1

Alastair McGrath, Heresy: A History of Defending Truth

Introduction = our love affair with heresy

“For many religiously alienated individuals, heresies are now to be seen as bold + brave statements of spiritual freedom to be valued rather than avoided”

- Stereotypes about how heresies lost- Necessary corrections for past injustices- Suppressed versions more attuned to contemporary culture- “lure of heresy” (Peter Gay)

o Modern art as effort to offend tradition- Heresy as radical + innovative- Heretical minds as original- Atheism as disillusionment + disenchantment- “deep seated postmodern suspicion of corrupting influence of power

permeated… contemporary discussions of heresy” (2)o Walter Bauer (1877-1960)o Heresy = suppressed orthodoxyo Orthodox = ideas that wono Heresy = ideas that lost

- Orthodoxy as securing religious power of Christian church in Roman Empire

o Dan Brown + Sir Leigh Teabingo Jesus never thought divine by early Christianso Divinity of Christ as fabrication + ployo Divinity of Christ as fabrication of power + orthodoxyo (historical picture much more complex)

- Heresy as theological victim- Heresy’s new appeal

o Associations with lure of secret knowledge transgressing sacred boundaries, eat forbidden fruit

o Transgression = challenge power + bring freedomo Choice as defining characteristic of human existence

- 12th century rise of heresy- “yet modern period has seen both rise of religious diversity in West and

erosion of church’s legal capacity to enforce uniformity”- Heretical Imperative (1979) Peter Berger

o Traditional primitive cultures

2

o Foundation, legitimizing myth or assumptionso “We are free to pick, choose, mix = essence of heresy”

- “heresy = being master of our own universe, choosing ways things are or would like to be”

- Greatest appeal = challenge to authorityo Heresy as subversion of authoritarianismo Yet heresies at least as authoritarian

- “Significance of heresy, not inherent but rather constructed within relationship between original heresy + contemporary interpreter” (9)

o Suspicion transferred to biblical foundationso Hoopla over Gospel of Judas

Secret dialogues between Jesus + Judas Very Gnostic

o Actually Gnosticism was preserving old ideas (see NT Wright)o The NT is truly radical

- Emerging picture = heresy is not malignant attach on Orthodoxy nor principled alternative that was suppressed

- What is heresy?o Form of Christian belief that subverts (more by accident) destabilizes

destroys core of Christian faitho A way of making sense of part of Christian faith later discovered to

have potential damageo (analogy = trying to preserve Parthenon with iron rods)

- All attempts to put realities of God into human words fall short, some more reliable and trustworthy

- Orthodox + heresy-heterodox mark extremes of theological spectrum- In between a range from adequate to questionable- Heresy lies in “shadow lands of faith”- Failed attempt at Orthodoxy whose intentions likely honorable but outcomes

discovered to be as corrosive as Balainos’s iron clamps- Broader use of “heresy”- Secular = potentially dangerous ideas that pose a threat to dominant

orthodoxies- Beyond realm of ideas

o Transposed to social, politicalo Enforcing ideas by force, suppress liberty, violate rightso Who decides? What is definitive or dangerous?o How are these decisions made?

3

What is heresy? Faith, creeds, Christian gospel

- “if there is a heart beat of Christian faith it is sheer delight + excitement caused by person of Jesus of Nazareth”

- In their creeds, even more in worship + adoration- Worship sustains an incandescence of enthusiasm for Jesus Christ that

nourishes the theological task while at same time calling into question capacity to live up to the brilliance of the ultimate object” (17)

- Imagination… yet remains an intellectual core- “Will to Believe” by William James (1842-1910)

o We all need hypotheses to make senseo Importance of “working hypotheses”o “nice to hear a tune (not noise)”

- Christianity not just ideas but experienceo Leads to theological formulationso Secondary to experience

- Stanley Hauerwas -> treating Christianity as collection of statements distorts its character

o Distinctive way of life made possibly by Holy Spirito We need framework to see world of behavioro By extended reflection on Christian narrativeo (to see things as they truly are)o So Christian faith as way of seeing the worldo Reflects + crates cohesion

- Sees world as God’s creationo “transformed by renewing of minds”o Mind is illumined, energized through faitho World as transignifiedo Faith… -> see things in a Christian wayo We see same thing as secular -> but different

Nature of faith = trust in God- Leads to commitment- Belief = believe God can be trusted- Faith in Christ = recognize Christ as one can be trusted- Hence Gospels address why Jesus can be trusted- Disciples understand more about Jesus over time

4

- Later supplemented by beliefs concerning identityo ~ doctrinal statements

- So faith <-> beliefo (relationally) <-> (conceptually)o Belief attempts to express substance of that faith

- Early Christian statements were short, terseo Historical narrative woven with interpretationo Christians also believe certain thingso “Christians don’t just believe in Jesus, they believe certain things

about him”o 2nd century importance of sustaining a secure doctrinal core for

maintaining Christian identity + coherence (23)- Consolidation of faith

o Consolidation of its beliefs was early challengeo Rise of controversy forced increased precisiono Earlier formulations seen as not good enougho Creation from chaos -> out of nothingo Church already knew what was important about Jesus (incarnation)o Problem was constructing a framework that did justiceo Distortion of early simplicity? *no*o Charles Gore: later formulations gradually unfold ideas and themes

already presento Need to challenge existing understandings of faith to ensure they

adequately accommodate the mystery of faith- “Fundamental claim of Christian orthodoxy to tell truth about things can’t be

maintained without asking whether the truth is being fully + properly articulated through existing doctrinal formulations” (27)

