of the lake and its waters less productive. Rivers are responsible for 35 carrying particulate matters from the catchment to the lake. The input load of nutrients from the 36 rivers located in the catchment area is 49,509t Total N/year and 5,693 t Total P/year (Table 6). 37 38 Table 6 shows the nutrient loading from the river basins. Based on Table 6 the total catchment 39 area of the lake is 193,000 km2, and since the catchment area draining water to river basins is 40 197, 478 (see Table 6) then the actual catchment area draining direct to the lake is only 4,478 41 km2. 42 43

Table 6 Annual loads of nitrogen and phosphorous to Lake Victoria from River Basins 44 45


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3.1.4. Pollution loading due to atmospheric deposition 1 2 Non-point pollution sources were also determined in order to produce an estimate of all non-point 3 pollution loadings to Lake Victoria from all major rivers and the atmosphere for the period 1950 4 to the present(COWI, 2002). Overall estimation of loads from catchments to the lake, by 5 concentrating on the determination of atmospheric deposition by rain on the lake (wet 6 deposition), atmospheric deposition on lake directly from the air (dry deposition) and excess of 7 fertilizers from agriculture. The atmospheric deposition can be divided into wet deposition i.e. the 8 deposition of nutrients washed out by the rain, and dry deposition which is the amount of 9 nutrients deposited onto the water surface from the air during dry weather periods. For wet 10 deposition rainwater was sampled and analysed for total-nitrogen, ammonia, nitrates, total 11 phosphorus, and phosphates. Due to lack of special sampling equipment for dry deposition, a 12 simple method was applied implying analysing the increase of nutrients in distilled water 13 exposed in a bucket for a certain time (COWI, 2002). For the estimation of atmospheric 14 deposition the lake was divided into 17 rain boxes for which the annual average rainfall could be 15 calculated individually (Figure 5). 16 17

Figure 5 Location of rain boxes and load points (as used in the model) 18 19 Data on the deposition of nutrients from the atmosphere as dry or wet deposition were collected 20 from analysis of a total of 16 samples (dry deposition) and 69 samples (wet deposition). Table 7 21 shows the average results of atmospheric deposition of pollutants to the lake. It is seen that total 22 loads from atmospheric deposition by this method has been estimated at 102,000 tons of nitrogen 23 and 24,000 tons of phosphorus. These figures are close to what was initially estimated by the 24 model study, and indicate that the atmospheric deposition is far the most significant contribution 25 to the overall nutrient budget of the lake. 26 27

Table 7. Estimated annual atmospheric deposition of N and P to the lake 28 29 Exploitation of land use data has been part of the approach to assess the significance of different 30 non-point pollution sources. Having estimated total loads to the lake from river water quality 31 measurements, the relative importance of activities related to land use could be assessed through 32 identifying the location and magnitude of the activity. The most important activities in the 33 context of non-point pollution is alteration of the soils due to deforestation and agricultural 34 practices and the use of agrochemicals whereof a fraction leaches from the soils and enters the 35 water courses. 36 37 Table 8 summaries the sources of pollution loading and its significant contribution based on 38 percentage. Atmospheric deposition in the catchment area has been found to be the major source 39 of pollution to the lake as shown in Table 8. The results indicate that atmospheric deposition 40 contribute to about 34% showing that changes in farming, land utilization, industrial activities 41 and forest management will give significant impact on reduction of pollution loading to the lake 42 due to atmospheric deposition. Other reports indicate that the atmospheric deposition contribute 43 about 60% of the nutrient loadings. This is only true if the pollution loading from the river basins 44 is not taken on board (Table 8). The pollution loading to the lake due to groundwater movement 45 has not been done in the catchment. 46


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1 Table 8. Annual external nutrient loading to lake Victoria (Modified from LVEMP, 2003) 2

3 An attempt to model the movement of pollutant based on the processes in the lake was done and 4 the mass balance of loading was performed by the model. The mass balance was obtained by 5 adding the estimated inputs and outputs for phosphorus: 6 Atmospheric deposition + non-point source loads + municipal/ind. loads – increment of pool – 7 export to the Nile – export through fishery 8 gives an amount of 20,100 t P/y which is considered buried in the sediments (Figure 6). As the 9 actual sedimentation rate has been estimated based on measurements at 523,000 t P/y a yearly 10 release of 502,900 t P is expected to keep the water/sediment flux balanced. The same calculation 11 based on the present study’s load estimates for Nitrogen gives a net deposition of 73,400 t of N in 12 the sediments (Figure 7). However, knowing from several former studies that the general N/P 13 ratio in the sediments is around 10:1, this amount is much too small to balance the calculated 14 phosphorus deposition (20,100 t P/y). Thus, just to keep the normal N/P ratio in the sediments an 15 additional input of 127,000 t N/y is required. In fact, more than that is necessary to also account 16 for some denitrification which certainly occurs in the lake. 17 18

Figure. 6. Phosphorus mass balance for Lake Victoria 19 20

Figure. 7. Nitrogen mass balance for Lake Victoria. 21

It can be concluded that the nutrient mass balance still needs to be refined. Thus, estimates of 22 atmospheric deposition need to be improved and the two, maybe very important open ends, 23 nitrogen fixation and denitrification, should be quantified. Moreover, sediment flux experiments 24 would strongly support the understanding of exchange of nutrients between the sediments and the 25 water column. However, it is believed that the preliminary mass balance is a realistic estimate of 26 the overall relative importance of atmospheric deposition, catchment contribution, contribution 27 from municipal/industrial loads as well as the export of nutrients to the outflow and the 28 sedimentation rates. On the other hand, the data shows clearly that near shore areas may be 29 highly affected by eutrophication, especially the hot-spot areas such as Winam Gulf, Murchison 30 Bay, Napoleon Gulf, and Mwanza Gulf. In these areas chlorophyll-a concentrations today rise far 31 beyond what has been measured previously. Thus, the present study has measured 170 ug/l of 32 chlorophyll-a in Mwanza Gulf and a study on Murchison Bay in 1997 measured up to 300 ug/l. 33 For comparison, Talling (1965, 1966) reported maximum values of chlorophyll-a of 70 ug/l in 34 near shore areas of the lake. A low N/P ratio in the near shore waters of the lake indicates that 35 nitrogen may occasionally be limiting here. 36 37 Whereas nutrient pollution is widespread although not uniform throughout the lake, pollution 38 from heavy metals and organics appears to be localized. Thus, Cu, Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr and Zn were 39 found in the sediments of Mwanza Gulf but not in dangerous concentrations (Kishe & Machiwa, 40 2001). These concentrations were greatest near towns, supporting their urban industrial origins 41 (apart from the Hg which may originate from gold mining activities). There was no evidence of 42 serious bioaccumulation of Hg in fish tested near cities in the lake and this does not appear to 43 pose a human health problem (Campbell et al., 2003). The mean concentration of heavy metals at 44 Winam gulf was found to be, 0.12ppm to 0.45ppm Pb, 0.01ppm cadmium, and 0.16ppm to 45


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1.82ppm Arsenic in water. The sediment analysis at Winam gulf revealed the following 1 concentrations, 21.2 to 76.2ppm Pb, 0.4 to 2.8ppm Cadinium, and 37.6 to 394 ppm Arsenic (Tole 2 and Shitsama, 2001). This indicates that most of the pollutants might be concentrated along the 3 shore and mainly influenced by the population activities. 4 5 Also recent inventory in the lake catchment area have indicated that there is a high possibilities of 6 oil spillage in the lake due to transportation (LVEMP, 2003). The finding from the inventory on 7 oil spillage to the lake indicates that, used oil from separators is not officially sold as wood 8 preservative and cannot be bought under normal circumstances, the capacities of the oil 9 separators/ interceptors of nearly all visited companies are to small hence resulting on inefficient 10 separation, the separators were contaminated and therefore having limited functions, many 11 drainage systems from the filling stations drain the oil direct to the municipalities sewerage 12 systems or to local rivers. Interviews indicated that bilge oil is regularly discharged into lake 13 Victoria (LVEMP, 2001). 14 15 As noted by Hecky et al., (2001), the modern lake (past 1990) is remarkably different than the 16 historic lake (prior 1970). Phosphorous concentrations have risen by a factor of 3, primary 17 productivity by a factor of 2, algal biomass by a factor of 6 – 8, and fish production by a factor of 18 4 to 5. The increase on algal biomass has accomplished primarily by blue green algae especially 19 filamentous nitrogen fixing (Hecky et al., 2001). Nitrogen fixing account as much as 80% of 20 nitrogen input, far exceeding tributary and atmospheric source. These increased nutrient loadings 21 have driven nutrient concentrations which have lead to self shading of algal productivity and has 22 provided the opportunity for floating aquatic weeds such as the introduced Eichhornia crassipes 23 to be economic and ecological hazard (Hecky et al., 2001). The plant is blamed for reduction in 24 fish catches, clogging of engines to spread of diseases like malaria, overlooking the advantages 25 the weed has had on the fishery. Catches of Clarias spp. and Protopterus aethiopicus which 26 strongly decreased in 1980s in the lake have now increased tremendously in the lake following 27 hyacinth infestation. Nyanza gulf with several bays sheltered from wind and water waves than 28 open waters harbors most of the water hyacinth mats. Increase in Clarias and Proptopterus is 29 attributed to among other factors to increase in water hyacinth mats providing breeding and 30 feeding areas (Njiru et al., 2001.) 31 32 3.2 Impact of land use on pollution loading to the lake 33 34 While perennial horticultural areas are generally well managed with perennial cover and runoff 35 control, many other areas under annual crops such as maize do not maintain ground cover. Thus, 36 Majaliwa et al., (2001) report that soil erosion losses are highest for annual crops and lowest for 37 coffee and banana. In addition, cropping areas often continue down to stream and lake edges, 38 eliminating riparian buffering vegetation (wetlands). Forested areas surrounding the lake have 39 been cleared for settlement and agricultural activities. The result of this poor land management is 40 that large areas of land are subject to severe soil erosion. Scheren et al. (2001) indicated that 41 land utilization has high impact on nutrient loading to the lake and hence eutrophication of water. 42 An assessment of pollution sources revealed that nutrient input originating mainly from 43 atmospheric deposition and land runoff account for an estimated 90% of phosphorous and 94% of 44 nitrogen input to the lake. The annual increase of the cultivated land is 2.2%, overgrazing by 1.5 45 million cattle and 1.0million goats exceeded sustainable grazing rate by a factor of 5. The 46


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resulting influence on eutrophication reveals itself in two main aspects; (1) increasing soil 1 erosion and nutrient runoff and leakage to surface waters as a results of unsustainable and 2 growing land exploitation for agricultural production and deforestation, (2) Increasing release to 3 the atmosphere of the nutrient from animal and bio-mass burning and consequent deposition to 4 surface water (Scheren et al., 2001). One consequence of eutrophication is that Lake Victoria has 5 become turbid to the point that brightly colored fish species cannot see each other clearly enough 6 and they have begun to interbreed. This silt not only causes the turbidity observed in Winam Gulf 7 (and possibly other semi-enclosed areas) but also transports nutrients such as phosphorus and 8 contaminants such as agric-chemicals. Some rivers are also the probably source of Hg from 9 mining activities that has been observed near shore in Mwanza Gulf. 10 11 Although agro-chemicals and their residues have been detected in lake waters their 12 concentrations not high enough to form a threat to human health, export products, or ecosystem 13 integrity. In general, the riparian countries have adequate legislation and regulations to control 14 the use of these chemicals. Existing regulations forbidding the use of DDT for agricultural 15 production reasons and regulating the use of other agro-chemicals need to be enforced by the 16 riparian governments. Very low concentrations (0.01 to 0.03ppm) of endosufan, B-endosurfan 17 and endosulphan were detected in the fish (Henry and Kishimba, 2002). 18 19 Sedimentation rate in the lake Victoria 20 21 Particulate matter in lakes derives from import from the catchments and the atmosphere and from 22 in-lake production. Particles are inorganic deriving from erosion in the catchments and in the lake 23 or by chemical precipitation or they are organic particles produced by primary production and 24 further metabolised through the food chains in the catchments and in the lake. Particles with a 25 density higher than lake water settle to the sediment floor and can be captured by sediment traps. 26 The relative importance of sedimentary processes compared to processes in the water phase 27 increases with hydraulic residence time and decreases with water depth. Lake Victoria has a long 28 residence time - 100 years and has a relatively low average depth - 40 m. Consequently, 29 sedimentary processes become very important in Lake Victoria justifying the comprehensive 30 sediment sub model as an important part of the Lake Victoria Model. During the data collection 31 the sediment analysis was done for TPP, TPN, TPC and TBSi, also net exchange PO4, NH3, 32 NO3 and Si across the sediment water interface were analysed (COWI, 2002). The average 33 sedimentation rate are as shown in Table 9. 34 35

