swv1blog.files.wordpress.com · web viewthese expenditures would be nominal compared to the amount...

Session A9 Paper #5052

HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS: POWERING A NEW GENERATION OF VEHICLES

Michael Donello ([email protected], 0012, Sanchez, 4:00), Sean Varley ([email protected], Budny, 10:00)

Abstract - In this paper, hydrogen fuel cells (HFC's) are investigated and presented as a viable mechanism for powering a new generation of vehicles. This paper contends that HFC's are a sustainable source of energy in automobiles, due to their high electrical efficiencies, and most importantly, their clean exhaust energy conversion. A close examination is taken into the HFC battery, its application in vehicles, and the underlying processes that make hydrogen a renewable source of energy. Research is presented to compare and contrast existing options for energy production in automobiles in order to show the efficiency of HFC batteries and more specifically the sustainability of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCV's). In addition to comparing hydrogen to other fuel sources, the integration of HFC technology into today's current infrastructure is studied along with the ethical implications associated with the technology. Lastly, potential drawbacks associated with HFCV's are considered, but further reinforcement is given as to why this is a valuable technology to pursue. Key Words—efficiency, ethical implications, fuel sources, hydrogen fuel cells, infrastructure, sustainability, vehicles

FUELING THE FUTURE

HFC vehicles have the potential to significantly reduce America's dependence on foreign oil and lower the amount of harmful emissions that contribute to climate change. Where conventional cars run on gasoline, HFC's utilize the energy stored in hydrogen gas and emit no harmful tailpipe emissions. Several challenges must be overcome before these vehicles become a competitive alternative to today's conventional vehicle, but the potential benefits of this technology can be substantial, and most importantly, sustainable. For the purpose of this paper, sustainability can be defined through three main factors: people, profit, and planet. In order for HFCV's to be considered sustainable, they must improve the standard of living and demonstrate practicality for the people using them. In terms of profitability, manufacturers must be able to make a profit in a competitive market to incentivize motive for mass production. Finally, HFCV's must also be sustainable for the planet and seek to minimize factors that contribute to pollution. Overall, HFCV's must cater to all aspects of this definition before they can truly be termed a sustainable technology. Although implementing this technology would be both challenging and difficult, the return on investment from a

monetary and environmental standpoint is something that must be considered. The switch from gasoline to hydrogen as the primary fuel source would initially be a large investment, but these expenditures would be nominal compared to the amount of money that would be saved in the long run by using fuel cells. The utilization of hydrogen in fuel cells also possess a great ethical benefit in terms of the environment, seeing as they produce far less pollution than any other comparative technology on the market today. Therefore, HFC technology in cars fulfils the requirements of sustainability by having an immediate ethical and economic benefit that persists for generations to come. Due to HFC superiority over other alternatives in cars and overall sustainability, hydrogen is the premier alternative fuel for the future.

HFC’S EXPLAINED A HFC is an electrochemical device that converts the energy stored in the bonds of gaseous hydrogen into electrical energy that can be used to power external devices [1]. It consists of a negative anode and a positive cathode with a proton exchange membrane placed between, much like a conventional lead-acid battery [2]. Hydrogen, from an onboard tank, enters into the anode side of the fuel cell where oxygen, which has been pulled from the atmosphere, enters the cathode. As the hydrogen molecule encounters the proton exchange membrane, a platinum based catalyst forces the hydrogen atom to release its electron. The remaining proton moves through the fuel cell stack while the electron follows through an external circuit, delivering direct current to the external components. At the cathode, the proton and electron join again, and then combine with oxygen to form the vehicle’s only emission, clean potable water [3]. In fact, the byproduct is so pure, that the water produced by NASA's fuel cell powered electrical systems is consumed by crew members while in space [4].

FIGURE 1 [5]

University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering2015/03/05

1

ENGR0011/0711 SectionGroup #

Basic Structure of a HFC This whole process is known in chemistry as an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. It is the result of two simultaneous half-reactions where oxygen is being reduced (gaining electrons) and hydrogen is being oxidized (losing electrons) [6]. One of the great advantages of HFC technology is the ability to combine multiple units in series or parallel circuits in order to increase electrical voltage and maximize the output generated by a fuel cell "stack" [1]. However, one of the main disadvantages lies in fueling the cell. Although hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, "accounting for about 75% of its normal matter," it is still difficult to harvest as it is rarely found in its elemental form [7]. Currently, hydrogen is primarily derived from water through electrolysis or organic compounds reforming through heat, both of which can be sustainable and efficient processes. On the basis of this information and the sheer abundance of hydrogen, it can be concluded that HFC technology is a sustainable source of energy.