Preserving the mysteries of faith

- Doctrinal development not winners-losers but a quest for authenticity- Process produced creeds -> consensus of the faithful- Earlier not always better- Mistakes were made + later corrected- From beginning Christians knew what mattered about God + Jesus

o Difficulty = theoretical framework to make sense of thiso Intellectual scaffolding not entirely through divine revelation

5

o (dominant theme = church knew things, problem was how to make sense of them)

- Council of Nicaea safeguarded what Christians already knew to be trueo Doctrine preserves central mysteries and allows them to be explained

and exploredo Mystery = something too vast to be grasped by human mind

Theology always proves inadequate to do justice Gospel cannot be reduced to words or ideas (Andrew Louth)

o Doctrinal formulation set out NT statements in a new form for protective purposes

o When a doctrine doesn’t protect but undermined?o “A heresy is a doctrine that ultimately destroys, destabilizes, distorts a

mystery rather than preserving it” Heresy’s fault is unwillingness to admit failure

o Statements originally meant to defend + preserve later discovered to weaken and corrupt)

Heresy as contaminant, pollutes + defiles Walls + fences protect community identity Group identity maintained by excluding those who threaten its

ideas or values

Origin of idea of heresy

- Concepts die when (1) cease to correspond to perceived needs or realityo (2) or persist because express ideas meaningful, resonate with

experience- Heresy = (2)- Heresy expresses important idea- Every movement must determine center + boundaries- Heresy not unbelief but form of faith that is subversive or destructive- Indirectly leads to unbelief- A constructed notion- Must explore how + why ideas were judged to be a threat- Look at ideas and social pressures- Socially embodied notion- Theme = heresy smuggles rival accounts of reality into household of faith- “Trojan horse, establish alternative belief system within the host”- ~ virus, appears Christian, yet sows seeds of destruction

6

- Threat comes from within community of faitho More serious than challenges from outsideo Movement both insider and stranger (Lester Kurtz)

- Can destabilize from within *or* identify problems that lead to modification (Pierre Bourdieu)

- Unintentionally assists external opponents- Every worldview has orthodoxies + heresies

o Sometimes heresies become orthodoxyo (Darwinian theory, medical science)

- Heresy as destabilizing or destructive form of faith?o “Act of choosing” -> choice, preferred actiono Neutral -> as in NT (faction, group)

Concern is factionalization that destroys Christian unity\ “sect” (Tyndale, 1526)

o Heretical ideas originated apostolic era Heresies, hairesis no longer neutral “choice” preferring speculative ideas over mind of community “other”

o 2nd century “heresy-orthodoxy” to exclude groups and people from the church

o Now school of thought developing ideas subversive of Christian faith

Chapter 3 = Diversity: The background of early Christianity

- Why did earl Christianity - How to distinguish between inevitable diversity and heresy?- Helps to reflect on nature of 1st century Christianity

o Series of reports + interpretations ot words + deeds of Jesuso (Leading urban centers, sect within Judaism)o Not recognized by Roman authoritieso Why? Unclearo Christian communities could not enforce conformity

- (1) how did they maintain identity in local contexts?o Shared identity against general society

- (2) how did they understand themselves as part of larger community? “the church”

o (a) they believed they shared a common faitho “complex network… in difficult social, cultural, linguistic contexts”

7

o Yet a fundamentally unifying stando “deposit of faith” identifiable (HEW Turner)o Why diversity? As well as unity?

- (1) uncertainty over which resources authoritative- (2) diversity within documents later the NT- (3) divergent interpretations thereof- (4) diverse patterns within early worship- (5) inability to enforce comformity- (1) authoritative resources

o Christians had penchant for writing, interpreting books (Lucian of Pontus)

o Yet more than what later part of NY Drawn from OT Extra-canonical writings Liturgical, theological texts Question of apocrypha in early 2nd century Established canon to eliminate dubious writings Need to identify works with normative status Athanasius of Alexandria

Heresy could arise from apocryphal sources- Diversity within NT

o Subtly variegated range of understandingso Diversity doesn’t entail fundamental unityo An identifiable core of ideas

God of Israel to be lord, trusted Jesus sent by God to reveal + redeem Trust in God’s redemptive work in Christ… (ethics) Saved person to love + care about others Body of believers = extended fellowship

o Evangelism – yes or no? 18th -> 19th century Proliferation of heresy (John Dryden, 1631-1700, 1782) Protestants had no notion of meta-authority Scripture did not disclose rule of interpretation Iranaeus, church = authoritative interpreter

Heresy = teachings “antithetical to consolidation of the church under bishop’s authority”

Or Irenaeus’ concern = continuity with apostolic era Vincent of Lerins (d 450) developed checklist

(1) everywhere

8

Always By all believers

- Diversity in worshipo By 2nd century liturgy developed beyond NTo Worship + doctrine interconnected