Table 9 daily average deposition rates for TPP, TPN, TBSi and TPC 36 37 The annual sedimentation rates are of the same order of magnitude as modelled for 1978 and the 38 comparison with calculated net deposition rates shows that 4% of the sedimented phosphorus, 8 39 % of nitrogen and 10% of silicon is permanently buried. The burial rates represent an annual 40 accretion of 1 mm/year, so the lake is in no danger of being filled with sediment in the immediate 41 future. However Swallow, et al., (2001) showed that the settling rate at the outlet of the rivers in 42 the catchment area was 1.0cm/year. This indicates high accumulation of solids at the lakeshore. 43 44 The slope of regressions between sedimentation rates (mg/m2/d) and the particle concentration at 45 the exposure depth (mg/m3) reveal the settling velocity (m/d) as shown in Figure 8. 46


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Figure 8. The sedimentation rates of TPP, TPN, TPC and TBSi vs concentrations in water 3 4 The settling velocities for TPC and TBSi - 0.25-0.26 m/d - are higher than the velocities for TPP 5 and TPN - 0.15-0.16 m/d. This reflects that detritus particles and diatoms with relatively low 6 contents of N and P settle faster than other phytoplankton groups. The results show that 7 sedimentation rates are highest at the littoral stations compared to pelagic stations, but the 8 differences are smaller than the variations in chlorophyll concentrations and secchi depths. The 9 stochiometric composition of the settling material indicates nitrogen limitation and a non-10 dominance of diatoms. The differences in settling velocities indicate that the settling material 11 consists dead and living material with a contribution of diatoms. 12 13 3.3 Wetland and pollution loading to the lake 14 15 Wetlands occupy a large part of Eastern Africa’s surface and are densely populated. Throughout 16 the region, these wetlands are disappearing or being degraded at an alarming rate (Balirwa, 17 2002). Wetlands have been defined as a wide variety of habitats such as marshes, peatlands, 18 floodplains, rivers and lakes and coastal areas such as salt marshes, mangroves and sea grass 19 beds, but also coral reefs and other marine areas no deeper than six meters at low tide as well as 20 human made wetlands such as wastewater treatment ponds and reservoirs. Wetlands act as filters 21 of nutrient and silt loaded water. Most of the nutrients are retained by absorption by wetland 22 plants. For example, papyrus swamps have been observed to take up and accumulate considerable 23 amounts of ions in the on coming water. Also silt with its adsorbed nutrients is retained in the 24 wetlands. They thus play a crucial role in preventing eutrophication in the receiving waters. Other 25 nutrient related roles of the wetlands are: Sediment and erosion control, flood control, 26 maintenance of water quality and abatement of pollution and maintenance of surface and 27 groundwater supply. 28 29 The freshwater wetlands in Lake Victoria basin constitute an important natural resource base 30 upon which communities in the riparian districts depend for their livelihood. They are important 31 in terms of food production, hydrological stability and ecological productivity. The wetlands are 32 a source of goods and services for the riparian communities which include: sources of raw 33 materials, handicrafts, fuel; support for fisheries, grazing and agriculture; outdoor recreation and 34 education for human society; provision of habitat for wildlife, especially water fowl; contribution 35 to climatic stability, a source of water and food production during the dry season. Omagor, 36 (1996) has outlined the edible parts of aquatic plants. For example, Commelina berghalensis has 37 as edible parts the leaves and young shoots; Nyphaea caerula has as edible parts the rhizosomes; 38 Ipomea aquatica has its leaves as edible parts; and Portulaca oleraceae has its leaves,stem and 39 seeds as edible parts. A fairly wide range of aquatic plants have medicinal uses. Kakudidi (1996) 40 has listed aquatic plants of medicinal plants and the ailments they treat. For example, Polygonum 41 pulcheria roots are used to treat tropical ulcers; Pentas longiflora leaves are used to treat fever 42 and Adenia umicifolia (whole plant) is used to treat neurotic illness. 43 44 A range of plants such as the common reed (Phragmites australis) and the reed-mace (Typha 45 latifolia) have shown the property of breaking wastewater, removing disease causing micro 46


12

organisms and pollutants. They have a large biomass both above (leaves) and below 1 (underground rhizome system) the surface of the soil or substrate. The substrate plant tissues 2 grow horizontally and vertically and create an extensive matrix which binds the soil particles and 3 create a large surface area for the uptake of plant nutrients (Shutes, 2001). They thus play a 4 crucial role in preventing eutrophication in the receiving waters. 5 6 Restoration of wetlands should be considered as a part of the effort to increase carbon sinks in 7 agricultural and forest landscapes. Conservation positive policies and programs are required that 8 recognise the full spectrum of intrinsic values of wetlands. Less wetlands means more unwanted 9 material entering the lake. Management of wetland areas has not been good for the benefit of 10 buffering for the pollution. 11 12 While wetlands support significant components of biodiversity and are important for socio-13 economic reasons, they have continued to be under increasing pressure from human activities, 14 such as water pollution and destruction of vegetation. Although research has been undertaken to 15 addresses gaps in knowledge of wetlands and develop suitable ways of monitoring and managing 16 these ecosystems in Lake Victoria basin, a lot more still is unknown. In Kenya, the wetlands of 17 Lake Victoria constitute about 37% of the total surface area of wetlands (2,737,790 Ha) in the 18 country. In Uganda, wetlands cover 13% of the country's area of the area under wetlands. 19 Although Uganda's wetlands are protected most of them are still being reclaimed and degraded. 20 These wetlands support up-to 12 million people who extract freshwater, fish, medicinal plants 21 and building material. It is estimated that about 75% of the wetland area has been significantly 22 affected by human activity and about 13% is severely degraded. 23 24 A number of human activities affect the healthy of wetlands. These include; Agriculture -clearing 25 for crop husbandry, application of pesticides and other, -agrochemicals and overgrazing, 26 urbanisation and road construction, planting of exotic plants, building of dams, harvesting of 27 wetland plants for construction and production of furniture, fuel and harvesting of horticultural 28 moss, fish farming and smoking of fish. These activities reduce the sizes and biodiversity as well 29 as the aesthetic value of the wetlands. Wetlands particularly those shallow ones have been put 30 under intensive cultivation for crops such as sugar cane, sweet potatoes, yams, eucalyptus. Others 31 are excavated for obtaining sand and clay for brick making. The pits left have attracted water 32 hyacinth and vector borne diseases-mosquitoes and snails e.g. in Kyetinda wetlands in Kampala. 33 Other wetlands are used for dumping of wastewater such as those close to Luzira prison, Masese 34 swamp, and Walugogo valley in Iganga town all affected by illegal dumping of garbage. Others 35 are deforested to obtain woodfuel and other craft products such as at Mukona, Mpigi and Amsha 36 districts and Sango Bay in Rakai district. 37 38 3.4 Concentration of the pollutants in the lake Victoria 39 40 In order to observe the impact of pollutant loaded into the lake, the sampling stations were 41 located in the lake for the purpose of collecting sample and analysing for the parameters of 42 pollution loading. The analysis of water in the lake followed after establishing common sampling 43 stations within the lake. A total of 56 monitoring stations were located in the Lake (9 stations in 44 Kenya, 19 stations in Uganda and 28 stations in Tanzania). About 18 monitoring stations were 45 established on rivers draining to the lake. Rainfall data were obtained from 43 station and 46


13

evaporation data were collected from 19 evaporation stations. The data obtained from the 1 monitoring stations were used for computation of water balance, nutrient loads, into the lake via 2 streams and diffusion along the shore and deposition from air and rain. Figure 9 shows the 3 monitoring stations located in the entire lake. The sediment core was also collected from the 4 same monitoring stations were analysed for TPC, TPN and TPP (COWI, 2002) 5

6 Figure 9. Lake Victoria Monitoring Stations 7

8 Apart from the harmonized monitoring stations, there are also impact stations located along the 9 towns of Bukoba (6), Musoma (6) and the city of Mwanza (12), and shoreline settlements and 10 fish landing sites. These were meant for establishment of deterioration level of water quality 11 particularly the bacteriological quality. The concentration of nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorous 12 and organic matter were determined from the samples collected from the monitoring stations 13 using the standard method of water and wastewater analysis (LVEMP, 2002). Lake water quality 14 monitoring was performed monthly in the points near the lakeshore and quarterly in points far 15 inside the lake as shown in Figure 9. Water quality data for nutrients and algae concentrations in 16 the lake was determined monthly and quarterly basis for validation of temporal and spatial trends 17 eutrophication levels in the lake (LVEMP, 2002) 18 19 The findings indicate that the measured temperature profiles show that thermal stratification 20 seems to exist most of the time in Mwanza Gulf. Hence the spreading of the pollutants from the 21 lakeshore to the centre of the lake is caused by dispersion rather than advection for most of the 22 year. The dispersion is caused by local turbulence generated by wind. The wind climate over the 23 lake is gentle to moderate with maximum wind speed during storm rarely exceeding 15m/s 24 (COWI, 2003). The wave generated by wind are correspondingly low, with maximum (1 in 25 100yrs) significant wave height of 2.5m. The daily waves generated by the onshore-off shore 26 breezes will normally not exceed 1.0m. The wave will cause mixing of the lake water to depth of 27 5 to 15m. 28 29 Due to the combination of a large surface area and relatively shallow depth, the lake does not 30 react homogeneously. Thus mixing occurs at different times and different degrees in different 31 parts of the lake and e.g. oxygen deficit do the same. The concentration of the nutrients is high 32 near the shore areas than offshore. Figure 10 to 12 shows the distribution of the nutrients in the 33 lake. 34 35

Figure 10. Nitrate concentrations in the photic zone, November 2000 - August 2001.. 36 37

Fig. 11. Ammonium concentrations in the photic zone, November 2000 - August 2001 38 39

Figure 12. Phosphate concentrations in the photic zone, November 2000 - August 2001 40 41

The data indicated that near the shore areas have highly affected by eutrophication, especially the 42 hot spot areas such as Winham Gulf, Murchison Bay, Napoleon Gulf, and Mwanza Gulf. In this 43 areas chlorophyll-a concentrations today rise far beyond what has been measured previously. The 44 concentration of 170µg/l of chlorophyll-a has been observed in lake in Mwanza Gulf, and a 45 concentration of up to 300 µg/l was observed at Murchison Bay in 1997. For comparison Talling 46


14

(1965, 1966) reported the maximum values of chlorophyll-a in the lake water of 70 µg/l in near 1 shore areas of the lake. Figure 11 shows the distribution of chlorophyll-a in the lake. The 2 increased inflow of nutrients into the Lake is resulting in eutrophication. Phosphorus and nitrogen 3 concentrations have risen and algal growth has increased five-fold since the 1960s. Chlorophyll 4 levels are typically 2-3 times greater in the Gulf than in the main lake (Njuru 2001). Lake 5 Victoria has reached its present trophic status in advance of the other tropical Great lakes, Lake 6 Nyasa and Lake Tanganyika since its catchment area is the most densely populated and it is the 7 shallowest and least able to dilute the incoming nutrient loads. The primary productivity of the 8 lake has increased by a factor of 2, but chlorophyll (i.e. phytoplankton) concentrations have 9 increased by 8-10 times (Mugidde 1993). The lake is suffering from increasing eutrophication 10 that is caused by excessive nutrients entering the water. Figure 13 shows the secchi depths in the 11 lake indicated the most eutrophic areas in the lake as been along the shore. While Figure 14 12 shows the chlorophyll-a concentration in the lake. 13

14 Figure 13. Secchi depths November 2000 - August 2001. 15

16 Fig.14. Chlorophyll-a concentrations November 2000 - August 2001: 17

18 Victoria has experienced a steady increase in nutrient and phytoplankton concentrations for many 19 decades. The diatom, Aulacosiera, which was the dominant phytoplankton up until the 1960s 20 was last recorded in the lake in 1990. Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria, particularly 21 Cylindrospermopsis sp. and, to a lesser extent Anabaena, now dominate the phytoplankton. Over 22 70% of the N input to the lake is from fixation (Muggide 2001). Thus, the phytoplankton 23 community is not limited by access to N. Instead there is evidence that they are limited by the 24 availability of light (Mugidde et al., 2003) as a result of self-shading by algal biomass within 25 Lake Victoria proper (Mugidde, 1993) or higher mineral turbidities in Winam Gulf (Njuru 2001) 26 and possibly other enclosed areas receiving riverine input. The dominant cyanobacteria species in 27 the lake are known to produce toxins that are very poisonous to mammals, including humans. 28 However, there is little information on this potential hazard. Given the reliance of people around 29 the lakeshores on the lake waters for drinking and food, testing for toxins should be a high 30 priority. 31 32 Eutrophication describes the process of overabundant growth of algae and can lead to other losses 33 such as shifting of algae composition to less desirable algae, decreased oxygen content of water, 34 loss of fish due to low oxygen, low visibility and lack of edible algae. The shift in algal 35 composition is changing from green algae to blue-green cyanobacteria and some green algae. 36 This in itself is also a great concern as the emerging algae species are notorious for producing 37 toxins that can lead to fish kills and human health risks from swimming and drinking exposed 38 water. A shift of algal flora composition towards blue-green algae is causing deoxygenation of 39 water. Dioxygenation of the deep water is another undesirable change which has precluded a 40 stable dermiesal fishery (Hecky et al., 2002). Deepwater species have sharply declined and 41 periodic upwelling of hypoxic water has caused massive fish kills. Figure 15 to 17 shows the 42 profile of DO in the lake. 43