HFC’S IN VEHICLES

The specific application of this technology in vehicles is made possible by the power that is produced and harnessed from the aforementioned chemical process. Essentially, the mechanism behind a HFC vehicle is very similar to that of a gas powered vehicle. However, the two types of vehicles greatly differ when it comes down to the inputs, and most importantly the outputs. It is the outputs of an HFC that makes it sustainable compared to a traditional gas powered vehicle where fossil fuels are burned in a combustion reaction that converts chemical energy into mechanical energy, propelling the vehicle forward. As a result of this combustion process, greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere. Conversely in HFC automobiles, hydrogen gas is transferred to a fuel cell stack where it is converted into usable electricity as seen in the diagram below [8]. The electricity generated by the cell stack is then governed by a power control unit which regulates the flow of electricity into the electric motor. In turn, the energy is used to do work and propel the vehicle forward in a clean and efficient process.

FIGURE 2 [8]

Diagram of a HFCV

To further extend the analogy between HFC powered vehicles and gasoline powered cars, it is important to note that each have their own unique set of byproducts that originate from their chemical processes. For example, in a typical combustion reaction, harmful greenhouse gases, such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, are released into the atmosphere leading to large-scale issues involving the environment and global warming [9]. On the contrary, the byproducts of the redox reaction that takes place in a HFC are limited to only water and heat. This is important to keep in mind as the advantages of HFC vehicles are explored in the following section and why HFC's are a renewable technology.

ADVANTAGES OF HFC’S IN VEHICLES

As a whole, HFC's have a higher efficiency, energy security, and greater overall reliability and flexibility than any diesel or gas powered vehicle on the market today. In terms of reliability, almost all fuel cells will continue to generate power so long as fuel is supplied to the system. In terms of flexibility, the source of hydrogen does not matter in most fuel cells. For instance, the fuel itself can come from a diverse range of sources as seen in figure 3 below. This includes fossil fuels such as natural gas, propane and coal, alcohol fuels such as methanol and ethanol, and from hydrogen compounds such as ammonia or borohydride [10]. Moreover, biomass, methane, landfill gas or anaerobic digester gas from wastewater treatment plants may be used as fuel sources, and are considered renewable. Above all, hydrogen produced via electrolysis provides the cleanest pathway of the aforementioned fuels, and can be achieved through grid, nuclear, solar, or wind power [11].

FIGURE 3 [12]

Diagram of Hydrogen Pathways

The integration of HFC's into cars also provides energy security for future generations because hydrogen is easily produced from domestic resources which contributes to its

2


sustainability because of the fuel's long-term availability. It is estimated that "passenger vehicles alone consume six million barrels of oil every day, equivalent to 85 percent of oil imports. If just 20 percent of cars in the U.S. were fuel cell vehicles, oil imports could be cut by 1.5 million barrels per day" [10]. If the United States were to switch from an oil based infrastructure to one centered around HFC's, it would further validate the technologies claim of sustainability not only for the environment, but also ensure long term profit and economic sustainability. By no longer depending on foreign oil production, the US can effectively produce domestic hydrogen fuel from substantial natural gas reserves, biofuels, or hydrolysis. Yet another advantage of HFC vehicles are their high efficiencies compared to other options available on the market today making it viable and therefore sustainable. For instance, an internal combustion engine uses less than 20 percent of the chemical energy in gasoline, making it a relatively inefficient process. In contrast, a portable HFC, such as those found in cars, is considerably more efficient, utilizing roughly 50 to 60 percent of the energy available in hydrogen [13]. To further stress the inefficiency of internal combustion engines found in cars today, it is worth noting that most gasoline powered engines lose around 62 percent of their potential energy due to heat. Furthermore, there is additional energy lost due to air drag, friction, and idling in traffic for traditional gas powered vehicles [13]. This energy loss is not seen in HFC vehicles as the whole process is driven without pistons, crankshafts, and other parts typically found in an internal combustion engine, which deem much of the energy produced by gasoline useless [13]. Hence, because HFC's outclass traditional gas powered vehicles by as much as 40% in terms of efficiency, it is clear that HFCV's meet the current needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Ethical Advantages

Perhaps the greatest advantage surrounding HFCV's can be seen from an ethical standpoint. One of the most important benefits of implementing this technology is the lack of pollution making it more environmentally sustainable for the planet. Absolutely no carbon emissions are produced in the generation of electricity in the fuel cell itself, thus helping to eliminate the clouds of smog that linger over many urban areas. Currently, combustion engines burn fuels derived from elemental carbon and emit carbon dioxide and water, more commonly known as soot. The soot, when dispersed into the air, can cause a multitude of health issues such as lung cancer and asthma, while also contributing to global warming [14]. The transition from traditional fuels to a fuel void of pollutants would help put an end to the aforementioned issues. Overall, HFC's create energy by means of an electrochemical process that does not require combustion

making them a fundamentally clean, efficient, and sustainable option. As seen in Figure 4, greenhouse gas emissions for current gasoline vehicles can be seen on the far left are at approximately 475 grams per mile where future HFC vehicles seen at the opposite side of the graph are much less at approximately 25 grams per mile. Based off these numbers alone, it is apparent that HFC vehicles produce a nearly negligible amount of greenhouse gases and are a cleaner alternative to the conventional gas powered vehicle given reason to why this is a sustainable technology [14]. It is important to note that the greenhouse gas emissions are not produced by the fuel cells themselves, but in the harvesting of elemental hydrogen from organic compounds such as methane. However, if the hydrogen is produced from electrolysis, the process would be completely void of fossil fuels making this technology renewable and worthwhile.