- 4th century orthodoxyo Nicaea 325 = 1st step of uniform imperial churcho Doctrine defined publicly by creedso Compare Islam + eradication of variant Qur’anso Hence Walter Bauer -> orthodoxy arose through impositions by

Roman church in 2nd centuryo “Theological latitude does not equal heresy, yet provides context

within which heresy may arise”o Confirms HEW Turner (1954) that early Christianity not a “single

melodic theme, rather a symphony, or confluence of tributaries into a single stream”

- Early Christians belonged to same family, basic kit of beliefs, values, attitudes toward worship

o Outside observers saw as coherent unity (and therefore threat)- Difficult to speak of “orthodoxy” in late 1st early 2nd centuries

o Emergent explored intellectual optionso Beginning of process of crystallization of orthodoxy

- Key = later “heretics” were active committed participants of Christian communities

o Some writers tried to portray them as outsiderso Irenaeus, heretics as imposters, pretenderso “We must confront that every major heresy began as exploration of

dynamics of faith within the church” (59)

Early development of heresy

- 144, Marcion of Sinope wanted clean break with Judaism- Evidence = leaders in Rome thought he was wrong but did not expel him- Marcion dissociated himself! Founded a sect- Both sides wanted to champion orthodoxy- Heresy not neutral concept- Determined by prior understandings of proper Christianity- Tertullian’s narrative about Marcion is suspect

9

- Official narratives focus on moral character or motivation of heretics

Received view on origins of heresy

- (1) church founded by apostles was unsullied, undefiled- (2) What is older is more authentic- (3) heresy as deliberate deviation- (4) fulfills NT prophecies of defection + deviation- (5) love of novelty, jealousy, envy- (6) internally inconsistent- (7) geographically + chronologically restricted- (8) dilution of orthodoxy with pagan philosophy- Received view accepted until early 19th century

o Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560) Return to first + true

o Emerging awareness that Christian doctrine developedo Heresy part of process of development

Development of doctrine

- Pressure that led to heretical outcomes- (a) archaism – not accepting that development is necessary- Repeating earlier formulas was inadequate- Church must restate and reinterpret (?)- Loyalty to Christian traditional demands innovation (Athanasius of

Alexandria)- What forms of innovation are required to preserve integrity of the faith- Unease regarding “development” idea- Teaching of church evolved before crystalizing into system expressed at

Chalcedon 451- 1830s-40s University of Tubingen

o Organic approach like biological seed- Developed by John Henry Newman (Oxford 1843)

o Reflection through which new insights emerge- Was “faith once delivered” (Jude 3) a system or a seed from which system

grows?- Demand for vigilance connected to development

10

o “orthodoxy is made as generations inherit ways… respect yet wish to examine certain approaches and regarded as helpful may have to be set aside as unacceptable or heretical”

o Church must put everything to the test- Outsider or insider?

o Traditional account depict heresy as invadero Alien ideas influence the churcho Incorrect (generally)o Stimulus might come from outsideo Heresy’s development happens within the churcho “Heresies seem to have been developed by Christians… particularly

to ensure that the church remain culturally engaged” (71)o Montanism

Chapter 5 = Is there an essence of heresy?

- What distinguishes heresy from wrong or questionable?- (Bayer’s schema) heresy basically an earlier orthodoxy fallen out of favor- This view is difficult to sustain- Really about emerging consensus that they are inadequate- Impossible to offer an essence of a socially constructed or negotiated entity- Social identities -> a means of safeguarding identity of a community- Yes judging as “other” but not solely on will of one who names but

characteristics of what is named- “heretical” = negotiated + constructed- Not arbitrary but act of discernment -> ideas a ultimately destabilizing or

destructive- By 4th century teaching from within community yet is ultimately destructive

of that faitho Not unbeliefo Vulnerable, fragile form of Christianity that can’t sustain itself in the

long termo Not questionable practices or ethics!o Therefore intellectually defective vision of Christian faitho Seeds might come from outsideo But they root in church’s gardeno Heresy + orthodoxy share common doxa (assumptions of community)

(Pierre Bourdieu)

11

o Dangerous because of implications for future of Christianity itselfo Orthodoxy had greater survival potential

- Threats to early Christianityo (1) physical

Heresy + orthodoxy relatively minoro (2) intellectual, religious assimilation

Danger of assimilation to groups already well established Church had to maintain identity + distinctiveness (Tertullian’s

concerns) Marcion came from the Stoics Heresy as quest for worldly wisdom Sets up secularization of Christian ideas

o (3) intellectual incoherence Formidable criticisms about coherence Leading doctrines could not be taken seriously by learned

peopleo (2) and (3) are in tension

Arius (253-336) offered philosophically rigorous Yet irreconcilable with orthodoxy and worship (Arius left Christianity vulnerable to criticism on one hand,

cultural erosion on the other) Could have become like Islam

- Heresy + orthodoxy as doctrinal conceptso Christian response to Judaism = shift toward orthodoxy and rejecting

existing orthopraxyo So desire to distinguish Christianity from Judaism and other

communitieso 1st Christians formed communities based on shared loyalties, specific

commitmentso “sociological distinctions, set apart from the world”o Distinction forced on Christian communitieso “Doctrine increasingly represented way Christians distinguish from

world around them” Irenaeus of Lyons + Tertullian NT canon, apostolic rule of faith Early emphasis on center of the faith Rather than policing the periphery “Jesus = Lord” linked to resurrection

o Who could set limits? Determined how?