44 Figure. 15 Oxygen concentration at the bed of lake - minimum values . 45

46


15

Figure. 16 Oxygen concentration at bed of lake - lower quartile.. 1 2

Figure. 17 Oxygen concentration at bed of lake - median . 3 4 The sinking velocity of TPC was found to be 0.25 – 0.26m/day higher than the velocity for TPP 5 and TPN of 0.15 – 0.16m/day. This reflects that detritus particles and diatoms with relatively low 6 contents of N and P sink faster than other phytoplankton group. According to a sediment core 7 taken off the Kenyan coast, N and C loadings increased from about 1920 and P loading increased 8 from about 1960. This rain of organic matter from the lake’s surface to the sediments has 9 significantly increased decomposition processes in the lake’s sediments and depleted oxygen in 10 the hypolimnion. Whereas Talling saw anoxia only in the deepest parts of the lake in 1960-1, 11 Hecky reported widespread and long lasting (October-March) anoxia below 45 m in 1990-1, and 12 Njuru (2001) has reported deoxygenation to within 30m of the surface. Given that the mean 13 depth is 40m, this implies that a significant volume of the lake is now denied as habitat for 14 commercial and non-commercial fish species for part of the year. These conditions have 15 probably contributed to the loss of endemic benthic fish species and cause fish kills when these 16 anoxic bottom waters reach the surface through upwelling. The semi-enclosed Winam Gulf in 17 Kenyan waters shows higher concentrations of total suspended sediments, nitrogen, and total P 18 than the main lake (Njuru 2001). The shallow gulf does not stratify and so phosphate remains 19 bound to suspended sediment particles. Winds keep these particles suspended and so the Gulf has 20 higher turbidities and lower light transparency than the main lake. Like the main lake, algal 21 growth is limited by access to light but, in this case, the limitation arises primarily from 22 sediments in the water rather than from self-shading. The high TP levels are primarily delivered 23 by rivers entering the Gulf with concentrations typically about 500 µg/l in the Nyando River 24 (Okungu and Opango 2001). Most of the TP is attached to suspended sediments. The wide spread 25 of the nutrient in the lake resulted in high eutrophication of the lake, high growth of water 26 hyacinths and loss of biodiversity of the lake as shown below. 27 28 3.5 Impact of the landed pollution loading to Lake Victoria 29 30 3.5.1 Biodiversity 31 32 The lake is both an important production resource for the population living around the lake and 33 an internationally recognized ecological resource with over 550 species of fish, most endemic, 34 being recorded. The Lake originally had a multi-species fishery in which two tilapiine species 35 (Oreochromis Esculentus and O. Variabilis) were the most important (Ogutu-Ohwayo, 2003). In 36 the mid 1950s, Lake Victoria had adverse fish fauna comprising 28 genera and about 350 species 37 (Greenwood, 1974). Out of these, more than 300 species were haplochromine cichlids 38 (Greenwood, 1974; Witte et al., 2000). In 1905, the pressure of the fisheries increased due to 39 introduction of more efficient gill nets and extension of railways. In 1931, the gill net size was 40 restriacted due to over fishing of Oreochromis Esculentus, following the survey made in 1928. 41 Lake Victoria Fisheries Service (LVFS) was set to manage fishery for the three riparian countries 42 in 1928. This was followed by the formation of fisheries research organisation, the East African 43 Freshwater Fisheries Organization (EAFFRO). The LVFS was disbanded in 1960, and its role 44 was transferred to the individual national fisheries departments of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. 45 There was no longer regional mechanisms to manage or coordinate management of this shared 46


16

resources. Due to overfishing Oreochromis Esculentus and O. Victotianus became endangered 1 species in the Lake Victoria basin. 2 3 During the 1950s, Lates niloticus and non-indigenous tilapiines, Oreochromis niloticus, O. 4 leucostictus, Tilapia zilli and T. Rendalli were introduced into Lake Victoria (Lowe McConnell, 5 1997). The introduction of tilapiines was aimed at improving the declining indigenous stocks of 6 O. esculentus and O. variabilis and to remove the so-called “trash fish” - the haplochromines 7 with little value. During the 1970s, haplochromines were the most abundant fish species in the 8 lake, constituting up to 80% of the demersal fish stocks (Kudhongania and Cardone, 1974). 9 Stocks of Lates niloticus increased rapidly during 1970’s which was followed by the decline and 10 in some areas total disappearance of some of the indigenous species (Witte et al., 1992). Within 11 the last 50 years, as many as 200 species of fish in Lake Victoria have disappeared, due in part to 12 the introduction of the Nile perch, which has eaten many of the smaller fish species. Cichlids 13 once made up 80 percent of Lake Victoria's fish biomass now they make up only one percent, 14 while Nile perch constitutes 80 percent (http://www.glaquarium.org/victoria/lvfacts.html). 15 16 Other factors that have caused series of changes are eminating from excessive and uncoordinated 17 exploitation, human interventions in the lake basin and global environmental changes affecting 18 the lake ecosystem(Katunzi, et al., 2001). Excessive fishery exploitation, introduction of alien 19 fishes (Nile perch and tilapias) and plants (water hyacinth) are factors which raise concern for 20 fishery sustainability. Other changes to the lake environment have been caused by drainage of 21 wetland buffers and streams, deforestation, salutation, shore-based developments and increasing 22 use of the lake as a depository of nutrient-rich wastewater. With increasing demands on the 23 ecosystem, it is clear that further biodiversity change is eminent (Balirwa et al., 2001). 24 25 The littoral zone of several East African lakes have undergone significant changes in water 26 clarity, aquatic macrophytes vegetation and fish species composition. It seems that the reduction 27 in water clarity in Lake Victoria in 1970s created a cover of duskness which enhanced depletion 28 of cichlids by Nile perch predation. Protection of littoral vegetation and improvement in water 29 clarity would be beneficial to conservation of biodiversity (Chandler, and Ogutu-Ohwayo, 2002). 30 The threat to biodiversity of Lake Victoria Region continues to grow despite our increasing 31 knowledge about the system (Fuerst and Mwanja 2001. However, the studies made by Mwanja et 32 al. (2001) for nearly ten years in the Lake Victoria Region aquatic system have revealed that a 33 significant portion of the cichlid fauna that was considered lost from the main lakes of the Lake 34 Victoria region, Lakes Victoria and Kyoga, it still extant both in very marginal habitats in the 35 periphery of the main lakes and in the satellite small water bodies around the main lakes. 36 Reintroduction and restoration, if well planned and managed, will be the only tool for 37 conservation of cichlid biodiversity in the face of the continued persistence of the factors, such as 38 Nile perch and blue green algae that led to the disappearance of these species in the beginning. 39 40 Changes in zooplankton has been muted and they exert a minor grazing pressure on the algal 41 biomass. Kenyanya (2002) observed that in areas with high cover of water hyacinths, the DO 42 concentration was 0.84 to 1.5mg/l and Nile perch catch declined and substituted with O. 43 Niloticus, Protopterus etc. tolerant to low level of DO. 44 45


17

There was a decreasing trend in Nile perch standing stocks in Lake Victoria from 790,000 mt in 1 August 1999 to 530,000 mt in September 2001 while the small pelagics increased from 350,000 2 mt to 1,200,000 mt in same period. The causes of decline are over-exploitation, use of illegal 3 gears and environmental degradation from the catchment areas. Different areas of the lake have 4 different production. This is due to different nutrient levels. Water hyacinth led to an increase in 5 catches of C. gariepinus, P. aethiopicus, Tilapia and haplochromines. The weed provided 6 refugia, breeding and feeding areas and reduced fishing activities. However, about 200 of these 7 species have now been extinguished due to the introduction of Nile Perch and Nile Tilapia in the 8 1960s, the increase in eutrophication which has denied benthic waters to fish and changed the 9 base of the foodweb, and possibly the increase in unsustainable commercial fishing practices. O. 10 niloticus and L. niloticus are the two exotic fish species which have contributed both negatively 11 and positively in the Lake Victoria fisheries. Their positive impacts in the lake fishery 12 development include increased export earnings, recreational opportunities, increased supply of 13 desirable protein food, increased fish production, increased employment and increased earnings 14 for fishermen among others (Ogari, 2001). Given the importance of the Nile perch fishery to the 15 economy of the region as well as to the riparian nations, it is difficult to see that the pressure 16 exerted by these predators on the endemic species will lessen. 17 18 3.5.2 Aquatic Weeds and Lake water quality 19 20 Water hyacinth, Eichhonia crassipes (Mart), is an invasive aquatic macrophytes which invaded 21 Lake Victoria in 1989 and has had significant social economical and environmental impacts, 22 which remain largely unquantified (Ochiel and Wawire, 2001; Raytheon et al., 2002). Water 23 hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes and species of blue-green algae are considered the most important 24 invasive water weeds in Lake Victoria basin. The water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) 25 Solms is an obnoxious surface-floating weed of the tropics. The hyacinth has a high growth rate 26 causes physical obstruction of waterways, hydropower, water abstraction units etc (Masifwa et 27 al., 2001). The water hyacinth has seven genera constituting of 28 species. It reproduces by use 28 of small daughter plantlets known as stolons. It produces large quantities of long-lived seeds that 29 can survive up to 30 years. Weed populations can double up in every 5-15 days at temperatures 30 of between 25°C and 27.5°C. growth ceases at temperatures of below 10°C and above 40°C. 31 32 During the late 1990s and early 2000, Winam Gulf, in the Kenyan portion of Lake Victoria, 33 experienced one of the most severe water hyacinth infestations on Lake Victoria. Particularly 34 hard hit was the city of Kisumu, on the northeastern edge of the Gulf. In Uganda, large amounts 35 of water hyacinth (> 3000 ha) were present from the earliest countrywide image in February 1996 36 until a peak of 4732 ha on March 1998. Following this was a sharp reduction to 2147 ha on 26 37 July 1998 and further reduction until a low of 53 ha was measured on April 2001. Numerous bays 38 and gulfs have experienced sizeable infestations and during some periods, large quantities of 39 water hyacinth were found floating in open waters in Uganda. The Murchison Bay and greater 40 Napoleon Gulf areas, however, distinguish themselves as among the most heavily infested and 41 having generated the most concern among researchers, managers, government officials, and the 42 general public. About 20,000 ha lake wide were infested by water hyacinths by 1989 (Raytheon 43 et al., 2002). Proliferation is encouraged by nutrient enrichment. The weed forms a permanent 44 floating fringe often replacing the obligate acropleustophyte, Pistia stratiotes at the highly 45 productive wetland/openwater interphase (Denny, 1991) alters the food web (Balirwa 1995, 46


18

1998) and affects biological diversity (Masifwa et al., 2001). In some places the mats have 1 become consolidated into the plant succession by the fringing grass Vossia cuspidata 2 (hippograss) which penetrates and stabilizes Eichhornia floating. 3 4 The impact of unmanaged water hyacinth population includes, impeding transport of irrigation 5 and drainage water in canals and ditches, hindering navigation, interfering with hydropower 6 schemes, increasing sedimentation by trapping silt particles, decreasing human food production 7 in aquatic habitat (fisheries and crops); decreasing the possibilities for washing and bathing, and 8 adversely affecting recreation (swimming) (Pieterse, 1990). Additional impact include hindering 9 the processing and delivery of municipal and industrial water supplies, harboring bilharzias, 10 venomous snakes, and possible cholera; the transformation of aquatic habitats into wetlands or 11 terrestrial habitats through succession by other plant species; and disappearance of native flora 12 and fauna not able to compete or survive in infested environments; increased water loss through 13 excessive evapotranspiration hence reduction in Lake Levels; Water hyacinth provides a 14 favorable habitat for mosquitoes which are vectors of diseases such as malaria, encephalitis, and 15 filariasis; (Raytheon et al., 2002, Denny, 1991, Mitchell, 1990; Maillu et al., 1998). Since the mat 16 occupies the inshore areas, these areas are blocked and the dense weed growth destroys fishing 17 grounds through lack of light, nutrients and oxygen.. At the same time fresh water snails like 18 Biomphelaria species, which is an intermediate host for Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) are bound to 19 be attached to the roots of the plant. 20 21 On the other hand water hyacinth has some positive impacts in Lake Victoria fisheries. These 22 include the abatement of pollution since the plant has the capacity to accumulate heavy metals 23 and phenols including cadmium, lead, magnesium and nickel. The plant also flourishes better 24 with good supply of nutrients especially near sewage outflows. The other notable impact in the 25 Kenya waters of Lake Victoria involves increase in fish diversity with the establishment of water 26 hyacinth. To date some of the species that had disappeared like Protopterus aethiopicus, Clarias 27 gariepinus, Mormyrus species among others have reappeared in the catches (Ogari, 2001). 28 29 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was first documented on Lake Victoria in the late 1980s. 30 By 1997, the weed occupied about 1,000 ha between Entebbe and Kisumu. At the same period, 31 the weed occupied about 90% of the shoreline of the lake(Ong’ang’a,, et al., 2001). The major 32 source of hyacinth into Lake Victoria is River Kagera. An average of 0.8 ha of weed floats into 33 Lake Victoria from the Kagera. The extent of the coverage of hyacinth in the Uganda waters has 34 been documented by Twongo (1998). By 1995, the total cover of the stationery fringe along the 35 Ugandan shores of lake Victoria was estimated at 2, 200 ha and that the linear extent of the fringe 36 covered about 80% of the shorelength. In Kenya about 17000 ha were covered by water 37 hyacinth. In Uganda, up to 2000 to 4000 ha of Lake Victoria are estimated to contain over 1.25 38 mt of weed. By 1998, the hyacinth covered approximately 680 km2 with enough hyacinths to 39 cover 3 ha dy-1. The hyacinth is concentrated inshore where it has the greatest impacts on the 40 riparian communities. Figure 18 shows the water hyacinth covering the entrance to port of Homa 41 Bay. 42