FIGURE 4 [14]

Graph displaying greenhouse gas emissions HFC's in automobiles not only help eliminate environmental pollution, but sound pollution as well improving the quality of life for people living in large urban centers. Since HFC's do not rely on combustion and have few moving parts, they are much quieter than many incumbent technologies. In fact, HFC's are so quiet that they only generate about 60 decibels of sound, which is the volume of a typical conversation [14]. Therefore, due to the elimination of harmful greenhouse gas emissions and noise reduction, HFC's are therefore a sustainable and effective option for the future of the car industry.

A Sustainable Solution is Necessary

Although the current automobile industry is primarily dominated by engines powered by gasoline, a shift towards a market with a heavier focus on HFC vehicles would be beneficial in the future for a multitude of reasons. One of

3


these benefits would be the sustainability of HFC cars. It is important to address the issue of sustainability sooner rather than later, as the current protocol for energy production in vehicles is neither sustainable, nor efficient. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, sustainability “creates and maintains the conditions under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony, that permit fulfilling the social, economic, and other requirements of present and future generations” [15]. It can be concluded that the current state of gasoline vehicles in the US meets none of these requirements as they lack productive harmony for future generations. Taking a look at the process as a whole, it is evident that the conversion of hydrogen gas into electrical energy is a rather sustainable and efficient process. By consuming hydrogen and releasing water, it is clear this process has the potential to greatly reduce the production of greenhouse gases and other factors that contribute to pollution [16]. Not to mention, the water released as a product in the reaction can be recycled and reused for the production of new hydrogen fuel for use in future reactions. In addition to the sustainability issues that must be addressed for the future, it is also important to recognize the need for a switch from non-renewable resources, to those are that are clean, abundant and renewable. Making the switch from internal combustion engines that are dependent on fossil fuels, to HFC's that use clean hydrogen gas would be extremely beneficial in addressing issues of future energy demands. Furthermore, it is estimated that if all light duty vehicles (cars and trucks) in the United States were replaced by hydrogen powered fuel cells, greenhouse gases would be “immediately reduced by 44% and oil consumption by nearly 100%” [17]. Currently, the pollution from gasoline powered cars is a significant contributor of the greenhouse gases that cause global warming. In urban areas particularly, it is becoming increasingly harmful to its inhabitants and environment making it all the more important to find a viable solution to combat these harmful emissions by finding an option that is appealing to people, profit producing, and safe for the planet.

COMPETITION AGAINST HFC's On the market today, there are two primary competitors to the HFC car in addition to gasoline powered cars. The first option is the electric, or more commonly known, hybrid vehicle which has been gaining increasing popularity because it is more environmentally friendly than current cars, and easy to use. Another option gaining interest among the public is the automobile powered by compressed natural gas (CNG). Both options sound appealing and offer advantages over both gas powered and HFC vehicles, but each technology poses many challenges that could lead to future problems for both the consumer and the environment making them non-sustainable options.

Hybrids

The main selling point for hybrids is the combination of an internal combustion engine with a high efficiency electric motor to achieve both increased fuel economy and power [18]. There are several capabilities of hybrid electric vehicles that make them a desirable option. First off, hybrid vehicles implement a technology known as regenerative braking, where the rotational kinetic energy of the wheels is converted into electrical energy during the braking process. Another capability of hybrids is the automatic starting and shutting off of the engine based on the pressure placed on the accelerator by the driver. This capability is particularly advantageous for urban drivers who encounter these types of driving conditions on a daily basis. Although "hybrid cars offer superior fuel economy versus traditional gasoline-powered cars of the same size" [19] there are many disadvantages associated with this type of vehicle. Unlike conventional cars of the same class, hybrids are priced $3,000-$5,000 more to compensate for the cost of the twin engines mentioned earlier [20]. The twin engine design, seen in figure 5 below with an internal combustion engine and electric motor, also creates a hidden cost to consumers in terms of tire replacement and maintenance. The additional weight of two engines greatly shortens the life of a conventional tire causing the consumer to spend more money on continued maintenance of the car [21]. Finally, many consumers fail to recognize that the electricity used to charge a hybrid-electric vehicle is the same electricity that is used to power a refrigerator or television. On the other hand hybrid electric vehicles can only be as "green" as the power plants that produce the electricity where as HFC's can receive their hydrogen fuel from electrolysis and do not require the burning of fossil fuels in power plants making HFCV's the more sustainable option.

