Symbols of Viking gods: left—a figurine of Odin with two ravens above his head and a sword and spears in hand, from Uppland, Sweden; right

—a hammer amulet representing Thor, from Bornholm, Denmark. Images from Vikings: the North American Saga, edited by Fitzhugh

and Ward.

Symbols of Viking gods: left—a figurine of Freyr, god of fertility, with erect penis, from Södermanland, Sweden; right—amulets representing

Valkyries, the furthest right carrying a horn of drink to welcome the heroes to Valhalla, from various sites in Sweden. Images from Vikings:

the North American Saga, edited by Fitzhugh and Ward.

Viking religious beliefs: a depiction of Yggrasil, the World Tree, in the Överhogdal Tapestry. The threat dates from the Viking Age. On

display at Jämtlands Läns Museum, Östersund, Sweden. Image from Vikings: the North American Saga, edited by Fitzhugh and Ward.

Viking religious beliefs: left—a stone depicting a Viking ship (below) and an image of the afterlife (above) with Odin riding Sleipnir, from

Tjängvide, Gotland, Sweden, 9th century; right—Thorvald’s cross slab, depicting Odin (right bottom side) with ravens on his shoulders and

being devoured by Fenrir, Isle of Man, 10th century. Images from Vikings: the North American Saga, edited by Fitzhugh and Ward.

Left—the Viking lands in relation to Europe circa 813.Right—growth of power of Danish kings circa 800. Maps

from Robert Ferguson, The Vikings: a History.

Contact between Scandinavia and Western Europe: left—Ranvaig’s casket, Irish in origin but owned by a Scandinavian woman

named Ranvaig who carved her name into the casket; center—replica of a 9th century Irish penannular brooch from a Viking cemetery in Kilmainham, Ireland;

right—the Helgö Crosier, also Irish in origin, but found in Helgö, Sweden. Images from Vikings: the North American Saga, edited by Fitzhugh and Ward.

Contact between Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East: left—8th century bronze Buddha statue found in Helgö, Sweden; top

right—late 8th century quartz beads from the Caucasus found in Birka, Sweden; bottom right—an Abbasid dirham of 786 found in Staraja Ladoga, northern

Russia. Images from Vikings: the North American Saga, edited by Fitzhugh and Ward.

The Oseberg Ship, built c. 820, buried c. 825, excavated 1904.

The Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway

• 72 ft long• 16 ½ ft broad• Crew of 30 men• Used to bury two

women, one possibly a queen, the other her slave.

• Buried with a horse-drawn cart, buckets, barrels, and a tapestry depicting the funeral procession.

Viking ships: left—a close up of the Oseberg ship prow, with oar hole (used in preference to oar locks); right—a modern replica ship, Saga

Siglar. Images from Vikings: the North American Saga, edited by Fitzhugh and Ward.

The Gokstad ship, built c. 870-890, buried c. 900, excavated 1880.

The Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway

• 76 ½ ft long• 17 ft broad• Crew of 32-35 men• Used to bury one man,

over 6 ft tall and bearing multiple injuries, including a stab wound close to the femoral artery.

• Buried with shields, dogs, horses, and a peacock, among other objects.

11th century Viking-style ships depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, on display in Bayeux, Normandy, France. The

tapestry records the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England in 1066 at the battle of Hastings.

Illustration of a Viking bearing-dial, based on a bearing dial recovered in Iceland. Illustration from Gwyn Jones, A

History of the Vikings.