43 Figure 18: The closure of Homa Bay port by hyacinth (September 2003). 44

45


19

However, efforts being made under LVEMP Project have reduced the infestation of this noxious 1 weed to about 78% lakewide(Aloyce et al, 2001; Ndunguru et al, 2001). There are three different 2 methods used to combat the proliferation of water hyacinth. This includes the physical removal, 3 use of herbicide and biological control. 4 5 3.5.2.1 Physical removal 6 7 In Uganda during the peak period, 1000 litre of diesel was needed daily by wagon ferries at Port 8 Bell to break through the hyacinth mats in order to dock or sail away. In Kenya Lake Victoria 9 Environmental Management (LVEMP) hired Aquarius Systems to chop and dump water hyacinth 10 near Kisumu bay with very little success. The fishermen and other community members were 11 also involved in this method to control water ways. Through LVEMP, they were provided with 12 tools to remove water hyacinth. It was done in a very small scale. In Tanzania the NGOs such as 13 Nyanza Environmental Sanitation Organization (LANESCO) and Tanzania Association of 14 Fisheries and Lake Victoria Environmental Conservation (TAFLEC) used an abandoned trawl 15 boat to trawl water hyacinth to the beach. The record shows that their daily harvest was about 26 16 tones per day. Considering the degree of water hyacinth infestation and the amount of time taken 17 for such physical harvest, it is obvious that the efficiency was negligible. In Kenya, most of the 18 NGOs involved in the removal of the weed are motivated by profit. OSIENALA (Friends of Lake 19 Victoria) organized a training session for Women Groups to harvest the weed and make valuable 20 materials for sale. The leading organization in this field was Kisumu Innovation Centre – Kenya 21 (KICK). KICK has high class water hyacinth materials which are sold to both locals and tourists. 22 Figure 19 shows the materials made out of water hyacinth from Lake Victoria. OSIENALA also 23 built a water hyacinth digester in Homa Bay Women’s Centre for the production of gas. The gas 24 was used for cooking and lighting the rooms. Lusira Prison near Port Bell in Uganda had water 25 hyacinth gas that could cook food for 300 prisoners(Mathenge, 2003). 26 27

28 Figure 19 Water Hyacinth products developed by KICK 29

30 Another physical method that influenced the removal of water hyacinth was due to El Nino 31 weather phenomenon that was associated with high wind speed that created wave action, which 32 mechanically damaged large quantities of water hyacinth. Though difficult to quantify at this 33 time, it is possible that some change in water quality took place due to heavy rainfall and dilution 34 of lake nutrients. Another possible factor in the reduction of abundance could have been the 35 stranding of water hyacinth along shorelines and in low elevation areas of the lake as waters 36 receded from their mid 1998 levels. Generally physical methods have helped to keep landing 37 beaches, water sources, pumps and recreational areas to be free from water hyacinth (Mallya et 38 al., 2001) 39 40 3.5.2.2. Biological control 41 42 Natural enemies of the water hyacinth are used. In Lake Victoria two species of weevils have 43 been used: Neochetina eichhornia and Neochetina bruchi. There were plans to introduce a third 44 enemy- the may fly of the genus Povilla. The insects are plant specific. Extensive research has 45 been conducted prior to the release of the enemies to prevent another uncontrollable distortion of 46


20

the ecosystem. Mikenga (1997) proposed strategies with respect to biological control of water 1 hyacinth: 2

• To extend the current biological control programs by introducing new insect species 3 notably may flies of the Povilla genus 4

• To extend the impact of weevils o water hyacinth by introducing virulent strains that can 5 be brought to plants by insects 6

• To extend the current biological programmes with microbiological research to find out 7 why the plants start to rot after attack by weevils. 8

In late 1995, two species of Neochetina weevils were released into the Uganda portion of Lake 9 Victoria. However it was not until February 1997 that weevil feeding activity became visible on 10 plants in Murchison Bay. Weevils multiplied rapidly, attaining an average number of 13.8 11 weevils/plant in 1998, and 24.7 weevils/plant in 1999 on Lake Victoria in Uganda. The biological 12 removal appears to be most successful of all the methods. 13 Table 10 shows the comparison of the country level water hyacinth abundance estimates as 14 related to Neochetina spp release against peak infestation. 15 16

Table 10. Comparison of county level water hyacinth abundance estimates as related to 17 Neochetina spp releases against peak infestation level and post peak infestation levels in lake 18

Victoria between December 1995 and October 2001. 19 20 Other factors are likely to have contributed to the decline as well. Pathogens have been isolated 21 from water hyacinth plants in Lake Victoria that are capable of weakening plants (Godonou, 22 2000). These pathogens would have found an ideal environment with plants under attack by 23 weevils and being damaged by severe weather conditions to become established and further 24 weaken or destroy plants. Another factor influencing plant health is water quality. The Lake 25 Victoria NGOs were fully involved in this safe method. In Kenya, through LVEMP several 26 Community Based Organizations and Schools were involved in the rearing of biological control 27 agents. They were trained by the lead agency , KARI and used to rear weevils. 28 29 3.5.2.3. Chemical Removal 30 31 In Lake Victoria, the Uganda Fisheries Department and the American herbicide specialist 32 Aquatics Unlimited Company proposed the use of 2 4-D in Lake Victoria to control water 33 hyacinth. These ran trials with the chemical but the proposal was rejected by the three states of 34 East Africa. These trials were conducted without the consent of the other states. NGOs came up 35 bravely to speak against the use of chemicals. 36 37 The increasing nutrient concentrations in the lake waters undoubtedly were a factor in the water 38 hyacinth infestation and the lake will remain susceptible to further invasions while it experiences 39 elevated nutrient levels. It is likely that the reduction in plant numbers was only partly due to the 40 weevils. Control of weeds in the lake should be followed with the reduction of pollution loading 41 from the catchment area. Most of the areas which were highly infested with water hyciths 42 especially bays were found to have high concentration of nutrients like phosphorous and 43 nitrogen. Also areas with high agricultural activities were infested with water hyacinths due to 44


21

agricultural fertilizer used and bad farming practices. It is obvious in areas where growth is high 1 it implies that more nutrients are released from the farming areas. 2 3 Hence the current major threats to the lake based on the above analysis are as follows 4 5 a) Population pressure contributing to the existence of “hot spots”, caused by human waste, 6

urban runoff, effluent discharges from such industries as breweries, tanning, paper and 7 fish processing, sugar, coffee washing stations and abattoirs. 8

b) Inflow of residues from use of chemical herbicides and pesticides, and to a limited extent 9 heavy metals resulting from gold mining operations. All these have been contributing to 10 eutrophication of the lake. 11

c) Raw waste from settlements, market centres and towns around the lake contributing 12 significantly to pollution of the lake waters. 13

d) Unsustainable utilization of the major wetlands through agricultural activities and 14 livestock keeping, that has greatly compromised the buffering capacity of the wetlands. 15

e) Introduction of two exotic species of the Nile Perch and the Nile Tilapia about 30 years 16 ago, and the use of unsustainable fishing practices and gears have altered the species 17 composition of the fauna and flora of the lake. Before this introduction, haplochromines 18 constituted 84%. Now the Nile Perch constitutes 80%, which has led to the loss of locally 19 favored fish species, known for their medicinal and cultural values. 20

f) Nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) inflow has given rise to five-fold increase in algae 21 growth since 1960s causing de-oxygenation of the water that threatens the survival of 22 deep water-fish species 23

g) Introduction of water hyacinth in the lake causing biodiversity and economic losses in the 24 catchment areas of the lake 25

(h) Atmospheric deposition of nutrient 26 27 3.6 Efforts to Lake Victoria Management 28 29 The three riparian countries of the lake Victoria recognized the problems of water quality in the 30 lake, the effects of weeds and the extinction of original fish species in the lake through the 31 governmental organization, NGO’s, and Government institutions responsible for the management 32 of the water bodies. The introduction of water hyacinths in the lake caused a threat to all riparian 33 countries of Lake Victoria and the world at large. Each country took initiatives to study the 34 behavior of the lake but more concentrated on the production of fish. Example the Government of 35 Tanzania through the National Environment Management Council, in 1994, they carried an 36 inventory of point sources pollution to the lake through out its catchment area. The exercise was 37 followed by proposing the methods for the reduction of pollution loading to the lake. However, 38 the implementations of the proposal failed due to the financial reasons. The same trends apply to 39 the other riparian states of the lake. The LVEMP was initiated in 1994 with signing a tri-partite 40 Agreement between Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. A comprehensive planning process by the 41 stakeholders resulted in the formulation of the project document for each country that was 42 subsequently combined into one project document. This in turn was subjected to the World Bank 43 staff appraisal report. IDA Board approval was given in June 1996. GEF grant funding was also 44 approved for the project amounting 50% of the external financing. The three riparian countries 45 were supposed to contribute 10% of the budget. 46


22

1 Phase one started in mid 1997, for five-year period to mid 2002. A mid review took place on 2 1999, which highlighted the slow pace of implementation and made some adjustment to the 3 scope and strategy of the project. Supplementary credit from IDA was approved for an additional 4 two year period for Tanzania and Uganda in order to complete phase one activities. In Kenya the 5 IDA financing was closed at the end of 2002, while an extension of the unused funds of the GEF 6 funding was granted up to the end of 2004. Phase one was seen as a prepatory phase for a long 7 term input (15-20years). Phase two has started with “visioning exercise” that was taking place in 8 all three countries. Phase two is expected to start in mid 2005. The LVEMP started in 1997 to 9 abate the problems states above and some of the achievements are as stated below. 10 11 1. The Lake Victoria Fishery Research Project, funded by the EU, completed an assessment 12

of the lake’s fish stock in 2002. The sustainable yield of the lake’s Nile perch was 13 estimated to be between 250,000 and 300,000 tones p.a., compared to the 500,000 tones 14 caught each year during the 1990s. In addition, juvenile fish were being harvested 15 because of the small mesh sizes employed by some commercial fishermen, a situation 16 likely to lead to a crash in the Nile perch fishery. It recommended that a slot size be 17 introduced at landing sites to make it uneconomic to catch juvenile Nile perch. Beach 18 management units have been set up at 13 sites around the lake to promote local 19 responsibility for managing the fish catch, and government staff has been trained in 20 management. The Beach Management Units (BMU) have been formed for allowing the 21 beneficiaries to participate in fisheries management. About 239 breeding sites have been 22 established in Kenya and Tanzania. Training for local fishers was conducted during the 23 implementation of the project. 24

25 2. Unlike most lakes around the world, the nutrient input to Lake Victoria is dominated by 26

the atmospheric pathway This is not surprising given the importance of this pathway to 27 the lake’s water balance. The LVEMP program has quantified the nutrient balance for the 28 lake based on monitoring data. Hecky (2003) reports that atmospheric deposition accounts 29 for 75% of P loading to the Tanzanian portion of the lake while municipal and industrial 30 sources account for only 6%. Atmospheric inputs of P (Tamatamah, 2002) and biological 31 fixation of atmospheric N (Mugidde et al., 2003) dominate the inputs of these nutrients to 32 Lake Victoria on a whole lake basis. In the gulfs and embayment where the major cities 33 are located, urban sources create high nutrient conditions, but these local sources are less 34 important to lake wide nutrient budgets accounting for <10% total inputs of N and P. 35 Thus, plans to upgrade sewage treatment plants and control agricultural sources of 36 nutrients may lead to improved water quality in local areas, including Winam Gulf, but 37 are unlikely to have much effect on the main part of the lake. During the first phase the 38 LVEMP have managed to take inventory of all industries in the catchment area and the 39 quantity of wastewater generated including the current method of wastewater treatments. 40 Nothing has been documented on the ways in which industries will reduce loading to the 41 lake. Part of industries in Tanzania and Uganda were under the cleaner production 42 technology exercise which was conducted by the LVEMP of which the management of 43 industries appreciated for cost reduction on production. Still yet no quantification data 44 available to how cleaner technology will reduce loading to the lake. No serious measures 45 have been taken to treat the effluents from the industries and municipalities. The project 46