FIGURE 5 [18]

Diagram of a hybrid car

Natural Gas

Natural gas is clean, cheap, abundant, and domestic, and for the average motorist there are many advantages that

4


make cars powered by compressed natural gas (CNG) an appealing option. The first advantage is the efficiency along with the price of CNG itself. With CNG cars, they offer comparable, or even greater gas mileage than that of a gasoline-powered car. The main difference lies in the price, availabi1ity, and abundance of natural gas. For instance, "80 to 90 percent of the natural gas we use comes from domestic sources" [22] making it appealing to the American consumer. Moreover, because the majority of the world's petroleum reserves are located in politically volatile countries, the United States is susceptible to foreign markets. Therefore, the availability of US natural gas makes CNG vehicles an attractive option for the future due to a reduction in dependence on foreign petroleum [23]. Furthermore, CNG cars also have the same power, acceleration, and cruising speeds of gasoline vehicle.

FIGURE 6 [24]

Diagram of compressed natural gas car

All that being said, there are many disadvantages that make natural gas vehicles a less than desirable option. First and foremost, the driving range (100 miles) is generally less than that of comparable gasoline vehicles because natural gas possess less overall energy content per tank by volume than hydrogen or even gasoline for that matter. Also, seen in Figure 6 above, CNG vehicles such as the Volvo V70 are not completely independent of gasoline where the vehicle has both a CNG and gasoline tank providing fuel to the engine bringing into question the sustainability of a CNG vehicle. Along with the limited range of CNG automobiles, there are currently only 810 natural gas fueling stations in the US making it difficult for long distance travel [23]. Also, even though the US possess large reserves of natural gas, these cars are still dependent on a non-renewable resource that will eventually run out at some point in the future. Moreover, if the US were to switch to an infrastructure based on CNG, it would only be switching from one fossil fuel to another, thus merely delaying the inevitable extinction of fossil fuels.

DRAWBACKS OF HFC'S IN CARS

The Fuel Itself

Like hybrid-electric and natural gas cars, hydrogen fuel is not the perfect system or "green" energy source; it, too, has its own set of disadvantages. First and foremost, hydrogen fuel is expensive, as it requires an initial investment of energy to free it from other elements and isolate it. Hydrogen may be the most prominent element in the universe, but it is always bonded to another element and its isolation requires extraction. Not only is the cost of extracting elemental hydrogen high, the time required to obtain the hydrogen fuel and energy required to produce it does not allow for ease of mass production. Furthermore, oil can be easily sent through pipelines and tankers, while light hydrogen gas is problematic to transport in a reasonable fashion, making its implementation into current infrastructure difficult. Another issue that arises with the implementation of hydrogen as a fuel source is the dependency on fossil fuels. Although hydrogen energy is renewable and its environmental impacts are minimal, its production can be generated from non-renewable sources like coal, oil, and natural gas instead of electrolysis of water [25]. At first glance, it appears there is a reduction in the dependency on fossil fuels, when in fact they are being used to produce hydrogen gas [26]. However, it can be advantageous for hydrogen production to be performed in a singular plant controlling the pollution rather than having thousands of individual cars contributing to the problem.

Producing and Implementing Fuel Cells

Although HFC's appear to be an appealing option, this technology is still in its infancy having only been within the automotive industry for a few short decades. Like any new technology, improvements are constantly being made and built upon given credence to why these cars are not yet in mass production. Moreover, there are only prototypes being produced, making large scale implementation difficult. Up until now, many major automakers have been reluctant to make a push to market a HFC vehicle for consumer purchase. However, automakers such as Toyota and Hyundai have invested a great deal of research and development into the technology and are releasing their respective models for consumer purchase in 2015, giving way to a whole new class of vehicles[27]. With the production of these new vehicles, another issue comes to light. Although the process of pumping hydrogen into the vehicle itself is relatively simple, the process of

5


pumping hydrogen into our infrastructure is by far the greatest challenge facing this technology. The primary challenge facing the implementation of HFC technology in cars has not been the car itself necessarily, but in having sufficient fueling locations. This gives way to a dilemma where automakers are reluctant to market cars without sufficient infrastructure, and station providers are reluctant to build stations without cars. Furthermore, the cost of constructing both the fueling stations and the car itself is still considerably high. For instance, the 2015 Toyota Mirai is still relatively expensive for the average consumer at a manufacturer suggested retail price of $57,500 [27].

Ethical Drawbacks

In order to safely and effectively implement this technology as the chief source of energy in automobiles, it is essential that the safety hazards associated with hydrogen fuel are reduced to a minimum. One of the problems that must be taken into consideration when dealing with HFC's is the volatile nature of hydrogen fuel. Hydrogen is an extremely flammable gas and misuse, along with improper handling, has the potential to pose detrimental outcomes for consumer usage [28]. Hydrogen burns at a very fast rate and the energy required for combustion is significantly lower than it is for other fuels like natural gas and gasoline. Hydrogen's high burn rate and low ignition energy increase the likelihood of potential fire and explosion hazards [29]. Although the previous statements are characteristic of hydrogen gas, it is important to note that combustion in a hydrogen vessel is impossible in the absence of an oxidizer such as oxygen. Unlike natural gas and propane, which contain an odorant known as Mercaptan, hydrogen gas is odorless, tasteless, and colorless [28]. This essentially makes it impossible for the detection of a hydrogen gas leak. Although this may not seem like a big issue, it is important to remember the volatility and flammability of this gas which can give way to fire and explosion hazards.

