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Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794–809

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate /marpetgeo

Depositional processes across the Sinu Accretionary Prism, offshore Colombia

Jamie S. Vinnels a,*,1, Robert W.H. Butler b, William D. McCaffrey a, Douglas A. Paton a

a School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UKb School of Geosciences, Meston Building, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 17 April 2009Received in revised form13 November 2009Accepted 10 December 2009Available online 4 January 2010

Keywords:TurbiditesSlopeCanyonsChannelsColombiaDeep-water

* Corresponding author. Tel: þ44 0203 204 3293.E-mail address: jamv@statoil.com (J.S. Vinnels).

1 Present address: Statoil (UK) Ltd, 1 Kingdom Stre

0264-8172/$ – see front matter � 2009 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.12.008

a b s t r a c t

The Pliocene to Recent of the Sinu Accretionary Prism, offshore Colombia, features gravity currentdominated basins characterised primarily by channel- and sheet-like architectures and those withdominantly hemipelagic fills. The prism is fed by rivers that drain from uplifted older basins and volcanicAndean terranes to the south and east which source large volumes of sediment to the Colombian Shelfinto the Colombian Basin. Some basin fills show evidence of both localised fold-induced sediment failureand regional-scale shelf collapse, both related to the generation and destruction of oversteepened slopes.Large scale collapses can create new sediment routing pathways and/or local depocentres into whichsediment subsequently accumulates. In the Colombian Basin, even relatively distal basins show evidenceof channel activity related primarily to the creation of new sediment distribution pathways throughbreaches in the substrate barriers between basins. These channels are often orientated parallel to theregional drainage trend, suggesting that regional sediment transport trends can assert themselvesrelatively early in a basin filling history regardless of the local bathymetric grain. While, at a regionalscale, sediment dispersal fairways reflect drainage from the continental shelf to the basin floor, intraslopebasins form local bathymetric obstructions that can drive local spatial variations in sediment distribution.Thus, both local and regional length scales of bathymetric control are evident within the intraslopebasins of the Sinu Accretionary Prism. Although regional dispersal patterns generally become moreimportant in time, individual intraslope basins exhibit more complex filling histories because eventssuch as sill or shelf collapse may serve to disrupt established distribution pathways, initiating repeatedepisodes of adjustment.

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1. Introduction

The bathymetric configuration of many turbidite basins allowsfor only partial confinement of sediments, leading to complexspatial and temporal variations in both sediment facies and archi-tecture within and across connected basins (Felletti, 2002; Hooperet al., 2002; Smith, 2004; Adeogba et al., 2005; Hadler-Jacobsenet al., 2005; Fugelli and Olsen, 2007; Jackson et al., 2008). Inferringthe length scales of bathymetric control on turbidite deposits fromspatially-limited data (e.g., outcrops or well data) is a key challengeto understanding the upstream or downstream transitions withinthe larger turbidite system to which these belong (Kneller, 1995,2003; McCaffrey and Kneller, 2004).

In modern deep-water settings it is not always possible to makearchitectural or facies observations on the scale of those seen in

et, London, W2 6BD, UK.

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outcrop, i.e., bed scale, but instead long-distance routing systemsand basin scale architectures can be resolved, and, perhaps moreimportantly, the spatial relationships of the depositional elementsare preserved. McCaffrey and Kneller (2004) attributed the array ofgeometrical styles seen within turbidite systems to varying scalesof turbidity current non-uniformity related to changes in slope orthe degree of confinement, which, at basin scales, are reflected bythe presence of the sedimentary deposits themselves, and at flowand sub-flow scales reflect spatial variations in erosion and depo-sition; e.g., the development of channel- or sheet-like architectures.The use of plan (map) and section (2D seismic) views allowsa better understanding of how modern depositional elementsrelate to geomorphological features seen within the seismic data(e.g., Beaubouef and Friedmann, 2000; Demyttenaere et al., 2000;Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Adeogba et al., 2004; Fowler et al.,2004; Posamentier, 2004; Steffens et al., 2004; Posamentier et al.,2007; Sømme et al., 2009).

This study examines a combination of commercial 2D seismicreflection profiles and bathymetric data to categorise depositionalprocesses across the Sinu Accretionary Prism. Our aim is to assess

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the role of both regional sediment distribution pathways and localsubstrate interaction on controlling sediment routing from theshelf, through the prism slope, to the Colombian Basin floor, andgauge how this influences the sedimentation within the intraslopebasins.

2. Regional context

2.1. Structure and stratigraphy

The Cenozoic Sinu-San Jacinto Accretionary Prism extends fromthe Gulf of Uraba, which separates Colombia from Panama, toVenezuela in the northeast, and represents the boundary betweenthe Caribbean and South American plates (Fig. 1). Convergencebetween the Caribbean oceanic lithosphere and the South Amer-ican continent has formed the northern Andean Cordillera anda subduction-accretion complex related to the closure of theCentral American Isthmus from the Cretaceous onwards (Duque-Caro, 1984; Cediel et al., 2003; Flinch, 2003). The San JacintoTerrane forms the onshore part of the accretionary wedge and isformed primarily of Cretaceous to Paleocene volcaniclastic and

Fig. 1. Satellite and multibeam bathymetry maps covering Northwest South America, illustrbox highlights the area of multibeam data shown in Fig. 3. Inset map shows the tectonic framblack rectangle. Adapted from French and Schenk (2004).

siliciclastic shallow marine to deepwater strata (Flinch, 2003). Thesystem continues offshore to form the Sinu Accretionary Prism. Incommon with other systems, the more oceanward part of thesystem is inferred to be the youngest (i.e., Paleocene and younger).However, at the time of writing, there have been no well-pene-trations in the Sinu belt beyond eight exploration wells on thecontinental shelf. The Sinu-San Jacinto Accretionary Prism is a westto northwest verging imbricate stack of sedimentary rocks largelyderived from subducted and obducted Andean Terranes and lieswest of the Romeral Fault, with its leading edge bounded tothe west by the Uramita Fault (Flinch, 2003; Corredor et al.,2005; Fig. 1).