23

has singled out that atmospheric deposition contribute at large to pollution loading to the 1 lake, however not suggestions have been given to how the source will be arrested. 2

3 3 Improving overall lake water quality will require long-term plans to reduce atmospheric 4

nutrient input. The source of these nutrients is not established – it may originate in poor 5 land management activities over a wide area outside the immediate catchment of the lake- 6 and there are no efforts underway to control it. The second phase of the LVEMP program 7 is currently being planned and this issue may be tackled in that program. Even if the 8 atmospheric and riverine phosphorus inputs were controlled, the internal nutrient store in 9 the lake sediments is probably now great enough to support continued algal blooms for 10 many years. However baseline information on realizing that atmospheric deposition is the 11 main cause of pollution loading to the lake will facilitate the attitude of the community to 12 manage the land. The riparian governments will have to make a policy regarding the land 13 use in the catchment area to avoid excessive deposition of pollutants from atmosphere. 14

15 4. There are localized “hot spots”, caused by disposal of human waste, urban runoff, effluent 16

discharges from industries near the towns (Hecky, 2003). Nutrients arising from these 17 activities contribute significantly to eutrophication of the local lake waters and 18 proliferation of water hyacinth infestation. However, these discharges are unlikely to 19 contribute significantly to the total nutrient input to the lake. Nutrients have been 20 accumulating in the lake sediments for decades. The contribution of these nutrients 21 (particularly P) to the nutrients in the water column that are accessed by phytoplankton is 22 not well understood. It could be that, even if the fresh influx of external nutrients is cut 23 off, these internal nutrient sources will continue to fuel algal growth in the lake for many 24 years. 25

26 5. Decades of extension work have made it clear that restoration of vegetation cover can 27

lead to substantial improvements in river water quality. More recently, soil conservation 28 activities have been demonstrated under the LVEMP program. However, these 29 techniques have yet to be adopted widely partly because of inadequate funding for 30 extension services and partly because of limited understanding of the in-lake 31 consequences of poor agricultural management. Fringing wetlands have been damaged 32 through agricultural activities and livestock keeping, diminishing their capacity to absorb 33 sediments, nutrients and pollutants before they enter the lake. 34

35 6. Under the LVEMP the inventory of mine waste and agricultural pesticides to the lake was 36

assessed and did not indicate any alarming sign to the aquatic life. This calls for the 37 formulation of policy and regulation that will prevent further use of toxic compounds in 38 the catchment area. 39

40 7 Water quality standards need to be harmonized within the lake Victoria riparian states 41

addressing the effluent quality from the wastewater treatment plants or showing to what 42 level industries and municipal wastewater to be treated. The efforts are on the way for the 43 three countries to have same effluent standards 44

8 Efforts on the reduction of weeds in the lake were done in all countries and 75% of the 45 weeds have been removed. 46


24

1 9 Community participation in the project was very high as is measured by the number of 2

BMU and other CBO being formed in the catchment area. 3 4 The achievements are more based on the inventory and research outcomes. The reduction of 5 pollution loading to the lake which is the main issue for abating the current situation is not yet 6 achieved to a required level of implementation. Currently the inventory obtained should be 7 directed to the methods and principles of ecological restoration of the lake and reduction of 8 pollutions originating from all sources identified by LVEMP. The methods applied for the 9 reduction of water hyacinths has not been shown to what extent it will be sustainable. More 10 efforts are needed for establishing the harmonized effluent standards for domestic and industrial 11 wastewaters, afforestation and restoration of the natural wetlands around the lakes and river 12 catchments. The riparian states should act more quickly to the suggestions and proposals made 13 by the scientists for the benefit of the life of the lake. Example the Lake Victoria Fish Policy made 14 by scientists for the three countries is just waiting for the approval from the three states, of which 15 it might take long than the time it took to make it. 16 17 4.0 Management Environment 18 19 4.1 Institutional Roles and Management Strategies 20 21 Previously there was no policy agreed between the three riparian countries for the overall 22 management of Lake Victoria. The national water resources, agriculture and livestock, and 23 forestry policies of all three riparian countries did not pay particular attention to the issues of lake 24 management or transboundary water resources management. Recently when the deterioration of 25 lake environment was alarming, the riparian countries started to work together for the restoration 26 of the lake environment through the formation of several transboundary institutions, Lake 27 Victoria Environmental Management Programme (LVEMP), Lake Victoria Fisheries Research 28 Project (LVFRP), Lake Victoria Fishery Organization (LVFO), Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) and 29 currently under the East African Community (EAC). The effective performance of the 30 transboundary institutions has been based on the financial assistance from the international 31 institutions such as World Bank, SIDA, DANIDA, UNDP, GEF and others. Each institution has 32 played its role on the management of lake Victoria environment base on the main and specific 33 objectives. Example the main objective of LVFRP and LVFO is based on the research and 34 management of fishery in lake Victoria, while LVEMP was aimed at restoration of the ecological 35 function of the lake. NBI is an international institution addressing issues of water resources 36 management for Nile basin shared by ten countries. Below is the summary of the role of each 37 institution on the management of lake Victoria environment. Besides the transboundary 38 institutions, legally known by the riparian governments, there are other non governmental 39 transboundary institutions which have contributed much on knowledge and understanding of the 40 lake environment. Example is OSIENAL (friends of the lake Victoria), which operate in the three 41 riparian countries. The contribution made by OSIENAL and other NGO’s in the project has been 42 high and forms the foundation of the success of the project. 43 44 The Lake Victoria Environment Management Programme (LVEMP) 45 46


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In response to the seriousness and the magnitude of the problems, the three riparian countries 1 sought funding from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) to address Lake Victoria’s 2 ecosystem health. LVEMP Phase I will be completed in 2004 and Phase II is currently in 3 preparation. The fundamental objective of the project is to restore the ecological health of the 4 lake basin so that it can sustainable support the anthropogenic activities in the catchment and in 5 the lake itself in a holistic regional approach to the management of an ecosystem (STAP, 2000) 6 Five objectives have been adopted: 7

• To maximize the sustainable benefits to the riparian communities from using resources 8 within the basin to generate food, employment and income 9

• Supply of safe and sustain a disease free environment 10 • Conserve biodiversity and genetic resources for the benefit of the riparian communities 11 • Harmonize national and regional management programme in order to achieve to the 12

maximum extent possible the reversal of environmental degradation 13 • To promote regional co-operation 14

The components in the LVEMP are detailed in Annex A. 15 16 Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization: 17 18 This is an institution of the East African Community that is specifically responsible for 19 promoting proper management and optimum utilization of the Fishery resources of the Lake 20 Victoria. The Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization is mandated to forge partnership and 21 collaboration with institutions and stakeholders, and consolidate the relationships with mutual 22 arrangements, through joint delivery of complementary programmes focused on the health of 23 Lake Victoria’s ecosystem for sustainable fisheries resource utilisation and socio-economic 24 development of the riparian communities. The establishment of the Lake Victoria Fisheries 25 Organization has been facilitated by the concerted efforts of the Republic of Kenya, the Republic 26 of Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the 27 United Nations (FAO), the European Union through the Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project 28 (LVFRP), and the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility (World Bank/GEF) through 29 funding of the Lake Victoria Environment Management Project (LVEMP). The Strategic Vision 30 document prepared describes the focus, intent and direction of the Lake Victoria Fisheries 31 Organization programmes through the year 2015. Embracing a holistic management view, a 32 healthy ecosystem approach has been adopted as the fundamental concept for Lake Victoria. 33 Therefore, the Strategic Vision document will be the guiding force for the Organization into the 34 next Millennium. The objectives of the LVFO is detailed in Annex B 35 36 The Lake Victoria FisheriesResearch Project (LVFRP): 37 38 During the 1990’s, the Governments of the Republics of Uganda and Kenya and the United 39 Republic of Tanzania requested the European Union’s assistance for a new fisheries project. Thus 40 the LVFRP was established in 1997. The principal aim of the Project was to assist the Lake 41 Victoria Fisheries Organization in establishing a framework for the rational management of Lake 42 Victoria’s fisheries. The specific objectives are to carry out stock assessment, to train fisheries 43 researchers, to rehabilitate and construct research vessels, to equip the research institutes and last 44 but not least to investigate socio-economic issues related to the Lake and its fisheries. The 45


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LVFRP has provided the Research Institutes with the support needed to carry out lake wide 1 research, covering both stock assessment and socio-economic studies. This includes operational 2 expenses and workshops for data analysis; seven PhD and 12 MSc scholarships; a wide range of 3 research equipment, books, computers and vehicles; and Technical Assistance. The successful 4 formula has been the fruitful collaboration achieved between the East African Fisheries Research 5 Institutes and a consortium from Europe, led by UNECIA Ltd, consisting of the Hull 6 International Fisheries Institute in the UK and the Institute of Marine Biology of Crete in Greece. 7 The LVFRP maintained a fleet of Research Vessels, which conducted surveys of the fish stocks 8 in Lake Victoria. A further three vessels participated in the research programme. These are the 9 “IBIS” in Uganda, the “UTAFITI” in Kenya and the “TAFIRI 2” in Tanzania. Traditionally, the 10 government has always regulated the fishery. The LVFRP has worked hard to try and understand 11 in what ways fishing communities can participate alongside the Government to improve the 12 regulation and control of the fishery. But what regulations are communities prepared to enforce? 13 What powers should they be given to enforce them, and can they be trusted to enforce them 14 effectively? Through LVFRP the stock of fish, fish speciation, market survey and the abundant 15 species in the lake was identified. 16 17 The East African Community EAC 18 19 The East African Community (EAC) organization represents Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. The 20 Lake Victoria Basin has enormous natural resource potential that has not been fully tapped. The 21 three Partner States of the East African Community have designated this Basin as an economic 22 growth zone that has to be exploited in a sustainable manner. The East African Community 23 (EAC) and the Governments of Sweden, France and Norway, the World Bank and the East 24 African Development Bank (EADB) have entered into a long term Partnership on the promotion 25 of sustainable development of the Lake Victoria Basin. This forum provides the main regional 26 forum for discussing management issues in Lake Victoria. Included in this agreement are the 27 need to take a multi-sectoral, regional approach to the lake’s management, the need for a long-28 term commitment, the need for a common understanding and vision that transcends sectoral and 29 national approaches, and the need for subsidiary in management. The Partnership will be guided 30 by visions and strategies developed as part of ongoing Programmes. The partnership was entered 31 into on the recognition that: the Lake Victoria Basin, with its abundance of natural resources; has 32 the potential of becoming a prosperous region; a majority of the people in the Basin live in abject 33 poverty, environmental degradation in the Basin is escalating; the potential of the Basin cannot 34 be sustainably developed unless problems related to environmental degradation; deepening 35 poverty and poor health standards are addressed in a broad and coordinated manner. Hence the 36 main objective of the EAC –Lake Victoria Basin are; To exploit the opportunities for 37 development in the Lake Victoria Basin in a sustainable manner and address the present problems 38 relating to economic and social development, poverty and environment; To identify and 39 investigate specific aspects of threats and obstacles to sustainable, economic, social and 40 environmental development, and their underlying causes and propose relevant interventions; To 41 assist in the formulation of policies to guide the various actors involved with activities relevant to 42 sustainable development in the region; To build capacity through the development and 43 strengthening of local institutions and organizations concerned with these issues; To promote co-44 ordination of the development efforts undertaken by various authorities, institutions and bodies 45 established within EAC with an interest in supporting the developments in the Lake Victoria 46


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Basin; To provide consultative fora and focal points for various actors with an interest in the 1 developments in the Basin; To broaden the co-operation between EAC, the EAC member states 2 and donor agencies; To identify investment opportunities and work to create a climate conducive 3 to investments; and to mobilize resources for the implementation of identified Programmes. This 4 project, to be completed in 2015 will lay the foundation for more coordinated approach to lake 5 management. 6 7 The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) 8 9 There are ten countries which make up the Nile River Basin. Namely, Burundi, Democratic 10 Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudani, Tanzania and Uganda. 11 Some of the countries have only a small part of their area within the basin, whilst others are 12 virtually entirely within the Basin. This is an initiative involving ten countries, which share the 13 Nile established for the purpose of achieving sustainable socio-economic development through 14 the equitable utilization of the common Nile basin resources. The countries seek to realize the 15 objective through a Strategic Action Programme, comprising basin-wide projects, as well as 16 through sub-basin joint investment projects. A number of these sub-basin projects are located in 17 the Lake Victoria Basin. The World Bank and a number of donors, including Norway and 18 Sweden, participate in the financing of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), and its sub-basin window, 19 Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program (NELSAP). The Nile Council of Ministers 20 (Nile-COM) serves as the highest decision-making body of the NBI. The Nile-COM is made up 21 by Ministers of water affairs of the Nile Basin Riparian Countries. Technical support to the Nile-22 COM is provided by the Nile Basin Initiative Technical Advisory Committee (Nile-TAC) and the 23 execution of its decisions is by the Nile Basin Initiative Secretariat (Nile-SEC.). 24 25 The objective of shared vision program (SVP) as stated by NBI is to "create a coordination 26 mechanism and an ‘enabling environment’ to realize their shared vision through action on the 27 ground." The preparation of the projects within the Shared Vision Program project portfolio was 28 driven by the institutions of the Nile Basin Initiative and involved the active participation of more 29 than 70 technical experts in a range of water-related sectors from across the Basin. The portfolio 30 of Shared Vision Program projects includes seven projects as listed below: Provide a strategic 31 framework for environmentally sustainable development of the Nile River Basin; Support basin-32 wide environmental action linked to transboundary issues in the context of the Nile Basin 33 Initiative strategic action program; Establish the institutional means to coordinate the 34 development of regional power markets among the Nile Basin countries; Provide a sound 35 conceptual and practical basis to increase the availability and efficient use of water for 36 agricultural production; Enhance analytical capacity for basin-wide perspective to support 37 development, management and protection of Nile Basin water resources in an equitable, optimal, 38 integrated and sustainable manner; Develop confidence in regional co-operation under the NBI 39 and ensure full stakeholder involvement in the NBI and its projects; Strengthen institutional 40 capacity in selected subject areas of water resources management in the public and private sectors 41 and community groups; Create or strengthen centers with the capacity to develop and deliver 42 programs on a continuing basis and strengthen Nile River basin-wide socio-economic 43 cooperation and integration. 44 45