Safety is Key

Although the ethical drawbacks associated with hydrogen gas and fuel cells may carry some heavy repercussions, it is important to recognize that the "U.S. currently produces and safely uses more than 9 million tons of hydrogen each year" [29]. In a market where the application of HFC's has become so diversified, the number of fuel cells on the market continues to grow each year. This increase is no coincidence and is in part due to the safety of both hydrogen fuel and fuel cells. First and foremost, hydrogen is non-toxic and non-poisonous. Under standard conditions, hydrogen exists as a gas and it does not contribute to atmospheric or water pollution contributing to its sustainability [29]. From an environmental standpoint, this information presents HFC's as a desirable option for energy production in vehicles. In addition, HFC vehicles contain many onboard

safety systems that ensure the safe operation and function of the vehicle. For example, "there are sensors that detect leaks, a computer that monitors fuel flow, and an excess flow shut-off valve" [29]. Hydrogen tanks also have a pressure release device which will shut off the flow of fuel if a leak is detected, minimizing the amount of leaks and allowing the gas to vent harmlessly into the air [29].

ECONOMIC IMPACT

It is a well-known fact that more than half of the oil used in the United States is imported from other countries. This has a significant impact on the economy of the US as two-thirds of this oil is used for transportation. Because so much oil comes from foreign sources, changes in prices and supply are based largely on the condition of politically unstable regions in the Middle East. Attempts to free the U.S. from dependence on Middle Eastern oil date back to the "oil crisis" of the 1970's; however, the amount of oil imported has actually increased since then. An example demonstrating how the price of gasoline rose in response to the global market occurred in 2008 with the price of gasoline and diesel fuel hovering in the $4 to $5 per gallon range throughout [30]. Luckily for consumers, the price has fallen since then, but it can still cost consumers $35-45 for a single tank of gas in 2015. With all the issues surrounding foreign oil production and importation, a need for both a cheaper and more reliable fuel source has arisen. The U.S. Department of Energy reported in 2002 that current HFCs produced electricity at a price of approximately $225-$275 per kilowatt [31]. Unfortunately, prices will need to drop to about $30 per kilowatt before hydrogen becomes competitive with gasoline as a fuel. However, the National Research Council predicts that the cost of the hydrogen itself, measured on a cost per mile basis, could soon be as much as 50 percent lower than the current cost of gasoline by 2017, which can be seen in Figure 7 below at the ideal price of $30 per kilowatt [31]. Furthermore, the current cost is at $47 per kilowatt and has been steadily decreasing year after year as shown in the graph below indicating that hydrogen is well on its way to reaching the projected $30 per kilowatt mark in 2017. Obviously, this advantage will continue to increase steadily as the price of gas goes up and HFC technology progresses.

FIGURE 7 [32]

6


Graph of projected transportation fuel cell system cost

Therefore, HFC vehicles have the potential to reduce dependence on foreign energy and become a sustainable option for the future. However, it will probably be decades before enough HFC vehicles are in everyday use to make a significant difference on oil imports. In the long run, however, the impact of hydrogen cars could contribute to “job development, investment opportunities, and the creation of a sustainable, secure energy supply” [5]. For a successful transition from gasoline powered vehicles, there would be an overall cost between $10 billion and $45 billion between the current year and 2025 [33]. This includes the development, production, distribution, and refueling steps associated with the technology. Even though it appears that this is extremely expensive, only $22 billion would need to be spent to compete with the current-day gasoline powered vehicle industry [33]. A switch to HFC's as an alternative fuel for vehicles would create numerous jobs throughout the US fulfilling the profit component of sustainability. According to South Carolina’s hydrogen energy website, “the United States hydrogen market is expected to exceed one million jobs by the year 2020” [34]. That means one million people would have to be employed creating a wealth of new jobs where engineers and common laborers alike would be hired to improve and build the new vehicles. The job opportunities created by HFC's allows them to be a sustainable fuel source because it benefits both the present and the future. Jobs created today by HFC's would last well into the future, meaning that these fuel cells fit into the definition of sustainability. HFCs could also be an investment opportunity for stockholders - they could put money into stocks with the company, and as the companies make money, the stockholders do too as the technology progresses. Therefore, HFC's can and will positively affect the economic status of the US, in turn making fuel cell technology sustainable. Overall, there is a significant short term cost in producing these vehicles, but it is worth the initial investment. Once these vehicles are mass produced, the price of them will fall to around the normal price of today’s gasoline powered vehicles. Also, HFC vehicles would ultimately save people