12

“hedges” (a) cultic (b) ethical © theological

From mid 2nd century more focus on police the perimeter Threats to integrity conceived ~ “right thinking” “sound” doctrine edifying to the church

Heresy’s threat? Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834)

- Model of heresyo Responding to Enlightenmento Contra reduce theology to rationalist platitudeso Heresy = anything that contradicts essential identity of Christianity

(outward appearance thereof)o Appearance of Christianity yet denies its essenceo Okay so what is the essence?!?

Jesus of Nazareth God has redeemed us through Christ

o What is Christian or not -> this principleo Heresy-orthodoxy? How principle is understoodo So heresy affirms the statement but reduces it to incoherenceo Jesus of Nazareth’s centrality… interpreted in ways that denies or

renders inoperable Richard Hooker (1554-1600)

o 4 “natural types” of heresy Either Jesus human nature or role as redeemer defined such

that… Therefore heresy = counterfeit faith that lacks intellectual

coherence of orthodoxy- Difficulties

o Heresies can arise in other areas of doctrineo Treats heresy as purely intellectual phenomenon

Historic social dimensionso Incoherence? How do we adjudicate that?

When does incoherence -> heretical? Who decides?

o “heresy” requires core ideas, reasons and procedures they are held dangerous and destructive

o Doesn’t deal with heresy as Trojan horse

13

o Unhelpful to develop theory of heresy without looking at concrete examples

Chapter 6 = Early classic heresies

Ebionitism, Docetism, Valentinism- Christianity’s origins as Judean

o Continuation of Judaism- Early 1st century established in east Mediterranean- Intellectual and geographical expansion- Soon confronted other intellectual movements and Greek religion +

philosophy- “Pressure to identify most authentic reliable ways to articulate and explain

the Christian faith”- Some ways powerful + resilient- Some dead ends- 1st 5 centuries = crystallization of heresy + orthodoxy through intellectual

exploration- Need to weave statements into coherent pattern- Recent scholarship on patristic interpretation of Bible + how much doctrinal

formulations rest on biblical foundationso How biblical texts woven into dogmatic statementso Contested, multiple outcomes, each tested against “authentic

Christianity”o Heresies started with genuine concerno Problems when movements regarded as inadequateo Movements saw themselves as suppressed

- Classic heresies emerged 1st five centuries = *patristic*o “heresy” used Middle Ages more legal senseo Seen as threats to powero Perhaps “heresy” not appropriate (Herbert Grundmann, 1935)o Expanded definition means of social control

- How heresy emergedo Distinctive featureso How + why considered inadequate

- Ebionitism = Jewish model for Jesus of Nazaretho 1st to early 2nd centurieso Limited identity of Jesus to categories from Judaism

14

o Jesus as propheto Within matrix of contemporaneous Judaismo Difficult to identify best “conceptual framework”

Tendency to take existing categories NT does the same

o Little knowledge thereof – mainly from its criticso “low Christology”, Jesus > humans but not distincto Later “ebionitism” associated with Gnosticismo Why rejected as inadequate?

Failed to do justice to Jesus of Nazareth Mark 2 specifically undermines this approach “healing of paralytic is dramatically primary and theologically

secondary” Followed by new wine and old wineskins Traditional ways of thinking cannot grasp

Ebionism constrained innovation Karl Barth

o Ebionism not simply refusing implicit divinityo Arianism + Ebionitism historically and

sociologically distinct Ebionism saw no reason to assert Christ’s divinity

“unacceptable” by 135 Concerns? (1) form of Jewish Christianity Gentile Christians saw Ebionitism as new form of

Judaism Yet Christianity distinct from Judaism Rise of Jewish Christianity today

- Docetism = illusory humanity of Jesus of Nazaretho ~ 90, idea that Jesus not human at allo “Docetism” < Serapion bishop of Antioch (190-203)o Ideas associated with Corinthus of Ephesuso (unclear) distinguish human Jesus + divine Christo Ignatius of Antioch (35-107) bishop of Syria

Concern over Judaizers + Docetists Valentinus, Jesus did not excrete

o Difficult to find a “coherent Docetism” Two types (1) Jesus not properly human, no way human + divine in one

being

15

(2) Christ human but did not really suffero Ronnie Goldstein + Guy Sroumsa

Classical mythology Greek heroes replaced by doubles before death

Helen of Troy as eidolon Studied reluctance to allow that Jesus suffered indignity of

death- Valentinism = Gnosticism and Christianity (117)

o Rome hub of vast empire late 1st centuryo Reverse colonization took rooto Religious movements from Greece, Levant, beyondo Church in Rome? Collection of individual congregations meeting in

homeso Independent associations with no central control

- Eleusinian mysteries <- cults of Demeter, Persephone- Mithraic mysteries <- Anatolia? Iran?- Gnosticism resonates well with contemporary North America

o Dislike of any authority, ecclesiasticalo Why did church see Gnosticism as threat?o “Advanced knowing God through experience rather than formal

doctrines”o Not well definedo Broad to point of not well defined, specifico “Gnostic” won’t support single, monolithic definition (Karen King)o “family of religious doctrines + myths”o (1) cosmos result of evil or ignorant creatoro (2) salvation is a process in which believers receive knowledge of

divine origin… able to return to realm of light after being freed from physical limitations