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OSIENALA (friends of Lake Victoria) is a non-profit non governmental organization having 1 members from the three Lake Victoria riparian countries, and its focus is on building capacity of 2 the communities living around the lake in the sustainable environmental management of the lake 3 and its resources. It also strives to develop proper management structures that will strengthen 4 fishfolk associations and co-operative societies. OSIENALA also has studied the traditional 5 practices that enhance the conservation and management of natural resources around the lake 6 which covered the potential traditional practices from the tribes around the three countries. The 7 organisation has contributed knowledge and experiences on wetland management, fishery 8 management and land management for Lake Victoria environmental management. 9 10 Fisheries provide an opportunity for financial stability in the management of the Lake. A levy on 11 the commercial fishing industry would provide a steady source of income that could be used for 12 lake management. The LVEMP I project trailed a fish levy trust. While such a levy would be 13 likely to be accepted by the fishing industry for such activities as enforcement of regulations and 14 improvements to landing sites, it might require a communications program to explain the value to 15 the fishing industry from using the levy for other management activities such as control of water 16 hyacinth and eutrophication. 17 18 Other aspects of lake management are nationally based and uncoordinated. There are no agreed 19 baseline against which management actions can be judged, no common lake management 20 protocol, and no common water quality or discharge standards. The lack of transboundary water 21 quality standards makes it impossible to ensure that remedial actions undertaken by one 22 government will be effective and sustainable. Even a uniform set of data to describe the state of 23 water quality in the lake has not been assembled from the separate national data collection 24 efforts. Thus, there is no baseline from which to measure changes in the status of the lake’s 25 environment or from which coordinated management activities can be based. 26 27 In spite of this lack of formal cooperative water quality mechanisms, when water hyacinth spread 28 rapidly in the mid-1990s to threaten much of the lakeshore, the riparian countries communicated 29 well to contain the outbreak, even though different control mechanisms were trailed in each 30 country. The LVEMP program, which had an aquatic weed component, contributed to this effort. 31 The hyacinth is believed to have entered the lake via the Kagera river from Rwanda. Thus, 32 unless efforts to manage the weed within Rwanda, the lake will remain vulnerable to further 33 infestations. That is, water hyacinth control is an example where management efforts need to 34 extend beyond the three riparian countries. 35 36 Catchment management activities are also nationally based with little harmonization between 37 countries and, in some instances, between Ministries within the same country. Thus, while 38 Kenya and Uganda have comprehensive legislation covering environmental management, 39 Tanzanian environmental and resource legislation remains fragmented between the various 40 sectors. On the other hand Kenya has introduced extensive water resources reforms, starting with 41 the 1999 water policy, the 2002 Water Act and the draft water resources management strategy. 42 Tanzania is also introducing reforms with a new water policy that includes specific reference to 43 management of transboundary water resources such as Lake Victoria. In many cases the policies 44 and strategies of Ministries that affect water resources within each country are not coordinated. 45 Thus, in Kenya forest clearing activities have been undertaken in many of the critical headwater 46


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areas with little regard for the impacts on other sectors such as downstream agriculture and 1 fisheries. 2 3 4.2 Technical Capacities 4 5 There are good technical/scientific capabilities in fisheries management in all three countries, 6 partly as a result of the support provided from the LVEMP and LVFRP projects. All three 7 riparian countries have fisheries research institutions that have good analytic capabilities, 8 refurbished boats, and well-trained staff. Although these institutions are focused on fisheries 9 research, they also undertake relevant water quality research in the lake. 10 11 Apart from this R&D capacity, the three countries have invested in laboratories for quality 12 control of fish exports as part of their continued entry to the EU market. In addition, a strong 13 informal network has been established between the fisheries researchers that will provide a basis 14 for future cooperation on technical issues. These technical capabilities remain one of the 15 strengths for management in lake Victoria. However, the infrastructure for fisheries and water 16 quality research is expensive and the continuation of these capabilities remains dependent on 17 further external investments. 18 19 The technical/scientific capacity available for catchment management is less coordinated than is 20 the fisheries research. Universities in each of the countries provide the main technical capacity in 21 this area although the analytical capabilities are also available in the various government 22 ministries concerned with land and agricultural management. 23 24 The LVEMP and LVFRP have both resulted in much new knowledge about the functioning of 25 the lake. Important issues remain to be resolved – the full taxonomy of lake fishes, the sources of 26 the atmospheric nutrient loads, the extent of internal nutrient loading. However, the mass of 27 information from LVEMP has yet to be assembled into management-friendly and community-28 friendly packages that clearly convey the options available for other aspects of lake management. 29 Until that is done, the benefits from this major investment program will not be realized. 30 31 4.3 Community involvement 32 33 Community-level involvement in management is most advanced in the fisheries sector. As a 34 result of the LVFRP and LVEMP, beach management units (BMU) have been established in each 35 country to provide local ownership for enforcing fisheries rules to avoid over-exploitation of the 36 fish stock. Legislation is being prepared to support their activities in each country. Also fishing 37 communities have been successfully engaged in raising and releasing the beetles for water 38 hyacinth control. Both activities show the power of community-level initiatives when the 39 outcomes clearly directly affect the livelihoods of those communities. However, this level of 40 involvement has not been achieved with catchment communities to reduce the loads of sediment 41 and nutrients reaching the lake from surface sources. 42 43 The East African Communities Organisation for the Management of Lake Victoria (ECOVIC) is 44 the most prominent NGO in the lake Victoria region. It is primarily focused on poverty and 45 environmental issues. There are a very large number of CSOs and NGOs active in the region 46


30

although not necessarily involved directly in lake management issues. The draft vision 1 statement estimates that about 40 NGOs in the lake region are concerned with environmental 2 issues. There has been a high level of community involvement in the design of donor funded 3 activities, such as the LVEMP, LVFO and EAC Visioning exercises. However, it is less clear 4 whether these local groups are involved in the on-going management of these projects or other 5 national investments and there appears to be no development of a long-term mechanism for 6 community level involvement in lake basin management, after these transient donor supported 7 investments are completed. The proposed Lake Victoria Basin Commission would provide an 8 important vehicle for this input. 9 10 4.4 The Performance of the project 11 12 When LVEMP –in effect, three country projects with common objectives and similar 13 implementation structure was planned and design during the period 1994 – 1997 there was a 14 commendably high degree of stakeholders ownership of the planning process with draft project 15 documents being produced by each country. Training was made on Logical Framework Approach 16 even though was not used during the implementation of the project (LVEMP, 2003). In all 17 countries the overall project strategy seems to have placed the emphasis on data collection and 18 research rather than on key management issue of the lake. It has not yet clear how the qualitative 19 data collected will be used. In each country there was a defined implementation structure 20 comprising of the relevant ministries and institutions responsible for land, water, environment 21 and agriculture. NGO were also included in the implementation stages. The end of the term for 22 the LVEMP is in 2004. The evaluation or the stock taking on the performance on data collection 23 from the lake was done by the World Bank at regional and State level. The performance was 24 based on the findings obtained from the research and was targeting the components which were 25 supposed to be implemented. Table 7 gives the summary of the state and regional level of 26 stocktaking which was done in year 2003. 27 28

Table 11. Stocktaking rating of the performance of the project based on components 29 30 Key: MS = marginally satisfactory, S= satisfactory, HS = highly satisfactory, US = 31 unsatisfactory. The scores in the bracket are those indicated at regional stocktaking. 32 The main achievements in component one are based on establishment of beach management units 33 being reinforced with policy, fish levy has been initiated in Tanzania and Uganda but not yet in 34 Kenya, the project identified the breeding sites that will be protected by policy, training for fish 35 inspectors and quality control was done for all countries, establishment of LVFO and the project 36 made a manual for fish quality. During the project fish species have been identified, potential fish 37 farming have been established with construction of several ponds in the catchment area. Data on 38 industries contributing to pollution loading have been compiled. But of marginal implementation 39 of the wastewater. The stocktaking report gives more details on each specific component and 40 showing what has not yet done (LVEMP, 2003a, b, c, and d). 41 42 4.5 The distribution of the Budget 43 44 The completion date for Tanzania and Uganda was extended by two years to mid 2004. In Kenya, 45 the IDA funding was closed at the end of 2002, while GEF funding was allowed to continue to be 46


31

used until the end of 2004. According to the stocktaking report (LVEMP, 2003d), it was 1 impossible to make cost effectiveness analysis of the project, due to the lack of overall logframe 2 and the absence of the measurable outputs and activities that have individually budgeted. 3 However, it was commented that the project has produced significant number of achievements in 4 relation to the overall objectives. It has been observed that precise, systematized monitoring has 5 not been possible due to lack of a standard logframe for the project. The project contained seven 6 performance indicators and six project impact indicators. These indicators have been sometimes 7 misunderstood in the project reporting. Also the project did not have appropriate or common 8 reporting format of the reports and findings. This might be dangerous on keeping of data for 9 future use. Another noted performance activity is that, there was not common method used to 10 find data for the same project component except for component on fisheries and water hyacinth. 11 12 5.0 Lessons learned and Recommended Initiatives 13 14 5.1 Research and data collection should remain an element of the project with aim of creating 15

sustainable structures that will maintain the necessary levels of expertise. The research 16 and related capacity building activities, must have clear focus in relation to the 17 environmental management needs of the lake 18

5.2 The achievement obtained on the reduction of water hyacinths should be maintained by 19 making sure that the methods are well understood by all stakeholders. The stakeholders 20 should be willing to work on the reduction of the water hyacinths for the economic 21 benefits. 22

5.3 The riparian have the adequate national capacity to manage and implement big projects 23 like LVEMP using the existing Government structures; community involvement in 24 fisheries management has been found to be effective; It has been found that BMU’s have 25 the capacity to collect fisheries data and district council revenue. Collaboration with 26 NGO’s, CBO’s, and other stakeholders has strengthened fishery resources management 27 and increased public awareness among the stakeholders. 28

5.4 Community participation is a key to natural resources and environmental conservation 29 project. Conservation efforts must be tied to some immediate tangible benefits to the 30 community; It is cheaper to produce tree seedlings by the community compared to 31 seedling production from the government tree nurseries; Strengthening of local 32 community institutions empowers them to successful implement forestry activities within 33 the areas 34

5.5 Degraded rangelands/bare hills and annual crops are the major sources of runoff (water 35 and soils) and sediments, leading to nutrient loading and siltation of water bodies. They 36 should be targeted for mitigation of non-point pollution. 37

5.6 Integrated biological and physical control methods lead to enhanced control of water 38 hyacinths in the lake. Continuous monitoring and surveillance are required for sustainable 39 control. Reduction of pollution loading to the lake will also assist the control of 40 proliferation of aquatic weeds. 41

5.7 Pollution loads from the catchment, industrial and municipal sources are not crucial for 42 the lake as whole, but they give rise to serious eutrophication and pollution in the near 43 shore areas. 44

5.8 Organization of data collected and being documented and stored properly will help to 45 reduce the repetition on the research for creating data base. 46


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1 5.9 At present the management of the lake is fragmented between sectors and nations. Thus, 2

critical choices - whether to manage for biodiversity or commercial fish catch; how to 3 allocate fish catches between countries – are made by default or not at all. Deliberate 4 management to achieve development of the lake for the benefit of all will not happen until 5 there is an agreed vision, common goals, and accepted objectives, policies and national 6 and transboundary action plans. The first steps of this process are now underway. 7

8 5.10 Lake management policies and action plans need to be consistent with national activities. 9

Most of the actions to emerge from a lake-wide management policy will need to be 10 implemented by the riparian and catchment governments. Thus, the national water 11 resources, agricultural, forestry, poverty alleviation policies of all riparian and catchment 12 governments will need to include specific components that will lead to the required 13 actions called for in the lake management policy. In turn, the establishment of the lake 14 management policy will have to include consideration of the existing policies and 15 strategies of the riparian and catchment countries. 16