money because they would no longer have to pay $40 for a tank of fuel. Overall, Americans would save money, further validating its sustainability. Hydrogen energy is a renewable resource, so the power the vehicle it produces can continually be reused. HFC's are also durable running for approximately 16,000 hours straight [35], which is roughly 2 years without stopping. That is a significant finding in the sustainability of these HFC vehicles because of its durability consumers will not have to spend large sums of money on maintenance. Lastly, there are more costs associated with natural gas powered vehicles and hybrid vehicles than that of a HFC vehicle. With a natural gas powered vehicle, there will always be a need to refuel the vehicle, equating to an expenditure every time the vehicle requires refueling. Also, hybrid vehicles constantly need to be charged. Most people would need a charging station at their home in order to charge the vehicle’s batteries after each trip. The station itself will be costly, and the electricity bill would be astronomical. Therefore, a HFC vehicle, even with its high initial cost, is the most economically efficient and sustainable alternative fuel for the future of the United States.

CURRENT STATUS OF HFC'S IN AUTOMOBILES

A number of factors are converging to make HFC vehicles more attractive to both investors and consumers. Between the development of fuel station infrastructure, falling costs of the vehicle itself, and increased manufacturer support, a favorable environment has been created for the development of this technology. Recently, regional public-private partnerships have emerged to develop smart, comprehensive strategies for implementing HFC technology. Many major car manufacturers are beginning to show their support for the HFC vehicle with their release of prototypes and concept vehicles. One particularly notable manufacturer is Toyota, with its latest announcement of the Mirai. Mirai, which is the Japanese word for "the future", definitely has the potential to be the way of the future. Set to be released in late 2015, the Mirai will set a standard for a whole new class of vehicles. Featuring a 300 mile range per tank, a fill time of less than five minutes, and a clean exhaust system, the Mirai, as seen in figure 8, gives a whole new meaning to HFC vehicles [27]. Advancements that can be seen in the Mirai such as the FC boost converter and power control unit give way to a promising future for a technology that is still only in its infancy. However, the advancements do not stop there as Toyota is not the only one that has done major research and development with fuel cell technology. Many other top manufacturers such as Chevrolet, Honda, and even Mercedes-Benz are developing their own take on the HFC vehicle. With this information in mind, it is fair to say that

7


HFC technology has clear potential to develop into a sustainable option for producers and consumer alike. With a growing market for HFCV's, producers now have a motive to mass produce these vehicles and turn a profit. As a result of the influx of manufacturers in the HFCV market, a competitive environment is beginning to emerge which gives way to technological advancements and price drops over the years. HFCV's can be termed sustainable for the aforementioned reasons and due to their overall profitability for producer's who will be able to mass produce the vehicles.

FIGURE 8 [38]

Diagram of the 2015 Toyota Mirai

With prototypes now becoming reality, there still lies the issue of implementing and constructing hydrogen fueling stations. Research shows that an investment of $100-$200 million for 100 stations, capable of supporting about 50,000 HFC vehicles, would be enough to make hydrogen cost-competitive with gasoline on a cost per mile basis. To demonstrate the current advancement of hydrogen fueling stations, the state of California awarded $46 million to build 28 hydrogen fuel stations in 2014 [37]. With production of HFC vehicles on the rise and both government assistance and company rebates to help incentivize consumers, HFC's in cars can develop into a sustainable solution for the automotive market for generations to come. The accelerating commercialization of HFC technologies, demonstrated by figure 9, already shows significant increase in fuel cell technology from the year 2000 and will continue to rise as HFC's are mass produced. The US Department of Energy reports that there have been 363 patents alone devoted to HFC technology in cars leading to a realization that HFC's are not only a viable option in cars, but a feasible, and most importantly, sustainable option for the automotive industry [38].

FIGURE 9 [36]

Graph displaying the accelerating commercialization of HFC’s

THE CHECKERED FLAG

After an extensive analysis of HFC vehicles, their superiority can be seen in terms of efficiency, sustainability and, energy production when compared to other types of vehicles. Hydrogen is powerful, sustainable and clean, making it the premier alternative fuel for the future. It is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe and can be used to generate massive amounts of energy in a HFC. The specific application of HFC technology in vehicles is beneficial from both an economic and environmental standpoint when compared side by side with other current options on the market. It is evident that a switch from an industry primarily dominated by gas powered vehicles to one with a heavier focus on HFC vehicles would be a sound investment for the future. Although the implementation of this technology into our current infrastructure poses a challenge, a promising future lies ahead as research and development continues to expand and major automotive manufacturers begin to produce functioning and efficient HFC vehicles. The evidence proves that the long-term economic savings, ethical benefits, sustainability, and superiority of HFC vehicles over other vehicle types holds a promising future for a new generation of vehicles.