From the Pliocene onwards, deep-water sedimentation in theSinu Accretionary Prism occurred in piggy-back basins formed fromolder Miocene sediments and is dominated by input from fluvialsystems fed from the Andean Cordillera (Restrepo and Kjerfve,2000; Flinch, 2003). Andean tectonic events are thought to beresponsible for altering the Cenozoic palaeodrainage of the SouthAmerican plate, which in turn influenced sediment supply char-acteristics to the Colombian Basin until the present day (Hoornet al., 1995; Potter, 1997; Villamil, 1999).

ating the position of major rivers, basins, tectonic elements, and faults. The dashed lineework of northern South America and the Caribbean. The study area is indicated by the

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2.2. Oceanographic and riverine context

Closure of the Central American Isthmus from Late MiddleMiocene times is responsible for the deflection and containment ofthe circum-Caribbean current, which established the Panama-Colombian Gyre of the Colombian Basin, and may have had anaffect on North Atlantic Deep Water Flow and sediment supplycharacteristics along the Colombian Continental Shelf (Duque-Caro,1990; Burton et al., 1997; Richardson, 2005). Discharge data fromRestrepo and Kjerfve (2000) suggest that there is strong source areacontrol on the type and volume of sediment supplied to the modernColombian Basin, and that the majority of present day depositionalsystems in the Sinu Accretionary Prism are fed by the River Sinu,with some influence from the River Atrato, River Mulatos and RiverMagdalena (Fig. 1). Pujos and Javelaud (1991) suggest that, duringthe wet season, River Magdalena sediment is deflected northeast,and, during the dry season, southwest-directed trade windsdisperse material along the shelf, which partially overprints localdischarge currents from the River Sinu. There is strong source areaand seasonal control on modern sediment supplied from theColombian Continental Shelf to the Colombian Basin (Pujos andJavelaud, 1991; Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2000).

2.3. Database and methods

This study integrates a variety of datasets made available by BHPBilliton and partner Ecopetrol along with vintage data from theAgencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos (Colombia). The dataset con-sisted of merged multibeam echosounder bathymetry surveys (BHPBilliton and Ecopetrol, 2006; Total, 2001), along with several 2Dseismic reflection surveys lodged with Ecopetrel and made avail-able to their partners, BHP Billiton (Figs. 1–3). The bathymetry datawere converted from depth to sea bed dip using the default dipattribute surface operation function within Schlumberger’s Petrelsoftware, which allowed for a better appreciation of geomorpho-logical features than using a simple depth/colour display (Hart andSagan, 2007).

Exact determination of the lithology and age of the sedimentarydeposits within the Sinu Accretionary Prism was inferred based onproprietary exploration (onshore and nearshore) borehole dataprovided by BHP Billiton. Within the study area, covered by the

Fig. 2. Example of regional 2D seismic line combined with bathymetry from the central posection, which is inferred to be Upper Pliocene and younger based on proprietary borehole dslope sills. The arrow in the bottom right corner points toward the north.

bathymetry data, the strata are Upper Pliocene and younger in ageand chiefly inferred to be deep-water clastic deposits. Thesedeposits were chosen for study as they remain in the shallowseismic section, <500 ms TWT below the mudline, equivalent to<500 m below the sea bed assuming a 2 km/s velocity, and arerelatively undeformed or otherwise truncated (Fig. 2). In addition,the shallow seismic section was free of diffractions, bottom simu-lating reflectors (BSR’s) and multiples, which are seen in deepersections, and is inferred to be of higher frequency than deepersections which suffer from attenuation of the seismic energy.Although in places shallow stratal reflections are occluded by BSR’s(inferred to represent gas hydrate deposits), we have avoided theseregions where possible. Onlap of recent sediment within theintraslope basins was defined by tracking reflection terminationsonto intra- and inter-basinal bathymetry using interpolationbetween the 2D seismic reflection lines and the bathymetry, whichallowed the areal extent of deposition within the intraslope basinsto be defined (Fig. 3). Slope profiles and basin filling histories aredescribed using the terminology of Kneller (2003) and McCaffreyand Kneller (2004), while onlap styles, basin topography andaccommodation space trends are described using the terminologyof Smith (2004), Hadler-Jacobsen et al. (2005) and Gardiner (2006).

3. Sediment dispersal pathways from the ColombianContinental Shelf to the Colombian Basin floor

3.1. Gross slope characteristics

The modern day Sinu Accretionary Prism is an arcuate subma-rine feature that spans the shelf-slope break to the basin floor of theColombian Basin to depths of greater than 3500 m (Figs. 1–3). TheSinu Accretionary Prism is dominated by thrust and fold featuresrelated to accretion of the prism (Flinch, 2003; Fig. 3). These foldfeatures are locally disrupted by slumps, and play an important rolein influencing sediment dispersal pathways and partitioning acrossa series of intraslope basins.

Within the study area, the Colombian Continental Shelf varies inwidth from 25 to 80 km (Fig. 3). A pronounced shelf-slope break ataround 250 m water depth is evident from the bathymetry, and isincised into by a series of tributary gully and canyon networks thatconnect to the upper slope (Fig. 3). The upper slope is of low relief

rtion of the Sinu Accretionary Prism. This study restricts itself to the shallow seismicata, and which occurs as a series of intra-slope basin fills and bypass dominated intra-

Fig. 3. Interpretation of bathymetry with onlap traces and fold hinges indicated along with the distributary routes mapped (DR). Onlap was defined by tracking reflectionterminations onto intra- and inter-basinal bathymetry using 2D seismic reflection lines and interpolation using the bathymetry data. Shelf dispersal data suggests that the majorityof sediment fed to the Sinu Accretionary Prism derives from fluvial input from the River Sinu. Coloured boxes indicate the position of the dip maps shown in subsequent figures.