17 5.11 Where the problem is catchment-wide, it is essential that all countries in the catchment are 18

involved in management. Some of the management issues are essentially in-lake (such as 19 loss of biodiversity) and so can be managed by the three riparian nations that currently 20 constitute the EAC. Other issues, such as management of water hyacinth and sediment 21 control, are unlikely to be properly managed without the active involvement of all nations 22 in the watershed. Consequently, it is important that Rwanda (and to a lesser extent 23 Burundi) work actively with the EAC in managing the lake and its watershed, whether or 24 not they actually join the EAC. 25

26 5.12 In the absence of strong external motivations, it is important to build strong logical case 27

for government action. The advances in lake-wide fisheries management occurred 28 because of the shock that all riparian countries felt when earnings from a major export 29 commodity were threatened. However, the riparian countries have not felt the same level 30 of pressure to resolve the other major problems facing the Lake – loss of biodiversity, 31 infestation by aquatic weeds, and eutrophication – and so have been slower to act. 32 Nevertheless, the inclusion of joint lake management in the program of the EAC, and the 33 subsequent development of a common vision for the lake, are very positive steps. Given 34 that the other issues are not likely to catch the governments’ attention because of the 35 threat of economic losses, it is important that a credible scientific and social case be 36 developed for to ensure that the EAC initiatives are properly mandated, funded and 37 supported from the highest political levels. 38

39 5.13 Communities have to be involved in all aspects of management. There is heartening 40

success stories where communities have been involved in on-ground activities that affect 41 their livelihoods. However, there are issues such as nutrient reduction where the problem 42 originates from diffuse sources that are impossible to tackle other than through 43 community engagement. So far there has not been the same level of success with 44 community involvement in these areas. As part of this action, community-level 45 representation will be needed on the ongoing management body for the lake. 46


33

1 5.14 R&D should be designed around management objectives. There is now a good 2

knowledge base for Lake Victoria. However, the programs to gather this information 3 have not been carefully focused on the management objectives, largely because these 4 have not been properly established (see above). Consequently, some of the R&D 5 activities have not been of direct relevance and, more importantly, some management-6 critical knowledge has yet to be acquired. A related issue is the packaging of the 7 knowledge gained in a management and community friendly way. Unless the R&D 8 findings are simplified and carefully related to the management objectives, their relevance 9 will escape senior decision-makers without scientific training. 10

11 5.15 There are numerous other donor projects operating on the lake. Duplication of activities is 12

inevitable but needs to be managed. It is often difficulty to separate the outputs from 13 different projects. 14

15 5.16 The management of the data collected during the project appear to be possed by 16

individuals rather than by the project. 17 18 5.17 LVEMP activities have at large extent been focusing on collection of baseline data as a 19

reference point for future activities. In some cases the work is very research oriented and 20 little attempt has been made to translate the information into management actions to meet 21 the objective of poverty alleviation. 22

23 5.18 Ownership by the three riparian countries appear to be good, with the component 24

activities of water hyacinths, strongly rooted in existing state agencies, local NGO’s and 25 communities. There is a good cooperation between national water hyacinths component at 26 regional level, which should be further be strengthened via EAC in future work in aquatic 27 plant management within the basin. 28

29 5.19 Community involvement in tackling the water hyacinths problem has been an important 30

part of the successful outcome. To maintain or revive peoples interest in maintaining 31 weevil production centres, there is a clear need for continuing investment in education 32 and sensitization programme, and maintenance of community based weed control 33 facilities. 34

35 5.20 There are notable achievements related to consultation with stakeholders, the involvement 36

of the communities in the management of fish landing sites, afforestation scheme, and in 37 promotion of micro-projects. 38

39 The second phase of the LVEMP project is now under preparation. The second phase of the 40 LVFRP is in place. The latter program will continue to support efforts to manage the fisheries 41 resources of the lake while the LVEMP II project will coordinate with these activities and tackle 42 other management issues. Given the above analysis, the LVEMP II project can now cease to be 43 primarily a knowledge acquisition project and move towards supporting management of 44 biodiversity, water weeds and eutrophication. Thus, LVEMP II could be directed towards such 45 activities as protecting endangered fish species in satellite lakes, supporting the EAC 46


34

management initiatives by building capacity in transboundary environmental management, 1 supporting joint Rwandan-EAC activities to control aquatic weeds in the Kagera River, and 2 reducing eutrophication by tackling the sources of nutrients once these have been identified. 3 However, it should also include a focused, priority R&D component aimed at resolving some of 4 the major management questions such as the sources of the atmospheric phosphorus entering the 5 lake, the potential for sediment nutrients to continue to contribute to eutrophication even after 6 external sources are controlled, the presence of cyanobacterial toxins in the lake, and 7 opportunities to protect fish biodiversity in surrounding lakes and wetlands. 8 9 The EAC, identified by the riparian countries to manage the lake, is the obvious organization to 10 oversee further transboundary lake management programs. The LVFO has already been 11 transferred to the EAC. It would be reasonable for the LVEMP II project to also be executed by 12 the EAC to ensure coordination and focus. The NBI projects span a much larger area than just 13 the catchment of Lake Victoria. Nevertheless, the implementation program of the NELSAP 14 program should also be closely coordinated with EAC to ensure that its activities contribute 15 effectively towards the agreed vision for managing the lake. 16 17

18


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6.0 References 1 2 Aloyce, R.C., Ndunguru, J., Mjema, P. and Katagira, F (2001). Water hyacinth (Eichornia 3

crassipes) management in lake victoria: Uptodate on infestation levels. Paper presented at 4 Regional Scientific Conference, held at Kisume Kenya 5

Balirwa, J., Witte, F., Welcomme, R. L., Chapman, L. and McConnell, R.H. (2001). The 6 Role of Conservation in Biodiversity and Fisheries Sustainability, Paper presented at 7 LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 8

Balirwa, J. S.(2001) From vegetation to fish: structural aspects and related components of 9 lakeshore wetlands in Lake Victoria, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, 10 Kenya 11

Campbell, L.M., Hecky, R.E. and Dixon, D.G. (2003) Review of mecurry in Lake Victoria 12 (East Africa): Implication of human and Ecosystem health , Journal of toxicology and 13 environmental health , Part B; 6:325 – 356. 14

Chandler, M. and 2R.Ogutu-Ohwayo (2001) The distribution of fish communities along a 15 littoral gradient of dissolved oxygen, water clarity and distance from aquatic vegetation 16 and its implications on Nile perch predation, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, 17 Kisumu, Kenya 18

Cowi, (2002). Integrated Water Quality/ Limnology Study for Lake Victoria. Lake Victoria 19 Environmental Management Project, Part II Technical Report. 20

Deny, P. (1991). Africa. In Finlayson, M., and Moser, M., eds. Wetlands, International 21 Waterfowl and Wetland Research Bureau. Pg. 115-148 22

EAC. (2000). The Treaty for the establishment of the East African Community. EAC/GTZ 23 Publication. 111p. 24 EAC. (2001). An Assessment of the economic potential and constraintsnof developing Lake 25

Victoria as economic zone. Aconsultancy report by Coda Management Associates. 179p. 26 27 Fuerst, P. A. and Mwanja, W. A. (2001) The opportunities and challenges to conservation of 28

genetic biodiversity of the fishery of the Lake Victoria region, East Africa, Paper 29 presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 30

Gichuki, N., (2003). Lake Victoria Research (Vicres) initiative. Wetland research in the lake 31 Victoreia Basin, Kenya Part analysis and synthesis, SIDA-SAREC, 56pp. 32

Howard, G.W. and S.W. Matindi, (1998). Water hyacinth, Nile perch and pollution: Issues for 33 ecosystem management in lake Victoria. IUCN Proc. Workshop Prosp. Sust. Mngmt. L. 34 Victoria, Mwanza, Tanzania, 87pp 35

Harley, K.L.S. (1991). Floating Aquatic Weeds; What are they? Where are they? How should 36 we manage them? In Control of Africa’s Floating Water Weeds, Zimbabwe, 37 Commonwealth Science Council, pg 111-124 38

Hecky, R.E., Mugidde, R.and Twong, T. (2001). Ecosystem change in Lake Victoria, Paper 39 presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 40

Henry, L. and Kishimba, M. A. (2002). Levels of pesticides residues in southern Lake Victoria 41 and its basin, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 42

Hecky, R.E., Mugidde, R., Bugenyi F.W.B. and Wang, X. (2002) Phosphorus in Lake Victoria 43 waters and sediments: sources, loadings, sinks and anthropogenic mobilization, Paper 44 presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 45


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Hecky, R.E. (2003) Science and the Lake Victoria Environment Management Program 1 (LVEMP); Progress during LVEMP 1 and Challenges for the Future. Draft Stocktaking 2 report to World Bank. 3

http://www.lvemp.org/L_About%20L.Vic/about_lake_victoria.htm#Economic%20Importance 4 http://www.inweh.unu.edu/lvfo/statistical%20databases.htm 5 http://www.inweh.unu.edu/lvfo/images/soils.gif 6 http://www.inweh.unu.edu/lvfo/convention.pdf 7 http://edcintl.cr.usgs.gov/lakevictoria.html 8 http://edcintl.cr.usgs.gov/waterhyacinth.html 9 Katunzi, E.F.B., Wanink,2J.H. and Witte, F. (2001) Recent developments in the 10

zooplanktivorous fish community in Lake Victoria and their effects on the sustainable 11 exploitation of Rastrineobola argentea, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, 12 Kenya 13

Kishe, M A and Machiwa, F.J. (2001). Distribution of heavy metals in sediments of Mwanza 14 Gulf of Lake Victoria, Tanzania. Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, 15 Kenya. Campbell et al (2003), Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 16

Kenyanya, M. M. (2002) Observations on the limnology of Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria in 17 relation to fisheries, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 18

LVEMP. (2003 a). Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase 1, Draft , Tanzania 19 Stocktaking Report, World Bank 20

LVEMP. (2003b). Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase 1, Draft , Kenya 21 Stocktaking Report, World Bank 22

LVEMP. (2003c). Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase 1, Draft , Uganda 23 Stocktaking Report, World Bank 24

LVEMP. (2003d) Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase 1, Regional 25 Stocktaking World Bank 26

LVEMP. (2003). Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase 1, Rised Draft 27 Scientific Stocking Report- Progress During LVEMP1 and Challenges for the Future, 28 World Bank 29

LVEMP. (2002). Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase, Water Quality and 30 Ecosystem Management Component, Preliminary Findings of Studies Conducted on Lake 31 Victoria 32

LVEMP. (2001). Study on toxic chemicals/oil products spill contingency plan for Lake Victoria 33 RFP#LVEMP/RCON/003 Volume V of the Toxic Chemical/ Oil Products Spill 34 Contingency Plan “Waste Water Report (2001) 35

LVFO. (200): The results of the first regional fisheries frame survey on Lake Victoria . Lake 36 Victoria Fisheries Organization Publication. Jinja, Uganda. 37

Mott Mac Donald, M &E Associates (2001) Management of industrial and municipal effluents 38 and Urban Run off in the Lake Victoria Basin, Final Report; Government of Uganda, 39 Ministry of Water, Land and Environment, LVEMP, National Water and Sewerage 40 Corporation, Cambridge UK. 41

Masifwa,et al., (2001). The impact of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) Solms on the 42 abundance and divesrity of aquatic macreoinvertebrates along the shores of northern lake 43 Victoria, Uganda. Hydrobiologia, 452: 79 - 88. 44

Maillu, A.M., Ochiel.G.R.S.,Gitonga, W. and Njoka, S.W. (1998). Water Hyacinth: An 45 Environmental Disaster in the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria and Its Control, In First 46


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IOBC Global Working Group Meeting for the Biological Control and Intergrated Control 1 of Water Hyacinth. 2

Majaliwa, J.G.M., Magunda, M.K., Tenya, M.M. and Musitwa, F. (2001). Soils and nutrient 3 losses from major agricultural land use practice in the lake Victoria basin. Paper 4 presented at Regional Scientific Conference, held at Kisume Kenya 5

Mallya, G., Mjema, P. and Ndunguru, J. (2001). Water Hyacinth Control Through Intergrated 6 Weed Management Strategies in Tanzania, ACIAR Proceedings, Biological and 7 Intergrated Control of Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes. Pg 120 8

Mathenge, C. (2003). Securing Local Livehoods in the Lake Victoria Region: An altenative 9 Approach to Water Hyacith Problem, African Centre for Technology Studies 10

Mitchell, D.S. (1990). Aquatic Weed Problems and Management in Africa. In Pieterse, A.H. and 11 Murphy, K. eds. Aquatic Weed: The Ecology and Management of Nuisance Aquatic 12 Vegetation: Oxford, England, Oxford University Press. 13

Mugidde, R., Hecky, R.E. and Hendzel, L. (2001) Importance of planktonic nitrogen fixation 14 in Lake Victoria, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 15

Mugidde, R. (1993) The increase in phytoplankton primary productivity and biomass in Lake 16 Victoria (Uganda) Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 25: 846 – 849 17