- Valentinus originator of Gnostic Christianity- Rome, ca 135 <- Egypt?

o Claimed = disciple of Theodas, pupil of Paulo Justin Martyr of Rome condemned his ideaso Little evidence he was formally condemned

Discipline tightened in late 2nd century? Interpret, develop Christian ideas in a Gnostic manner Especially matter = subordinate, creator God as subordinate Jewish creator God not same as Jesus’ God

16

o Greatest interpreters = Ptolemy, Theodotus, Heracleon Two schools, Italy and the east Nag Hammadi texts 1945 = “Sethian” Pleroma = dwelling place of true God

Eternal beings in perfect harmony Sofia destroyed the cosmic harmony

(Rw – much like Melkor) Wisdom created a Demiurge + expelled

(also Greek philosophy, Plato’s Timaeus) Demiurge made physical world without knowledge of the true

God (Complex description of Sethian Gnosticism) Humanity has divine spirit, able to connect with highest God Therefore superior to creator God Soma sema = body is a tomb Christ is redeemer who awakens divine spark So can find way back home Savior let himself be conceived with body and soul Savior or logos descended from pleroma to visible world

o Why did church reject? Seen as attempt to subvert church from within (effect not

intention) Mainstream and Valentinian Christians Part of same church, spoke + acted similarly But interpretation differed

o “Valentinian’s use of NT looks consistent with majority view within Christian scholarship” (!!!)

o Saw himself as enriching Christianity by using Gnostic ideas as means to deepen its appeal to contemporary culture + give it intellectual depth” (122)

o Did not make Christianity congenial to Gnosticso Irenaeus of Lyons = “economy of salvation”

Emerging doctrine of Trinity articulateso articulates divine continuity through history

and safeguard unity of Scripture sacramental uuse of matter utterly contradicts Gnosticism “place clear blue water between Gnosticism and church” concern for method (interpretation of Scripture) landmark = heretics interpret Bible according to their own taste

17

orthodox interpret in ways apostles would approve apostolic authors handed on a way of reading and

interpreting tradition is guarantor of faithfulness church safeguards (a) text

o (b) interpretation leads to emergence of creeds

o 5th century Vincent of Lerins clear sense that orthodoxy is earlier than

Gnostic thought church still too close to Jewish roots- Marcionism = Judaism + the gospel

o relationship of Christianity to Judaism?o model = fulfills hopes of pagans + Jews in Christo Justin Martyr = story of Jesus could not be told in isolation

must tell other stories show how they interlock and interrelate (1) God’s creation + world (2) God’s call of Israel (3) human quest for meaning, significance

- “Jesus is focal point from which all other stories to be seen and on which all finally converge”

o this theme fascinated theologianso Alexandria – schools of thought based on Platoo how can we enter the ideal world?o highly cultured Jews sensitive to this

Torah of critical importance yet Torah as interim measure fulfillment, the Messiah

o “fundamental continuity between old and new covenants emerged as dominant idea, late 1st – early 2nd century

idea of type -> event or person anticipates NT and Jesus Justin Martyr (100-165)

o not all shared this vision progress of Christianity impaired by correction to Judaism Marcion of Sinope d160 (Pontus, Asia Minor) gave 200,000 sesterces to church in Rome Marcion left church + started his own

o God of OT is not God of NT OT God inferior, defective in light of Christian views Jesus not “Messiah” sent by Jewish God

18

God of OT delights in wars, fickle, inconsistent, incompetent most extreme statement of *newness* of Christianity (Rw – boy this all sounds disturbingly familiar)

o connections between Marcion + Gnosticismo inclined to Docetic Christologyo emerging NT writings referred to Jewish Scriptureso alternative canon

no OT no 10 Pauline letters no Luke edited what was left to remove Jewish connections Marcion thought he was removing Jewish additions -> restoring

themo why such a threat?

denied Christianity’s roots in Judaism, Jesus’ Jewishness refused to accept Jesus = human or Jew (Rw – so a kind of anti-semitism? or at least anti-Judaism?)

o Christian theologians developed approaches to OT that allow them to respect its moral, religious insights, also neutralize its more problematic aspects” (130, see Morgan and Barton, Bertrand de Margerie) (Rw – wait so people who attack the OT as in conflict with NT have not done their homework? have not attempted to learn how the early church dealt with these issues?)

o Adolf von Harnack (1851-1930) tried to revive Marciono (Rw – this guy’s name shows up now and again – take note)o Marcion was never condemned or expelledo Marcion left the church to start his own sect

- Reflections on early heresieso common themes = relationship of Christianity to other groupso judged to be heretical before permanent authority structures o before NT, canon formally agreed

- we don’t entirely understand how “heretics!” worked- was difficult to organize campaign against heretics- we don’t know about manner of consensus authority, of Scripture which

ideas promoted or “secondary”o reflected power politics of the age

19

o does not fit Bauer’s schema (Rw – important! there are false teachers among us who peddle Bauer without necessarily knowing or naming him)

o quality of ideas played role in their evaluation- what of later heresies?