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and is characterised by the development of over-filled basins fromwhich the majority of sediment is eroded or bypassed down-slope.The middle to lower slope is dominated by a series of thrust fault-cored periclinal folds which are locally or entirely dissected by

pronounced fold failure scarps, through which upper slopeconduits cut (Fig. 3). The axes of these fold hinges are approxi-mately parallel to the shelf margin, and can be traced along strikefor up to 60 km, with fold crests thus variably orientated from

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north-south to northeast-southwest. The middle to lower slope hashigh relief, and is characterised by under-filled basins, whencompared to the low relief, over-filled, basins of the upper slope.The lowermost portion of the slope is characterised by steep (>30�)scarp features locally incised into by lower slope canyons andgullies similar in aspect ratio to those seen at the shelf-slope break.In addition, newly emergent fold features are seen on the basinfloor, which exert some influence on the position of localised basinfloor fans (Fig. 3). The northern margin of the Sinu AccretionaryPrism is bordered by a channel-levee system fed directly from theshelf-slope break onto the basin floor (Fig. 3). This channel-leveesystem is attached to the Magdalena Delta (Fig. 1). The southernmargin of the Sinu Accretionary Prism is fringed by a low reliefsubmarine fan which feeds from the Atrato Delta directly across theshelf-slope break onto the basin floor (Figs. 1 and 3). Both thenorthern and southern depositional systems lack the influence ofpronounced sea-floor deformation seen within the Sinu Accre-tionary Prism.

3.2. Distributary route profiles

Distributary routes within the study area were subdivided onthe basis of whether they pass across a structured substrate andwhere the route terminates. The routes were mapped based upontracing obvious sediment conduits and pathways; e.g., canyons orgullies, or were inferred to flow downslope in areas lacking obviousconduit features (Fig. 3). In addition, it was assumed that the

Fig. 4. Profiles of the distributary routes (DR) defined on Fig. 3. The routes are divided in(B) routes that pass directly through the Sinu Accretionary Prism to the Colombian Basin, (CBasin, and (D) those that traverse indirectly through the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but enco

majority of gravity flows were not able to surmount the bathymetryof the intra-slope sills, as the evidence of extensive onlap and lackof sill incision suggests that these sills were sufficient to contain themajority of sediment shed into the basins. Based on this rationale,the distributary routes in the study area are divided into fourcategories: (1) those routes which do not pass across a structuredsubstrate, (2) routes that pass directly through the Sinu Accre-tionary Prism to the Colombian Basin, (3) those that pass throughthe Sinu Accretionary Prism, but do not reach the Colombian Basin(i.e. they terminate within the prism), and (4) those that traverseindirectly through the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but pass overa structured substrate on their way to the Colombian Basin floor(Figs. 3 and 4).

Distributary routes 1 and 11 do not pass across a structuredsubstrate (Fig. 3). The profile of distributary route 1 is 30 km long,ranging in depth from 300 m to 1900 m below sea-level with anaverage gradient of 3�, and is fed with sediment from both the RiverAtrato and the River Mulatos (Fig. 4a). The profile of distributaryroute 11 is 100 km long and ranges in depth from 1100 m to 2800 mbelow sea-level, with an average gradient of 1.5�. Both distributaryroute 1 and 11 exhibit a concave profile across the study area(Fig. 4a). The terminal parts of both distributary routes 1 and 11 arenot seen in the study area, but are inferred to lie in more distal partsof the Colombian Basin. Distributary route 11 traverses across theMagdalena Fan and represents the southern-most influence of theRiver Magdalena on the modern day Sinu Accretionary Prism (Kollaand Buffler, 1984; Kolla et al., 1984; Ercilla et al., 2002; Flinch, 2003;Estrada et al., 2005).

to four categories: (A) those routes which do not pass across a structured sea floor,) those that pass through the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but do not reach the Colombianunter some structure on the Colombian Basin floor.

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Distributary routes 2–4 pass through the Sinu AccretionaryPrism into the Colombian Basin and are fed primarily from the RiverSinu (Fig. 3). The profile of all three distributary routes is charac-terised by a concave section 30 km long spanning the 200 m to1450 m depth range with an average gradient of 2.5�, followed bya marked inflection at 1450 m below sea-level running out a further20 km to 2500 m below sea level, with an average gradient of 5�

(Fig. 4b). This pronounced inflection is associated with the steepfrontal scarp features (Fig. 3). As such the overall profile hasa sigmoidal morphology.

Distributary routes 5, 9, and 10 pass through the Sinu Accre-tionary Prism, but do not reach the Colombian Basin; i.e., arecomposed of depositional systems that feed across the shelf-slopebreak into intraslope basins, but do not connect to deeper bathy-metric levels (Fig. 3). The upper part of the profile of thesedistributary routes is 25 km long and has an average dip of 2� andrange in depth from 200 m to 1300 m below sea level (Fig. 4c).Beyond this point the profile gradient lowers, with an average dipof <0.5� up to a further 45 km and a maximum depth of 1750 mbelow sea level. The profile of these distributary routes hasa concave curvature.

Distributary routes 6–8 traverse through the Sinu AccretionaryPrism, but pass over a structured substrate on their way to theColombian Basin floor (Fig. 3). The upper part of the profile forthese distributary routes has an average dip of 3�, has a concavecurvature, and spans a depth range from 200 m to 1000 m belowsea level up to 20 km along the profile (Fig. 4d). Below this thedistributary route profiles are stepped and descend to a depth of2500 m below sea level over a distance of 30 km with a markeddistal inflection associated with an increase in average gradient to5�. The overall curvature of these distributary routes is sigmoidaland, as with distributary routes 2–4, the inflection points areassociated with a steep frontal scarp feature (Fig. 3).

4. Basin-scale architecture and seismic facies

The integrated use of dip attribute bathymetry and 2D seismicdata has allowed the recognition of distinct basin filling styles: (1)those related to the passage of gravity currents; i.e., turbidites, andwhich are dominated by conduit and fan features, (2) those char-acterised by extended periods of hemipelagic deposition, and (3)those dominated by slumping of pre-existing deposits (Figs. 5–10).Each filling style relates to the local expression of the largerturbidite system to which it belongs in terms of whether the systemis bypassing, depositing, or simply not active in that part of theslope for a significant period of time (Fig. 3). Using the discussionabove, the Sinu Accretionary Prism can be divided into a series ofdifferent basin types. The seismic facies in each of the basin typesare discussed in turn below.