REFERENCES

[1] D. Brus, D. Hotek. (2010). “Exploring Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology.” Technology Teacher. Vol. 69, No. 6. P. 20-24. (Online Article). http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=8fb9d5bf-4c3e-4620-bb6f-922ee06a3ba1%40sessionmgr4003&hid=4204&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=48950750[2] “Alternative Fuels Data Center.” US Department of Energy. (Online Article). http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/hydrogen_benefits.html[3] “Hydrogen Fuel Cell.” DriveClean.ca.gov. (Online Article).

8


http://www.driveclean.ca.gov/Search_and_Explore/Technologies_and_Fuel_Types/Hydrogen_Fuel_Cell.php[4] (2015). "Hydrogen Energy." Renewable Energy World. (Online Article) http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/tech/hydrogen[5] (2015). "Fuel Cell Basics." Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. (Online Article). http://www.fchea.org/fuelcells/[6] J. Burdge, J. Overby. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms First. New York, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies. (Print Book)[7] (2004, November). "Hydrogen and Helium." Star Date. (Online Magazine Article) http://stardate.org/astro-guide/hydrogen-and-helium[8] (2015, February 9). “Fuel Cell Vehicles.” U.S. Department of Energy. (Online Article). https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fuelcell.shtml[9] T. Drennen, J. Rosthal. (2007). Pathways to a Hydrogen Future. Oxford, Great Britain: Elsevier Lancre House. (Print Book).[10] (2015, February 15). "Hydrogen Basics." Fuel Cells 2000. (Online Article). http://www.fuelcells.org/base.cgim?template=hydrogen_basics[11] A. Friedemann. (2004, September). "The Hydrogen Economy - Energy and Economic Black Hole." Culture Change. (Online Article). http://www.culturechange.org/alt_energy.htm[12] (2014). "Hydrogen Basics”. Florida Solar Energy Center. (Online Article). http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/hydrogen/basics/production.htm [13] (2006). "Hydrogen Fuel Cells." US Department of Energy. (Online Article) http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/doe_fuelcell_factsheet.pdf[14] (2015). "Hydrogen Fuel Cell Benefits." Fuel Cells 2000. (Online Article). http://www.fuelcells.org/base.cgim?template=benefits[15] “What is sustainability?” EPA. (Online Article). http://www.epa.gov/sustainability/basicinfo.htm[16] B. Sorensen. (2005). Hydrogen and Fuel Cells. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press. (Print Book).[17] S. Thomas. (2012). “How Green are Electric Vehicles.” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. Vol 37, No. 7. p. 6053-6062 (Online Article). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036031991102841[18] (2015, February 16). “How Hybrids Work.” U.S. Department of Energy. (Online Article). http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridtech.shtml[19] (2012, May 21). "Decision Points: Hybrid Cars vs. Traditional Gas Cars." Fox Business. (Online Article). http://www.foxbusiness.com/personal-finance/2012/05/11/decision-points-hybrid-cars-versus-traditional-gas-cars/

[20] (2015, February 16). "Compare Hybrid Cars Pro & Cons." Compare Hybrid Cars. (Online Article). http://www.comparehybridcars.net/?type=faq[21] D. Wagner (2014, December 23). Interview.[22] M. Duffy. (2013). "The Pros and Cons of Natural-Gas Vehicles." Bankrate. (Online Article). http://www.bankrate.com/finance/auto/natural-gas-vehicles.aspx[23] (2015). "Natural Gas Benefits and Considerations." US Department of Energy Alternative Fuels Data Center. (Online Article). http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/natural_gas_benefits.html[24] (2015, February 27). "Volvo Bi-Fuel LPG Models." The Volvo Owners Club. (Online Article). http://www.volvoclub.org.uk/roadtests/bifuel_01on_roadtest.shtml[25] (2015, February 15). "Hydrogen Production." US Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Program. (Online Article). http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/production.html[26] (2015, February 16). "What is Hydrogen Energy?" Conserve Energy Future. (Online Article). http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/Advantages_Disadvantages_HydrogenEnergy.php[27] (2014). “Toyota Mirai-The Turning Point.” Toyota Motor Sales. (Online Article). http://www.toyota.com/fuelcell/fcv.html[28] (2015, February 16). "Green Job Hazards: Hydrogen Fuel Cells - Fire and Explosion." Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (Online Article). https://www.osha.gov/dep/greenjobs/hydrogen_fire.html[29] (2015 Febuary 16). "Hydrogen Safety Basics". US Government Office of Energy Efficiecy & Renewable Energy. (Online Article). http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-safety-basics[30] C. Lampton. (2008, September 4). "What are the Benefits of Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles?" How Stuff Works. (Online Article). http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/hydrogen-vehicle-benefit2.htm[31] N. Bianco, K. Meek, R. Gasper, M. Obeiter, S. Forbes, & N. Aden. (2014, October). "Seeing is Believing: Creating a new Climate Economy in the United States." The New Climate Economy - The Global Commission on the Economy and Climate. (Online Journal). http://newclimateeconomy.report/united-states/[32] (2015, March 3). "Benefits and Challenges of Fuel Cells.” U.S. Department of Energy. (Online Article). http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_benefits.shtml[33] H.J. Neef. (2008). “International Overview of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Research.” Energy, An International Journal. Vol 34, No. 34. p. 327-33 (Online