Late classic heresies

- early heretical movements when church lacked robust leadership structures- emerging sense of theological and ethical norms- “If heresy can be regarded as simply the outcome of theological uncertainty

or confusion, its causes were steadily diminishing with emergence of early form of orthodoxy” (136)

- process of doctrine like exploring new pathways- some were dead ends or declared out of bounds- by 5th century theology caught in imperial politics- Imperial politics and heretics of the age

o “religio” what held Roman society togethero Christian refusal to integrate with official religiono sporadic harassmento 249, Decius

Rome could recover glory by ancient religion Edict of Decius 250 certificate issued if sacrifice to Roman gods

o 303, Diocletian destruction and cessation of Christianity

o 311, Galerius ended the persecution Christianity now legal

o Constantine, 285-337 313 Edict of Milan ordered restoration conversion of emperor radically changed status of Christianity Byzantium aka Constantinople saw lack of unity especially in North Africa what to do with lapsed clergy Christian disputed now became political

- Arianism – identity of Christo weaving threads of NT witness to identity of Jesus into coherent

tapestry

20

- “Christological methods from Judaism focused on idea of Jesus as endorsed communication from God” (141)

- quest = how to make sense of Jesus without reducing to theological stereotypes

o logos as promisingo logos as intermediary between ideal + realo church reacted against Jesus as God’s deputyo church needed a model good enough to express significance of Jesuso concept of incarnation = God entered history taking human nature

- how could immutable God enter history?o (proved a barrier to cultural pagans)o Arius (c 270-336) forced to issueo Thalia (banquet) lost fo uso (1) Son + Father do not have the same ousiao (2) Son = created being ktisma, ποιημα + ποιεμα although 1st in ranko (3) Son = creator but a time when the son was not

- futility of biblical prooftexting- how are an ensemble of biblical texts to be integrated- Jesus Christ not divine but 1st among creatures- no intermediate or hybrid species (between God and creatures)- Son was changeable, developed- but God is immutable- God cannot be known by any creature (!)- like Ebionitism but within framework of Greek philosophical monotheisms- motivated partly by concern educated Greeks could not accept- Athanasius of Alexandria -> rius destroyed internal coherence of

Christianity- (1) only God can save- (2) NT + Christian worship Jesus Christ as Savior- salvation involved divine intervention- (2) Christians worship + pray to Jesus Christ- orthodoxy maintains a view of Jesus Christ completely consistent with

worship-patterns- yet Arius not against worshiping Jesus- therefore rendered Christian worship incoherent- fundamental characteristic of heresy = maintain outward appearance with

subversion of inward identity- Constantine wanted this controversy resolved

21

o unprecedented -> council of bishops in Nicaea 325o decisively voted against Ariuso expand creedo disputed over homoiousios? homoousoso why did Constantine favor Arianism?

1935 Erik Peterson direct analogy with single God “monarchia”

o Arius’ understanding of Christ differed so greatly it constituted a separate religion

- if Christ is God then Christ can both disclose what God is like + what God wants

- key = Arianism failed to maintain Jesus as a bridge to connect with God, authentic knowledge of God, or salvation promised by the gospel

o Dorothy Sayers (1893-1957) if Christ is only man then he is irrelevant to any thought about

God (Rw – wow that’s a strong claim… he can’t even be a great

teacher who teaches true things about God? no? why not?)- Docetism = nature of the church

o concerns aspects of the church + sacramentso “culture of martyrdom” in African church?o Mensurius bishop Carthage + archdeacon Caelians (? Caecilianus?)

stood against thiso some saw as collaboration with Roman authoritieso strong emotions regarding those who surrendered Christian books ->

traditoreso Mensurius took lenient lineo hardliners wanted a hard line replacemento moderates elected Caecilianus (!)o many refused to recognize his consecrationo rigorists deposed the bishop + anointed Majorinuso Constantine intervened on behalf of Caecilianuso Cyrprian of Carthage (251) = o (1) schism totally unjustified

no salvation outside the churcho (2) lapsed or schismatic bishops deprived of right to administer

sacraments any sacraments they perform now invalid

22

o what if a lapsed bishop repents?o sin of apostasy? or restored to grace?o mixed up with politics of time and region

(heretical movements linked with suppressed nationalisms?)- Augustine consecrated bishop of Hippo 396

o emphasized sinfulness of Christianso church is a mixed body of saints + sinners o separation takes place at end of time (Matthew 13)o is threshing flood the church or world?o how can church be “holy”?