4.1. Gravity current dominated basins: canyons and distributarychannels

The principle routing system for sediment from the ColombianContinental Shelf to Colombian Basin floor is via a series ofconduits. A range of conduit styles is evident from the bathymetryand 2D seismic data. Gully systems have an axial gradient of up to5�, and are up to 500 m wide, 100 m deep, and 10 km long, and areevident across much of the upper slopes of each of the distributarysystems in the study area (Figs. 3 and 5). These gullies are regularlyspaced at intervals of w1 km, and commonly disperse perpendic-ular to the shelf-slope break, between west and north, and coalescewith upper slope canyons downstream (Fig. 5a). In cross sectionthese gullies have a U-shaped and terraced profile and are evidentin the subsurface as variable amplitude, low continuity, chaotic

seismic facies, with no obvious evidence of thalweg aggradation,suggesting that they are short lived amalgamation-prone features(Fig. 5b).

While the upper slope drainage patterns are complex, there iscommonly a single dominant upper slope canyon into which thegullies feed and through which sediment is distributed furtherdown the slope (Figs. 3 and 5a–d). This is particularly evident indistributary route 4 (Figs. 3, 4b, and 5). The upper slope canyons are500-1500 m wide; around 100 m deep, have an axial gradient of 5�,locally up to 20�, and often have a leveed overbank area suggestingthat they are weakly aggradational features (Fig. 5c). The seismiccharacter of the upper slope canyons is a broad V-shaped profile,with no evidence of slumping off canyon walls suggesting thatthese features either have relatively stable margins, or that failedmaterial is regularly flushed from the canyons downstream. Theupper slope canyons feed into down dip distributary channelnetworks.

Within the middle region of the slope are a series of canyonswhich are seen to incise directly into the fold-related sill structures.These canyons are found in the mid-reaches of the slope, and areseen to erode through sills that exhibit fold degradation scarps,effectively bypassing and incising into sediment from intraslopebasins upstream of the sill (Figs. 3 and 5a). Lower slope canyons arealso evident on the bathymetry of distributary routes 3, 4, 6, and 7,and are associated with steep frontal scarp features (Figs. 3, 4B, 4Dand 5E). These canyons have a V-shaped profile, are approximately100 m deep, 100 m wide, and up to 15 km long, are entirely inci-sional in nature, and commonly have sediment wave fields in theirhead regions in the slope.

Intraslope channels are evident from the bathymetry (e.g.,distributary route 3) and occur where there are local reductions ingradient to <2.5� (Figs. 3, 4b, and 5). Both the upper slope canyonsand channels commonly exhibit variable amplitude, moderatelycontinuous, parallel to chaotic seismic facies, suggesting that theseform amalgamation-prone systems, although it is difficult to gaugehow long these conduits are individually active for because there isonly local evidence of canyon thalweg aggradation, suggested bythe development of levees, which indicates a temporal transition tobackfilling, perhaps associated with the current sea-level highstand(Fig. 5b–e). The fact that the canyon conduits form substantialerosive features suggests that they are likely to have acted asdominant conduits for longer periods of time, compared to thegully networks described previously.

4.2. Gravity current dominated basins: channel-levee systems

Channel-levee systems fed from the Magdalena Delta onlapdirectly onto the northern flanks of the Sinu Accretionary Prism(Figs. 3 and 6). These represent the southern-most influence of theRiver Magdalena on the modern day Sinu Accretionary Prism (Kollaand Buffler, 1984; Kolla et al., 1984; Ercilla et al., 2002; Flinch, 2003;Estrada et al., 2005). Distributary route 11 is characterised by thepresence of several channel systems inferred to have been activerecently. In our view, the most recently active channel has anasymmetrical profile, with a steeper outer bank (Figs. 3, 4a, and 6).The levees of these features are around 50 m above the channelaxis, with a levee to levee separation of up to 2 km (Fig. 6). Thechannel systems are at least several tens of kilometres long. The fulllength of these features is not determined because the bathymetricsurvey used in this study does not extend far enough into theColombian Basin. Using regional, low-resolution data, Kolla andBuffler (1984) suggest that this part of the Magdalena Fan hasa radius of w300 km. These channel-levee systems exhibit a char-acteristic stacked ‘gull-wing’ morphology, and are internallycomplex with chaotic, variable amplitude, low continuity seismic

Fig. 5. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed showing the range of conduit features extending from the shelfto the basin. (B) Upper-slope gullies. (C) Upper-slope canyon. (D) Upper-slope canyons. (E) Lower-slope canyon.

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Fig. 6. Channel levee systems. (A) Sea bed dip map showing a recent (active?) channel-levee system. Note that the while the outer levee may be steeper, this can in part be related tothe inherited bathymetric template. (B) 2D seismic intersection. Note the presence of strong high amplitude reflections (HARPs), possibly associated with periods of channelavulsion. See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map. The active channel is elevated above the local low, which may have resulted from flows avulsed to the south from a previouschannel; i.e., the avulsing flows were captured between the channel and the prism.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794–809 801

facies within the channel fill region. High amplitude reflectionpackages (HARPs’) are evident across the area, and are suggestive ofperiods of sand input into overbank areas (sensu Posamentier andKolla, 2003). Parallel, variable amplitude, continuous seismic faciesare interpreted as levee packages (Fig. 6b).

The channel-levee systems of the Magdalena Fan appear to passover a substrate devoid of the pronounced deformation seen in theadjacent Sinu Accretionary Prism. However, it is likely that somesediment from the Magdalena system was incorporated into theSinu Accretionary Prism as it deforms the Colombian Basin floorand has in some way had an influence on how the substrate in theprism deforms and degrades.