9

http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/hydrogen/basics/production.htm

http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/hydrogen/basics/production.htm


Article). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544208002144[34] (2014, November 8). "Economic Impact of Hydrogen Fuel." SC Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Alliance. (Online Article). http://www.schydrogen.org/html/economic_impact.html[35] (2015, Febuary 15). "About PEM Fuel Cells." Nedstack - PEM Fuel Cells. (Online Article). http://www.nedstack.com/faq/about-pem-fuel-cells[36] (2015). "Powering the Future - Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Could Change Mobility Forever." Toyota Motor Sales. (Online Article). http://www.toyota-global.com/innovation/environmental_technology/fuelcell_vehicle/[37] K. Kerlin. (2014, August 2014). "Will Hydrogen Cars Finally Hit the Road?" Futurity. (Online Article) http://www.futurity.org/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-752732/[38] (2015, February 6). “Accomplishments and Progress.” Fuel Cell Technologies Office. (Online Article). http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/accomplishments.pdf

ADDITIONAL SOURCES“About PEM Fuel Cells.” Nedstack. (Online Article). http://www.nedstack.com/faq/about-pem-fuel-cells(2015, February 6). “Accomplishments and Progress.” Fuel Cell Technologies Office. (Online Article). https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/accompl ishments.html“A Current, Significant Engineering Topic - What do YOU Have to Say?” University of Pittsburgh ULS. (2014). (Video). http://www.library.pitt.edu/other/files/il/fresheng/index.html(2013, November 13). “Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Cars.” CarsDirect. (Online Article). http://www.carsdirect.com/green-cars/electric-carsadvantages-and-disadvantagesR. Boyle. (2012, March 19). “Catalyst Helps Store Hydrogen in Liquid Form for Simple, Safe Future Fuel Use.” Popular Science. (Online Article). http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2012-03/newcatalyst-helps-store-hydrogen-simple-safe-future-fueluse?dom=PSC&loc=recent&lnk=2&con=catalyst-helpsstore-hydrogen-in-liquid-form-for-simple-safe-future-fuel-use“Compressed Natural Gas Infrastructure.” U.S. and Canadian Natural Gas Vehicle Market Analysis. (Online Article). http://www.anga.us/media/content/F7D3861D- 9ADE-7964E. Derr. (2014, February 25). “Will California’s Hydrogen Highway Survive This Time Around?” Popular Mechanics. (Online Article). http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/alternativef

uel/cells/will-californias-hydrogen-highway-survive-thistime-around-16528881M. Delucchi. J. Ogden. (2010, November). “Societal Lifetime Cost of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles”. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. (Online Article). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036031991 0016836B. Dumaine. (2013, August 15). “Has the Fuel Cell Car’s Time Finally Come?” CNN Money. (Online Article). http://money.cnn.com/2013/08/15/technology/fuel-cellhydrogen.pr.fortune/“Gas Station Statistics.” Statistics Brain. (Website). http://www.statisticbrain.com/gas-station-statistics/“Green Job Hazards: Hydrogen Fuel Cells.” Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (Online Article). https://www.osha.gov/dep/greenjobs/hydrogen.html“Hydrogen Benefits.” Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Associations. (Online Article). http://www.fchea.org/index.php?id=47(2013, October 23). “Natural Gas Vehicles”. Alternative Fuels Data Center. (Online Article). http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/natural_gas.htmlJ. Ramsey. (December 11, 2013). “2015 Toyota fuel cell hydrogen vehicle prototype.” Autobloggreen. (Online Article). http://green.autoblog.com/2013/12/11/2015-toyota-fuel-cellhydrogen-vehicle-prototype-review/(June 14, 2013). “Volvo Debuts New V60 Bi-Fuel.” Barrier. (Online Article). http://barriervolvoblog.com/2013/06/volvo-debuts-new-v60- bi-fuel/(April 02, 2012). “What Are Greenhouse Gases?” EIA. (Online Article). http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.htmlM. Winter. (2012). “Hydrogen: the essentials.” Web Elements. (Online Article). http://www.webelements.com/hydrogen/

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would first like to extend a special thanks to the staff at both the Hillman and Engineering Libraries for helping us through the research and exploration process of our topic. Without their help, we would not have been able to find the articles, data, or research associated with our topic that made this paper possible. The staff showed us how to use the University of Pittsburgh’s library system effectively and provided us with a wealth of information. Next, we would like to thank our parents for supporting us throughout the writing process. Lastly, a most important thanks goes out to our writing instructor, Emelyn Fuhrman, and peer advisor, Sarah Ireland, for guiding us along the way and continually offering comments to improve our writing.

10


11

swv1blog.files.wordpress.com · web viewthese expenditures would be nominal compared to the amount...

Documents