Augustine = holiness of Christ Donatism emphasized too much qualities of human agent insufficient weight to grace of Christ

- validity of sacraments independent of merits of agents who administer- why “heretical”?- amounted to salvation indirectly dependent on human purity- ministers + sacraments are channels of grace- major theme = human nature is fallen

o needs healing + restoring grace of Godo church = hospitalo Christian life = process of being healed from sin

- Donatism = refuse to appreciate that all humanity in need of healing that gospel provides

- Pelagianism = human nature + divine graceo Augustine’s spiritual pilgrimage in Confessionso convinced his conversion not of his own choosingo grace of God preceded, nudging toward conversion

- sinful fractured humanity totally dependent on gracious loving God- some did not care for Augustine’s approach- Pelagius 355-435, British monk- Pelagianism = mixture of ideas, some from Pelagius- debate in Rome on ideas of Origen (399)

o Rufinus + Caelestius ->o (1) Adam’s sin harmed only himo (2) children born in same state as Adam before fallo (3) Mosaic Law can lead us to heaven

- Pelagius more concerned with moral behavior

23

o 405 Pelagius offended by “give what you command, command what you will”

o strikes at his reforming programo denies human quest to seek perfection

- Pelagius: we are masters of our own destinyo we can stop sinningo believers should live according to 10 Commandments + example of

Jesus Christo did God not create humanity well?o resonated with many in Romeo vision of self-improvement strong spiritual core

- Augustine: human nature contaminated because of the fallo we have freedom and it is limitedo for free well to be healed requires divine graceo (Rw – sounds like Wesleyan theology? nach Campbell)o human free will is biased toward evilo sin causes sinso sinfulness causes acts of sino sin ~ hereditary diseaseo salvation understood in essentially medical terms

- Pelagianism: “grace” = natural human faculties- so human reason + will can choose not to sin- God demands perfection + provides specific guidance- Augustine: grace is divine assistance to humanity

o real, redeeming presence of God in Jesuso Pelagianism is telling a blind man to see

it is naïve moralism- (great paragraph on 171) heretic groups made important points

o orthodoxy needed correction not rejection- “Debate + criticism catalyze leading to crystallization of orthodoxy around

its core themes”- their motivations not the problem but the outcomes of their theological

exploration- Undoing (?) impact of heresy

o heresy arose through desire to preserve the gospelo more disturbing = heresies originate from natural well intentioned

benign motivations

24

o heresy + cognitive science of religion- cultural + intellectual motivation for heresy

o no grounds for supposing heresy was outcome of malevolent arrogant apostates plotting to destroy Christianity

o stereotype in most 9th century accountso John Henry Newman (1801-90)o we should see heresies as outcomes of journeys of exploration

intending to make Christianity relate better to contemporary cultureo disturbing: heresy originate from natural well intentioned benign

motivationso therefore this is not a past problem ***

- Heresy + cognitive science of religiono how religious ideas are shaped + developedo basic cognitive structure of beliefso assumption = reflect the deeper patternings within the mindo “naturalness” of certain beliefso which of several options has appeal?

- heresy results from “naturalization” of Christian beliefo danger of thinking “natural” for what was culturally dominant for a

long timeo Christianity could adapt to more “natural” thinking without losing its

distinctiveness Justin Martyr + platonic categories

o risk: collapse Christian ideas into Platonic equivalentso Platonism could influence back!o Augustine’s analysis of faith + secular thought

like leaving Egypt with “gold and clothes”o okay but how does church decide?

distinctively Christian language- desire to communicate faith to other groups…

o and incorporate “best” wisdoms, is fundamental cause of heresy (180)o pressures in genesis of heresyo (1) cultural normso (2) rational normso (3) social identityo (4) religious accommodationo (5) ethical concerns

- contemporary social norms

25

o what are points of tension?o why not jettison aspects that are a liability?o example: Pelagianism and “grace”o secular notions of justice (Cicero) at odds with God’s justice in

Scriptureo justice + righteousness linked with salvationo “justice of God” – God’s fidelity to gospel promiseso Julian’s concern was apologetico (Rw – do we want to change gospel so it appeals more to us?)

- Heresy and secular reasono rational argument doesn’t create belief, maintains climate in which

belief may flourisho danger = some core themes of the faith appear indefensible before

contemporary “rational” thought- 16th century anti-Trinitarianism

o hallmark of radical reformation in Iesouso Fausto Sozzini aka Socinuso Jesus as divinely inspired person with exceptional abilities to keep the

commands of Godo scientists and heterodox beliefso tension between orthodox belief and methods of a communityo (Arianism and early modern scientists)o (Rw – key = how can we even identify this?)

- social identityo religion in communal self-definitiono defining limits of and conditions to enter a communityo did some communities adopt heretical views to mark their identity?

Donatismo some movements had essentially religious basiso political and social issues helped shape their sense of identity

- Religious contextualizationo early Christianity in complex social situationo tried to build bridges to communitieso risk of reconceptualizing Christianity itselfo unclear what motivated Valentinuso but seen as distortion of Christianity

- Ethical discontent

26

o Christianity offers moral vision that sees social world a certain way… leads to modes of action

o some heresies saw orthodoxy as repressiveo but others saw it as lax, permissive

Pelagianism altered the theological framework

Benedict of Nursia created an environment grounded in orthodoxy yet fostering morality

aspirational in goals, realistic assumptions heresy is not intrinsically liberating cultural pressures may lead to heresy supported by work of HEW Turner: dilution, truncation,

distortion, archaism, evacuation- to what extent are heresy + orthodox because of power struggles?