4.3. Hemipelagic dominated basin fills

The northern section of the Sinu Accretionary Prism betweenthe Sinu and Magdalena rivers is characterised by large areasapparently devoid of persistent gravity current derived sediment(Figs. 3 and 7a). The sea bed along distributary route 10 is charac-teristically (depositionally) smooth, with only local evidence ofrecent erosion in the form of slope gullies (Figs. 3, 4d, and 7).Moderate to low variable amplitude, continuous, parallel seismicfacies suggest that these areas are dominated by the deposition of

hemipelagic shale (Fig. 7B and C). The hemipelagic materials onlap,but more commonly drape, intraslope basin sills, and often extendfor tens of kilometres across the slope. Localised highly variableamplitude, discontinuous chaotic seismic facies are evident close tothe shelf-slope break, which are themselves up to 50 ms TWT(w50 m) thick and several kilometres wide, and are inferred toform as a result of ephemeral periods of channelisation or debrisflow/slumping activity, or may suggest the input of lower frequencyof gravity current events (Fig. 7c). The channelised sections withinthese hemipelagic dominated intervals may represent short(seasonal) periods when gravity flows are captured in this area,rather than by the large canyon-dominated distributary routes thatlie to the south (Figs. 3, 5, and 7b).

4.4. Slump features

The sea bed is sculptured by crescent-shaped scarps with blocky,high-relief terrains at the feet, interpreted as headwall slump scarsand disordered mass wasting deposits down the slope. Slumpfeatures are seen across the Sinu Accretionary Prism, in particularalong distributary route 9 (Figs. 3, 4c, and 8). The largest of theseMass Transport Complexes (MTC’s) represent two modes of masswasting. Towards the northern part of the Sinu Accretionary Prism

Fig. 7. (A) Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (B) Intraslope basin composed entirely of hemipelagic material. (C) Intraslope basinimmediately below the shelf-slope break dominated by hemipelagic deposition, but with ephemeral channelisation.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794–809802

Fig. 8. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed illustrating the variety of mass wasting features seen in the studyarea. (B) Distal segment of a regional scale MTC fed from the shelf-slope break. Note the presence of small-scale local slumps which still remain on the slope. (C) Localised masswasting feature associated with fold degradation and overstepening of cohesive sediment.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794–809 803

is a regional scale MTC up to 15 km wide, 60 km long, and 200 msTWT (w200 m) thick inferred to relate to a period of shelf collapse(Fig. 8a and b). This MTC has chaotic, variable amplitude, lowcontinuity seismic facies, with a recently buried mounded deposittop evident from the bathymetry. Recent material is seen to onlapthe mounded bathymetry related to the underlying MTC (Fig. 8b).Similar irregular reflections overlain by locally onlapping sectionsare recognised in the subsurface, which may suggest that morethan one shelf collapse event occurred (Fig. 8b).

Slump features are especially prominent in the lower part ofthe slope, with much of the frontal part of the Sinu AccretionaryPrism represented by steep frontal scarp features (Figs. 3 and 8b).Individual fold degradation features are typically up to 10 kmwide, up to 30 km in axial extent, and are up to 500 ms TWT(w500 m) thick. These MTC’s may be partially frontally andlaterally confined (sensu Frey-Martinez et al., 2006), and havechaotic, variable amplitude, low continuity seismic facies, with anirregular basal surface and form the dominant fill of lower slopebasins (Fig. 8). These features have arcuate asymmetrical tosymmetrical headwall scarps which, in most cases, dip towardsthe Colombian Basin (between the west and north), and run ina shelf-parallel direction for up to 70 km. Shelfward retreat of theheadwall scarp has led to the capture of sediment routing path-ways from up depositional dip (east or southeast), leading to theupstream incision of tributary pathways into more proximalbasins. Localised slump features are evident on some headwallscarps (Fig. 8b). The fold disruption scarps in the northern part ofthe Sinu Accretionary Prism are surrounded by distinct lobatefailures that may relate to how the inherited substrate isdeforming, and could relate to the pre-existing mechanical stra-tigraphy of the basin floor; i.e., primary variations in sand/shalearchitecture associated with channel-levee meander belts andoverbank areas.

4.5. Basin fill characteristics and intra-basinal spatial variations inreflection character

Within intraslope basins devoid of pronounced intra-basinalflow impediments, submarine fans develop that have commonlocalised shallow (<0.5 ms¼w50 m deep) incisional features,which are inferred to be amalgamated channel and sheetcomplexes (Fig. 9c). These relatively unconfined fans are up to15 km wide, and commonly have axial gradients of less than 5�,with local draping and onlapping reflections onto steeper sections,which thicken away from the onlap slope. Subtle substrate defor-mation is evident in some sections, with draping, off-lapping, andsimple onlap onto intra-basinal sills (Fig. 9c). Overfilled intraslopebasins in the upper slope commonly exhibit incision by tributaryconduit networks, which allow the redistribution of sediment intothe lower slope region. The channel and sheet complexes in thisregion commonly show onlap and offlap onto subtle intra-basinalbathymetry (Figs. 9 and 10).

Where the intraslope basins have pronounced flow impedi-ments, the local depositional elements are, in most cases, deflectedaround these structures. This behaviour is most often documentedin lower slope basins where the basin fill state is commonly under-filled. Within the Sinu Accretionary Prism, this interaction has twomodes of expression. Where a significant intraslope basin sill isencountered; e.g., the sill immediately north of profile C–D inFig. 9a, submarine fan deflection occurs, with partial incision of thefan in proximal regions of the sill. Subtle intra-basinal drainagedivides are also evident within lower slope basins, which arethought to relate to recently buried intra-basinal sills which stillexert some control on surface drainage patterns (Figs. 10a–c).

Intraslope basins across the study area record a variety of fillingstyles. Upper slope basins are typically over-filled, while lowerslope basins are generally under-filled with respect to the locally

Fig. 9. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed showing a range of intraslope basin fill styles. (B) Unconfined fan,spilling over a buried sill. (C) Intraslope fan stacked on top of a sill. (D) Intraslope basins. The basins appear to be progressively less full or bypass prone towards the Colombian Basin(west northwest). (E) Intraslope basins. The downstream basin (northwest) appears to be almost devoid of recent sediment. (F) Intraslope basin confined by a sill. Note from the dipmap that the upstream (southeast) of the sill is an area of channelisation related to deflection around the obstacle.