Mugidde, R. (2001) Nutrient Status and planktonic nitrogen fixation in Lake Victoria, Africa. 18 PhD thesis. University of Waterloo, Canada, 199pp 19

Mugidde, R., Hecky, R.E. and Hendzel, L. (2003). Pelagic Nitrogen fixation in Lake Victoria, 20 Uganda. Journal of Great Lakes Research . In Press 21

Mwanja, W. W., Kaufman, L. and Fuerst, P. A. (2001) A case for reintroduction and 22 restoration of cichlid fishes in Lake Victoria region waters: a means towards management 23 and conservation of rare and endangered cichlid species. Paper presented at LVEMP 24 conference, Kisumu, Kenya 25

Ndunguru, J., Mjema.P., Rajabu, C.A. and Katagira, F. (2001). Water hyacinth infestation in 26 ponds and satellate lakes in the lake Victoria basin in Tanzania: Status and efforts to tame 27 it. Paper presented at Regional Scientific Conference Held at Kisumu, Kenya 28

Ntiba, M.J. (2000) Micro-invertebrate fauna of Water Hyacinthe in the Kenya waters of Lake 29 Victoria. Inter. J. Ecol. & Environ. Sci 26.281-302 30

Njuru, P. 2001. Concentrations of TP in the Gulf are markedly greater (up to 600 µg/l) than in 31 the open lake (typically 80 µg/l). Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 32

Njiru, M. Ntiba, M., Tweddle, 2D. and Mavuti, K.M. (2001) Phytoplankton diversity and the 33 feeding behavior of Oreochromis niloticus (L) in Lake Victoria. Paper presented at 34 LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 35

Njiru. M., Othina. A., Tweddle. D. and Cowx. I. G. (2001) Lake Victoria invasion by water 36 hyacinth a blessing for Lake Victoria fisheries, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, 37 Kisumu, Kenya 38

Ogari, J. (2001) Impact of exotic fish species and invasive water weeds such as the water 39 hyacinth on Lake Victoria fisheries, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, 40 Kenya 41

Obiero Ong’ang’a (2003). The water hyacith and wetlands management in lake Victoria 42 Ochiel,G.R.S and 2N.W. Wawire (2001) The impact of water hyacinth, an invasive weed 43

species in the Winam gulf, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 44 Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. (2003). The Fisheries of Lake Victoria; Harvesting Biomass at the expense 45

of Biodiversity. 46


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Okonga, J.R. (2001). A Review of Estimation of Rainfall and Evaporation over Lake Victoria. 1 Paper delivered at LVEMP Conference, Kisumu, Kenya. Directorate of Water 2 Development, Water Resources Management Department, Entebbe. 3

Okungu, J. and Opango, P. (2001) Pollution loads into Lake Victoria from Kenyan catchment. 4 Paper presented at Regional Scientific Conference Held at Kisumu, Kenya 5

Ogaran & Kalema (1995) Task number 15, Critical sources of industrial and municipal 6 pollution and investment proposal final report 7

Pieterse, A.H. (1990). Introduction, In Pieterse, A. H. and Murphy, K. eds. Aquatic Weeds: The 8 Ecological and Management of Nuisance Aquatic Vegetation: Oxford, England, Oxford 9 University Press. Pg 1-16. 10

Reytheon, T.A., Moorhouse, T. and MaNabb, T. (2002). The abundance and Distribution of 11 Water Hyacinth in Lake Victoria and Kagera River Basin, 1989 – 2001. Report 12

Regional Task Force (2003) The Vision and Strategy Framework for Management of Lake 13 Victoria Basin. Overview of the Report Presented at the Regional Concept Workshop on 14 Lake Victoria Environmental Project 8th – 10th September, Arusha, Tanzania 15

Sontongo (1998) Assessment of pollution to Lake Victoria by Industrial and Municipal Activities 16 around Lake Victoria in Uganda 17

Scheren (1995) A systematic approach to Lake Water Pollution Assessment – water pollution in 18 Lake Victoria 19

Scheren, P. A.G.M. 1, Mirambo, V. 2, Lemmens,3A. M.C., Katima, J. H.Y. 2, Jansse, F.J.J.G. 20 (2001). Assessment of pollution sources and socio-economic circumstances related to the 21 eutrophication of Lake Victoria. Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 22

Shutes, R.B.E. (2001). Artificial wetlands and water quality improvement. Environ. Int. 26: 441 23 - 447. 24

Satff Appraisal Report (1996). Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project, Washington 25 DC: World Bank. 26

Swallow B. M., Walsh, M., Mugo, F., Chin Ong., Shepherd K., Place, F., Awiti A., Hai, M., 27 Ombalo, D., Ochieng O., Mwarasomba, L., Muhia N., Nyantika, D., Cohen, M., 28 Mungai, D., Wangila, J., Mbote, F., Kiara, J. and Eriksson, A.(2001). Improved land 29 management in the Lake Victoria basin:Annual Technical Report July 2000 to June 2001, 30 International Centre for Research in Agroforestry 31

Tamatamah, R.A. (2002). Non point source loading of phosphorous to lake Victoria from the 32 atmosphere and rural catchments in Tanzania. East Africa. PhD. Thesis. University of 33 Waterloo. Canada 200pp 34

Talling J. F. and Talling, I.B. (1965) The Chemical Composition of African Lake Waters. Int. 35 Revue ges . Hydrobiol. 50 : 1-32 36

Talling J. F. (1966). The annual cycles of stratification and phytoplankton growth in Lake 37 Victoria (East Africa). Int. Revue ges . Hydrobiol. 51 : 545-621 38

Tole, M. P. and Shitsama, J. M. (2001) Concentrations of heavy metals in water, fish, and 39 sediments of the Winam gulf, Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 40

Twongo T. and O.K. Ondongkara (2001) Invasive water weeds in Lake Victoria basin: 41 proliferation, impacts and control. Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, 42 Kenya 43

Winkler, M. G (2001). Research, training and capacity building: international co-operation and 44 co-ordination to maximize benefits – freshwater ecology and aquatic resource 45 management a case example. Paper presented at LVEMP conference, Kisumu, Kenya 46


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Witte, F., Msuku, B.S., Wanink, J.H., Seehausen, O., Katunzi, E.F.B., Goudswaard, P.C. 1 and Go;dsschmidt (2000). Recovery of cichlid species in Lake Victoria. An examination 2 leading to differential extinction. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 10: 133 - 241 3

World Bank (1996) Staff Appraisal report for the LVEMP 4 5


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1 Annex A 2

3 The Lake Victoria Environment Management Programme (LVEMP) 4

5 In response to the seriousness and the magnitude of the problems, the three riparian countries sought funding from 6 the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) to address Lake Victoria’s ecosystem health. LVEMP Phase I will be 7 completed in 2004 and Phase II is currently in preparation. The fundamental objective of the project is to restore the 8 ecological health of the lake basin so that it can sustainable support the anthropogenic activities in the catchment and 9 in the lake itself in a holistic regional approach to the management of an ecosystem (STAP, 2000) 10 Five objectives have been adopted: 11

1. To maximise the sustainable benefits to the riparian communities from using resources within the basin to 12 generate food, employment and income 13

2. Supply of safe and sustain a disease free environment 14 3. Conserve biodiversity and genetic resources for the benefit of the riparian communities 15 4. Harmonize national and regional management programmes in order to achieve to the maximum extent 16

possible the reversal of environmental degradation 17 5. To promote regional co-operation 18

19 The project has eleven components: 20

1. Catchment Afforestation Component aims at increasing forest cover through tree planting and preventing 21 soil erosion as well as conservation of natural forests. 22

2. Land use Management Component emphasizes soil and water conservation and appropriate use of 23 agrochemicals to reduce pollution loading and improve agricultural production. 24

3. Wetlands Management Component emphasizes sustainable use of wetlands in order to conserve them as 25 well as improve their buffering capacity. 26

4. Industrial and Municipal Waste Management Component emphasizes wastewater management by industries 27 as well as use of artificial or natural wastewater treatment. 28

5. Water Quality Monitoring Component focuses on the establishment of water quality monitoring system in 29 order to provide qualitative and quantitative information on nutrient, eutrophication and pollution, 30 phytoplankton communities and their composition; algal blooms and their dynamics; lake zooplankton, 31 microbes etc. Also it is focusing on harmonizing the effluent standards to be adopted by the riparian 32 countries. 33

6. Water Hyacinth Control and Management Component focuses on the control of the weed by reducing the 34 weed to manageable levels using a combination of biological and mechanical/manual removal methods. 35

7. Fisheries Management Component focuses on the establishment of a sustainable collaborative management 36 of the fisheries through stakeholder involvement. The component also puts emphasis on extension services, 37 law enforcement, data collection, fish quality control, post harvest improvement and establishment of Fish 38 Levy Trust to ensure sustainability. It also finances community demand driven micro-projects to enhance 39 the welfare of the community. 40

8. Fisheries Research Component generates information on fish biology and ecology, stock sizes, qualitative 41 and quantitative information on aquatic biodiversity, socio-economic characteristics of the fishery and 42 restoration of scarce or depleted species. 43

9. Micro-projects are small community demand-driven investments, which address concerns directly related to 44 communities in the sectors of health, water supply, education, sanitation, access roads, afforestation and 45 fisheries. It should be mentioned here that while Micro-projects constitute a full Component in Tanzania, 46 they are treated as Sub-Components under the Fisheries Management Component in Kenya and Uganda. 47

10. Support to Riparian Universities Component aims at building capacity and strengthening facilities for 48 environmental analysis and graduate teaching at the riparian Universities of Dar es Salaam, Moi and 49 Makerere. 50

11. Establishment of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO) Secretariat – aimed at establishing the 51 Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) Secretariat in Jinja, Uganda. It was treated as a component 52 under LVEMP in Uganda. 53

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Annex B 1 2

Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization 3 4 Between 1991 and 1995 three seminars were held in the region under the auspices of the FAO-CIFA Sub-Committee 5 on Lake Victoria to discuss management issues, options and strategies for each of the riparian States. These 6 seminars led to the creation of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Commission and later the establishment of the Lake 7 Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) in a conference of plenipotentiaries on 30th June 1994 in Kisumu, Kenya. 8 The establishment of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization has been facilitated by the concerted efforts of the 9 Republic of Kenya, the Republic of Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania, the Food and Agriculture 10 Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), the European Union through the Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project 11 (LVFRP), and the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility (World Bank/GEF) through funding of the Lake 12 Victoria Environment Management Project (LVEMP). Appropriate linkages and partnerships will be established 13 with institutions and stakeholders. The Strategic Vision document describes the focus, intent and direction of the 14 Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization programmes through the year 2015. Embracing a holistic management view, a 15 healthy ecosystem approach has been adopted as the fundamental concept for Lake Victoria. The document 16 describes what the Organization desires as a future state for Lake Victoria. Therefore, the Strategic Vision will be 17 the guiding force for the Organization into the next Millennium. The following information (15-22) is as in the 18 LVFO Convention. 19 20 Objectives 21 The objectives of the LVFO as stipulated in the Convention are to: 22

1. Foster co-operation among the Contracting Parties, 23 2. Harmonise national measures for the sustainable utilisation of the living resources of the lake, and 24 3. Develop and adopt conservation and management measures to assure the Lake’s ecosystem health and 25

sustainability of the living resources. 26 27 Function and Responsibility 28 To achieve the above objectives, the LVFO has the function and responsibility to: 29

1. Promote the proper management and optimum utilisation of the fisheries resources of the lake, 30 2. Enhance capacity building of existing institutions and develop additional institutions dedicated to, or likely 31

to contribute to, the purposes of the Convention in co-operation with existing institutions established in or 32 by the Contracting Parties and with such international, regional or non-governmental organizations as may 33 be appropriate; 34

3. Provide a forum for discussion(s) of the impacts of initiatives dealing with the environmental and water 35 quality in the Lake basin and maintain a strong liaison with the existing bodies and programmes; 36

4. Provide for the conduct of research concerning the waters of Lake Victoria, including without limitation the 37 quality of such waters, in particular with respect to supporting the living resources of the Lake and the 38 nature, extent and pathways of its pollution and other forms of environmental degradation; 39

5. Encourage, recommend, co-ordinate and, as appropriate, undertake training and extension activities in all 40 aspects of fisheries; 41

6. Consider and advise on the effects of the direct or indirect introduction of non-indigenous aquatic animals 42 or plants into the waters of Lake Victoria or its tributaries and to adopt measures regarding introduction, 43 monitoring, control or elimination of any such animals or plants. 44

7. Serve as a clearing-house and data bank for information on Lake Victoria fisheries and promote the 45 dissemination of information without prejudice to industrial property rights, by any appropriate form of 46 publication; 47

8. In respect of any or all of the foregoing, adopt budgets, seek funding, formulate plans for financial 48 management and allocate funds to activities of the Organization, or to such activities of the Contracting 49 Parties as it may determine to be in furtherance of the purpose of the Organization’s Convention; and 50

9. Undertake such other functions as it may determine to be necessary or desirable to achieve the purpose of 51 this convention. 52

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