Chapter 8 = Orthodoxy Heresy and Power

- “Heresy is orthodoxy of history’s losers” (Bauer)- role of power in determining orthodoxy- heresy = an orthodoxy that had bad luck to get with wrong people- theological victory rested with those who had power- helps explain growing interest in, sympathy for heresies

o heresy = lucky voice of suppressed downtroddeno rehabilitating heresy as moral actiono difficult to defend this view

- Christian understanding = outward form of gospel yet subvert its essenceo renders faith incoherent and unstableo “heresy” not only a Christian phenomenono “critical realism” = interaction of ideas and social contexts

- Sociological approacheso traces back to Karl Marx (1818-83)o ideologies express social, economic factorso “Ruling ideas” those of ruling classo heresy as ideology of defeated, oppressedo Friedrich Engels (1820-95), Peasant War in Germany (1850)

heresies as manifestations of class conflict- so alternative social movements had to use religious language

o heresy + orthodoxy need distinguish themselves

27

o real issue is beneath the “ideas”o heretical ideas = superstructure erected on sociological foundation,

not primaryo so issue not right or wrong but power to enforce

- power, heresy, patristic ageo early church had no political powero early heresy not subject to coerciono formation of canon as struggle for power (Max Weber 1864-1920)o so heresy arises from different canonso but power doesn’t apply to proto-orthodoxyo retrojects later struggles into 2nd century

- yes church cares about threats + authenticityo process concerned with crystallization of perceptions not imposing

predetermined (202) ***o Constantine didn’t care about theological issueso he cared about division, instabilityo preferred to let church sort out its affairso state didn’t define orthodoxy, although was prepared to enforce it

- enforcement of orthodoxy would have applied if “heretical” movements had won

o Constantine tried to enforce Arianismo this undermines Bauer’s thesis

- Arianism was imposed by imperial authority- becoming clear it was not best intellectual option- *power, heresy, and Middle Ages*

o church played decisive role in settling disputeso medieval church at heart of Western Europe’s social, spiritual,

intellectual lifeo salvation had been institutionalizedo so heresies “outside” the church and therefore of salvationo heretical movements represented alternative visions of church +

societyo 11th century rise of heresies

some renewed, modified old heresies some more political Waldensianism, John Wyclife (1320-81) Scripture threatened power of church “heresy” as institutional not theological threat

28

o (Rw – this is an important point, that “heresy” in early Christian history is rather different from “heresy” in middle ages. McGrath seems to have sympathy (?) for “heretical” movements in later Christian history – there really are social, political factors)

- Protestantismo Martin Luther as heretic = threat to papal authorityo Appeal to the Christian Nobility

church shields itself by erecting defensive walls democratization of faith all believers are priests clergy are laity with gifts + role clergy as office holders every Christian can interpret Scripture and raise questions biggest danger = laity can demand a reforming council

o Luther regarded alignment with patristic writings as essential- Protestantism and problem of heresy

o Protestantism as recovery of orthodox faith of early churcho how would Protestants distinguish heresy-orthodoxy?o Protestants could appeal to ecumenical councilso but what of new heresies?o problem = if Scripture is supreme no interpretive authority is above

Scriptureo (Rw – yup… this might be the Achilles’ Heel of Protestant

Christianity)o yet “heresy” is judgment of entire churcho “orthodox” interpretation of Scripture that seems right to a Protestant

conscienceo (Rw – unfortunately Protestant Christianity often if not ultimately

ends up as “truth is what I’m comfortable with”)- Postmodernism heresy and suspicion of power

o concept of heresy is linked with power but o is not defined by those with powero or heresy has no intellectual essenceo not ultimately sociological or politicalo they are theological dead ends

- many heresies were more authoritarian and morally rigorous- new cultural fascination with heresy in the West- (1) orthodoxies as outcome of power

29

- (2) attempting to close debate is improper- Foucault’s critique of privileged viewpoints

o concepts of “truth” subverted in interests of powero “heresy” applies well to early churcho a matter for the church not powerful interestso Hilary Lawson, permanent state of opennesso okay orthodoxy is robust and coherent enough that interrogation leads

to confirmationo Council of Chalcedon marked new beginning to Christian reflection

on Christ (so Karl Rahner)- Christian orthodoxy is as much an ongoing process- orthodoxy is unfinished- represents best manner of formulating living faith of any given time- ***key paragraph 221a***- it is not possible to claim that orthodoxy simply represents establishment’s

preferred outcomeo later heresy did have no associationso became movements of social protest because of political contexto made space for social function of “heresy”o postmodern sympathy for heretical movements grounded in lingering

cultural memory

Heresy and Islamic view of Christianity

- Christianity and Islam have distinct understandings of divine revelation- Christianity -> center on person of Jesus Christ- Islam -> book Qur’an- Qur’anic representation of Christianity reflects knowledge of heretical

versions of Christinity- current misperceptions of early heresies

o Gnosticism ore egalitarian (Pagels)- “lure of the religious forbidden on social, psychological grounds”

o Western Orthodoxy as full, damagingo can orthodoxy be sprinkled with stardust?o “… need to demonstrate that theological orthodoxy is both necessary

and appropriate for well being of Christian communities”o problem lies at level of imagination + feelings

30

o challenge = demonstrate orthodoxy is imaginatively compelling, emotionally engaging, aesthetically enhancing, personally liberating (234)