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Fig. 10. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed showing the contrasting fill styles between the upper- andlower-intraslope basins. (B) An intraslope basin. Note that the sill onto which the sediment onlaps has a steeper lower section onto which sediment onlaps abruptly, and a less steepupper section onto which sediment thins over a distance of several kilometres. (C) Intraslope basin showing subtle axial onlap and thinning along the basin (northeast-southwest).(D) Intraslope basin with simple onlap onto local sill.

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available accommodation space; i.e., the space between the intra-slope basin floor and the breach point of the basin (Figs. 3 and 9).Individual intraslope basins are 1.5–5 km in width and 10–60 km inlength (parallel to strike). The intraslope basin sedimentscommonly dip up to or less than 5�, and tend to onlap or offlapslopes steeper than 5�. These intraslope basins are typicallycomposed of laterally-variable, parallel to chaotic, variable ampli-tude seismic facies, which are thought to represent amalgamatedsheet and channel complexes that are distinct from, but oftenincised into by, the major conduit features described previously(Figs. 3, 5, 9, and 10). There is no recurrent or sequential deposi-tional motif evident within the channel and sheet complexes.Parallel, low amplitude sheet-form seismic facies are inferred torepresent hemipelagic shale intervals. These drape both intraslopebasin fills and sills, and may blanket several intraslope basins. Assuch, these facies are used as correlative intervals across the slope,as deposition is likely to have extended across several basins atonce (Figs. 3 and 9d and e).

An examination of the seismic facies and amplitude character ofsingle reflection events can yield important information of the

lateral and vertical impedance variability of the body of sedimentthrough which seismic energy is passing (Gao, 2007). While thisapproach lends itself well to 3D seismic surveys, where individualreflection events can be followed to the full extent of their termi-nation (within the survey), with the 2D seismic data used in thisstudy such an approach was not possible. With this in mind, carefulselection of 2D seismic profiles that span a range of intraslope basinfilling styles allows some insight into the lateral variability ofindividual reflection events.

Within hemipelagic intervals marked lateral variation inreflection amplitude is seen within the ephemeral channelised ordebris flow intervals, while within the hemipelagic intervals noamplitude variation is seen with lateral offset (e.g., Fig. 7c). Sectionsdeeper than 120 ms TWT (w120 m) below the sea floor, showapparently hemipelagic sheet-form intervals that vary in amplitudeover a lateral scale ofþ500 m, and which onlap and drape onto andover intraslope basin sills. The lateral amplitude variability anddivergence of these seismic reflection events could be associatedwith periods of syn-sedimentary deformation of the sea bed onshorter timescales than the hemipelagic sequences aggrade,

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794–809806

causing local compensational stacking of sediment, or may reflectshort-lived periods of gravity current influx. An alternative inter-pretation is that these are sediment wave features (Fig. 9a).

Hemipelagic deposits can be used as reference datums tocorrelate contemporaneous periods of deposition across intraslopebasin sills (e.g., Fig. 9). Amalgamated sheet- and channel-likeintervals show marked lateral and vertical variation in reflectionsamplitude, and are separated by continuous amplitude reflectionsinferred to represent hemipelagic intervals (Fig. 9a, d–f). Thesehemipelagic intervals subdivide the intraslope basin fill, allowingthe recognition of two sheet- and channel-form intervals in theUpper Pliocene to Recent section that can be found in both the over-and under-filled basins (Figs. 3 and 9). This motif suggests thatalthough the seismic sections through these basins span 40 kmalong depositional strike, it is possible that the hemipelagic inter-vals separate time equivalent sections of turbidite system activity,punctuated by periods of turbidite system shutdown (for exampleassociated with either highstand conditions, or bypass of sedimentelsewhere in the prism), although precise dating and correlationconstraints are not yet available.

5. Discussion: regional sediment distribution pathways andlocal substrate interactions

Across the Sinu Accretionary Prism are a range of basin fill stylesthat owe their character to the regional-scale organisation of themajor sediment distribution fairways (Figs. 3 and 11). However, onmore local scales (i.e., intraslope basin scale), the configuration ofthe local substrate dominates the architectural expression of thebasin fill. As mentioned previously, McCaffrey and Kneller (2004)

Fig. 11. Summary of observations made in this study which illustrate the range

attributed the array of geometrical styles seen within turbiditesystems to varying scales of turbidity current non-uniformityrelated to changes in slope or the degree of confinement, which, atbasin scales, are reflected by the presence of the sedimentarydeposits themselves, and at flow and sub-flow scales reflect spatialvariations in erosion and deposition; e.g., the development ofchannel- or sheet-like architectures. Steffens et al. (2003) notedthat mud based systems were more prone to bypass in the upperand middle sections of the slope, and that overall mud-basedsystems are likely to be above grade across the entire slope,particularly where those systems are influenced by active tectonics(e.g., Northwest Borneo). Saller et al. (2004) and Sømme et al.(2009) suggest that shelf width and the availability of sedimentfrom deltaic sources exerts a strong regional control on the archi-tectural expression of submarine slopes. Within this context, it ispossible to characterise the architecture of the turbidite complexesthat span the Sinu Accretionary Prism in terms of understandingthe non-uniformity regime of the flows that generated them, andthe extent to which other influences may overprint this.

The length scale and sediment supply characteristics of theAndean hinterlands that feed the Colombian Continental Shelfexert a strong control on the availability of sediment to thedistributary routes of the Sinu Accretionary Prism and adjacentareas (Fig. 3). Sediment supply to the sea is strongly influenced bytectonically complex routing pathways and the character of theflood plain, which is currently swampy. Distributary routes 1 and 11feed across shelf areas less than 25 km wide, while distributaryroutes 2–10 feed across a shelf region 25–80 km wide. Distributaryroute 1 is fed by the Rivers Atrato and Mulatos, which drain directlyfrom steep Andean terranes, shedding immature volcaniclastic

in turbidite system expression in and around the Sinu Accretionary Prism.

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sediment into the basin, while distributary route 11 is fed from theRiver Magdalena, which drains remote Andean hinterland fromwhere sediment is likely to have remained in residence on theþ400 km long flood plain for a period of time, and is likely to havebeen subjected to chemical weathering; e.g., weathering of feld-spars to clays. The River Sinu, which feed into distributary routes2–10, is an intermediate case, whereby steep hinterland Andeanterranes shed sediment onto a flood plane 150 km long. In addition,distributary routes 1 and 11 do not encounter pronounced sea beddeformation from the shelf to the basin floor, while distributaryroutes 2–10 pass through or terminate within the Sinu AccretionaryPrism.

In the case of distributary route 1, a steep unconfined fan systemis generated, which is likely to have been influenced by the rela-tively coarse calibre of sediment delivered almost directly fromthe land to the submarine fan system (Figs. 3 and 9b). Distributaryroute 11 is a mud-rich turbidite system, across which the devel-opment of channel-levees across the fan surface is evident. Theseare only locally deformed by the Sinu Accretionary Prism (Figs. 3and 6). In the presence of bathymetrically simple drainage path-ways, distributary routes 1 and 11 are dominated by aggradationalprocesses, which generate channel- and sheet-form architecturesthat extend for several tens of kilometres across the slope directlyonto the basin floor. In this case, the regional sediment supplycharacteristics and lack of pronounced sea-floor deformation areresponsible for the formation of relatively simple turbidite fansystems which infill below grade accommodation space and whichrepresent basin-scale non-uniformities. The spatial variation inarchitecture across the fan system of distributary route 1 is influ-enced by depletive flow scale non-uniformity related to the radialexpansion of flows across the fan surface, while the channel-leveesystems of distributary route 11 reflect flow scale non-uniformitywhereby flows are focused in avulsion-prone conduits.

Distributary routes 2–10 are fed with sediment that is likely tohave remained in residence on the Colombian Continental Shelf forsome time, and are both likely to be strongly controlled by thelocation of the River Sinu (Figs. 3, 5, 9, 10, and 11). Distributaryroutes 3, 4, 6, and 7 have canyon systems along part of theirdispersal pathyways, which reflect portions of the slope where theregional gradient of the system is capable of overprinting localgradients; i.e., the slope is above grade, and bypasses sedimentdirectly across the slope and onto basin floor fans. This draw-downof sediment may in part be responsible for the relative sedimentstarvation of other parts of the system; e.g., distributary routes5 and 10 (Figs. 3, 7, 8, and 9). An additional factor in controlling thelocation and evolution of sediment dispersal fairways is the avail-ability of downstream bathymetric levels to which flows canconnect, as some intraslope basins appear to form effective zones ofponded accommodation; e.g., distributary route 9.

The primary control on sediment routing across the intraslopebasins is the availability and connectivity of bathymetric lowsacross intraslope basin sills. Many of the distributary routes runperpendicular to the structural grain of the prism, and are seen todissect through pronounced sills. This routing is likely to haveevolved through the local degradation of intrabasinal sills by masswasting processes allowing the upstream capture of dispersalfairways, and which themselves create localised depocentres(Figs. 3, 8, 9, and 10). Such processes are thought to exert a strongcontrol on sediment routing in turbidite systems in bathymetricallycomplex areas (McAdoo et al., 1997; McGilvery and Cook, 2003;Shaw, 2004; Frey-Martinez et al., 2005; Frey-Martinez et al., 2006;Heinio and Davies, 2006; Moscardelli et al., 2006). Flows that initialincise through a fold degradation breach are likely to encountera significant bathymetric low, and will incise rapidly through thebreach, effectively capturing large volumes of sediment from

upstream portions of the slope into the newly available accom-modation space. Further downstream, sediment bypass may occuronce the accommodation space has been filled to the level of thetop of the downstream sill, or if a failure occurs on this sill; e.g., theperched intraslope basin of distributary route 7 (Figs. 3 and 9).

Sediment distribution and architecture within the intraslopebasins is observed to be strongly controlled by the presence of localbathymetry. Onlap of sediment onto and/or over sills is seen acrossthe Sinu Accretionary Prism and records the incisive, deflective oraccumulative behaviour of flows with respect to local substrateinteractions (Figs. 3, 8, and 9). Local (i.e., flow scale), non-unifor-mity can be generated by the interaction of flows with the slopes ofthe receiving basin, which in turn drives marked variation insediment architecture and facies. This is evident in some intraslopebasins by lateral variations in seismic reflection character which areinterpreted to record spatial transitions from sheet- to channel-likearchitectures (Fig. 8f). Within relatively small (<5 km) lengthscales, marked variations in turbidite system expression areevident (Figs. 3, 8, and 9). Localised incision of bathymetric highsand the presence of deep erosive conduits can occur in relativeclose proximity and do not necessarily represent temporallyseparated periods of turbidite system activity, and often ultimatelydrain to the same (regional) bathymetric level. Such turbiditesystem expression is commonly seen in those which form onmobile mud substrates (e.g., offshore West Africa and NorthwestBorneo), and are characterised by intraslope basins that formconnected corridors rather than the discreet bowl-like closuresseen in basins floored by mobile salt substrates (Steffens et al.,2003, 2004; Fowler et al., 2004; Smith, 2004; Adedayo et al., 2005).Sediment thickness and facies distributions may also reveal theextent to which the substrate was deforming, commonly withmarked compensational stacking of sediment bodies within local-ised depocentres, accompanied by draping or onlap of sedimentonto the substrate (Haughton, 1994, 2000, 2001; Hooper et al.,2002; Grecula et al., 2003; Shultz and Hubbard, 2005).

Localised slump features play a role in the creation of localiseddepocentres into which subsequent sedimentation may occur(Shultz et al., 2005; Fig. 8). Across the Sinu Accretionary Prism,sediment failure features are seen to dominate the architecturalexpression of some intraslope basins (Fig. 3). These slump featuresrelate to the disruption of fold structures mentioned above, and, assuch, represent localised bathymetric features that are thought toinfluence flow non-uniformity as they effectively act as smallerscale intraslope basins, forming local depocentres (Fig. 9). Localfailure-related breaches in the fold features serves to capturesediment routing networks from upstream basins, and thus playsan important role in the development of slope drainage systemsand the delivery of sediment to more distal features. McGilvery andCook (2003) describe similar drainage capture features on theslopes of offshore Brunei, and relate this to the influence of local-ised gradients.

Lateral architectural variations in channelisation are oftenspatially and temporally complex within turbidite slope succes-sions, as suggested by the upper slope tributary networks of theSinu Accretionary Prism (Figs. 3, 4, and 6c). The intraslope basinchannel systems are primarily erosive, and lack the well developedlevees of the Magdalena Fan channel-levee system (Fig. 5). Thesechannels serve to supply sediment around intraslope basin sills andare commonly located immediately adjacent to the sill (Figs. 5, 9,and 10). The upper slope canyon systems have weakly developedlevees, suggesting that at some stage these canyons were aggra-dational or acted as conduits for flows which were for the most partbypassing downstream, but which had some component of over-bank deposition. Straub and Mohrig (2009) suggest that theslope canyons of offshore Brunei developed through progressive

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794–809808

(agrradational) confinement, and thus that canyon systems are notalways entirely erosive features.

On the modern sea-floor of the Sinu Accretionary Prism, thefringes of turbidite basins show evidence of the introduction ofslump/slide material from the local slope or localised slope parallelincision related to the deflection of flows oblique to inter- or intra-basinal sills. Within shallow seismic sections, spatial variations inseismic reflection character approaching onlap slopes suggest somedegree of architectural variation, and feature sheet-like drapes ofhemipelagic material that may extend several kilometres into thebasin, which serve as useful tools to correlate contemporaneousbasin fills, or may pass laterally into chaotic or channelised inter-vals, which may represent the demise of hemipelagic deposition.

Distributary systems that do not pass across bathymetricallycomplex slopes produce relatively simple architectural geometries,such as unconfined fans, that extend from the shelf to the basinfloor, across which slopes autocyclic and regional influencespredominate (e.g., Fig. 9a and b). The influence of regional dispersalfairways is often represented by the presence of canyon or erosivechannel networks that are seen to incise through local bathymetricfeatures; e.g., thrust influenced folds, and which route sedimentdirectly from the upper slope to the basin floor (e.g., Figs. 3, 4a, 9,and 11). Thus these features respond more to the regional scaleslope, and are insensitive to the influence of local, perhaps coun-ter-regional, bathymetric configurations. An additional mode ofregional turbidite system expression develops as local depocentersare filled, with subsequent flows entering a bathymetricallysmoothed basin in which few flow impediments exist, thereforeallowing flows to traverse the basin unhindered, such as producingmassive sandstones through steady depletion of sediment fromturbidity currents.

6. Conclusions

1. The Sinu Accretionary Prism and adjacent areas are fed fromrivers that drain from Andean Terranes which shed largevolumes of sediment across the Colombian Shelf into theColombian Basin.

2. Sediment distribution around the Colombian Continental Shelfand the Colombian Basin is strongly controlled by seasonalvariations in river discharge and basin oceanography.

3. Sediment is routed through and around the Sinu AccretionaryPrism by eleven distinct distributary routes classified on thebasis of whether they pass directly or indirectly through, orterminate within the prism. The profiles of these distributaryroutes are broadly similar, and show a concave slope profile,with small steps where routes pass through structures relatedto prism deformation.

4. Distributary routes that do not pass through the Sinu Accre-tionary Prism are dominated by unconfined submarine fansystems which represent basin to flow scale depletive anduniform flow vector non-uniformities.

5. Distributary routes that pass through the Sinu AccretionaryPrism are dominated by large canyon and intraslope basinsystems which represent major sediment conduits and basin tolocal scale flow vector non-uniformities.

6. Radically different depositional styles may be recognised overshort (sub-basin) length scales, with complex sand routingoptions (not in-profile ‘fill-and-spill’).

7. Mass wasting processes dominate across the prism, and arealso responsible for the creation of steep slopes.

8. Several basin filling styles can be recognised, with gravitycurrent-dominated basins characterised by channel- andsheet-like architectures, slump and hemiplegic dominated fills.

9. Slump dominated basin fills show evidence of localised folddegradation and more regional scale shelf collapse, which playan important role in the creation of local depocentres intowhich sediment subsequently accumulates.

10. Local, i.e., flow scale, non-uniformity, may be recognised by thepresence of onlap slopes and spatial transitions in depositionalstyle. These are evident in both plan (map) view and section(2D seismic) view.

11. The combination of local influences to some extent overprintsthose of the regional sediment distribution systems. Whilethe distributary routes are important for delivering sedimentfrom the shelf to the basin floor, local influences areresponsible for the partitioning of sediment across the slopeand for the initiation of routing systems between intraslopebasins.

12. A variety of different scale flow vector non-uniformities areevident with the Sinu Accretionary Prism and other modernsystems, which suggest that both scales of non-uniformity canoccur either in isolation, or overprint each other within a singlepart of a submarine slope system.

Acknowledgements

BHP Billiton Petroleum, Ecopetrol, Agencia Nacional de Hidro-carburos, and GX Technology are thanked for allowing permissionto use and publish the data in this study. Schlumberger are thankedfor the donation of Petrel academic licences to the University ofLeeds. This work formed part of the lead author’s PhD researchwhich was jointly funded by BHP Billiton and the TurbiditesResearch Group at the University of Leeds. This study also formspart of a larger project funded (to Robert Butler) by BHP BillitonPetroleum on Submarine Thrust Belts. The review comments ofMakoto Ito from the Marine and Petroleum Geology Editorial staff,as well as those from two anonymous reviewers, were extremelyhelpful in shaping the focus of this manuscript.

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