Persistent link: http://hdl.handle.net/2345/bc-ir:107477

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Boston College Electronic Thesis or Dissertation, 2017

Copyright is held by the author, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise noted.

Migration, the World, and the Church:Transcending Citizenship with EcclesialVision

Author: Christopher J. Ryan

Migration,theWorld,andtheChurch:TranscendingCitizenshipwithEcclesialVision

AnSTLThesis

ChristopherJRyan,SJ31March2017

FacultyAdvisors:O.ErnestoValienteNancyPineda-Madrid

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TableofContents

Introduction:MigratingThroughHistory ....................................................................................2

Chapter1:MovingtheBorders:Globalization,Family,andtheEthicsofMigration .....7LegalandPoliticalConsiderations ............................................................................................................8TheologicalPerspectives ........................................................................................................................... 12CaseStudies:TwoMexicanFamilies...................................................................................................... 16Synthesis:Migration,Ethics,Theology.................................................................................................. 18ConcludingThoughts .................................................................................................................................. 23

Chapter2:MovingGloballytoSecuretheRightsofCitizenship.........................................26IdealsofLiberalDemocracyandCitizenship...................................................................................... 27PracticalChallengestoCitizenshipandSovereigntyinanAgeofGlobalizedMigration ..... 30TheDoubleStandardsofBorders........................................................................................................... 34TheoriesandPoliciesofCitizenshipforMigrantsandRefugees ................................................. 39FreeMovement:AReplacementforBordersandCitizenship? .................................................... 44ConcludingThoughts .................................................................................................................................. 47

Chapter3:MigrantPeople,PilgrimChurch:PracticalEcclesiologyandTheologicalJusticeforCommunitiesontheMove..........................................................................................51Context:TheMexicanMigrationCorridor ........................................................................................... 53APracticalTheologyforthePhenomenonofMigration:IdentityandActivity ...................... 57PreservingtheChurch’sIdentityalongJourneysofMigrationandLife .................................... 62APracticalEcclesiologyinanAgeofMigration.................................................................................. 67ConcludingThoughts .................................................................................................................................. 71

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................73

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................85

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Introduction:MigratingThroughHistory

Migrationhasbeenanaspectofhumanhistorysinceouremergenceasadistinct

species.Ashumancivilizationbecamemorecomplex,particularlywiththedevelopmentof

nation-statesandtheconceptofcitizenship,themovementofpeoplesbetweendifferent

landstookonpoliticalandlegaldimensions.Againstthecontemporarybackdropof

globalization,andthepressurecausedbyeconomicdisparityandclimatechange,thereare

manyfactorsdrivingpeopletomovefromoneplacetoanotherinsearchofamorefruitful

anddignifiedlifeforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.However,inaglobaleconomicsystem

thatreliesuponthesmoothmovementofcapital,goods,andinformation,thereisa

paradoxicalresistance–oftenrootedinracism,prejudice,andxenophobia–tothe

movementofcertainclassesandgroupsofpeople.

Asthephenomenonofmigrationgainsgreaterattentioninglobalaffairs,and

producestensionsonscalesfromthenationaltothelocal,astrongtheologicalperspective

onthiscomplexrealityhasmuchtocontributetoadialoguethatisoftenmorepolitical,

legal,andnationalisticinnature.Evenmorecrucially,asthenumberofmigrantsand

refugeesdrivenfromtheirhomesbytheeffectsofwar,violence,poverty,andclimate

changeswellsquickly,andthesufferinganddangertheyexperiencealongtheirjourney

intensifies,thenecessityofattendingtotheirhumanrightsofhealth,safety,shelter,and

duelegalprocessbecomesmoreurgent.Boththestructuralforcesandindividual

experiencesofmigrationmustreceivedueattention.Assistanceandsolidaritymustbe

offeredatthepersonallevel,whilefosteringintegrationamongmigrantsandtheir

receivingcommunitiesrequiresmultiplelevelsofpolitical,social,andculturalchange.

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FormostofmytwelveyearsasaJesuitinformationforthepriesthood,Ihave

learnedfromandcarriedoutministrywithLatinAmericanmigrants,bothintheirhome

countriesandintheUnitedStates.Thisperspectiveinformsmyargument,rootedinbelief

andexperience,thattheCatholicChurch,throughitsvisionofthedignityofthehuman

person,itsmoralteachingonhumanrights,anditsverynatureasadiverseglobal

community,haspositive,practical,andinspiringperspectivesonmigrationtooffertothe

nationsandpeoplesoftheworld.TheChurchhasalsodevelopedanarrayoftheological,

cultural,andpracticalresourcestoaidmigrantsintheirjourneysinsearchofconditions

thatwillallowthemtoflourish.TheChurch’svisionofitself,expressedanewintheSecond

VaticanCouncilandsubsequentdecades,isthatofindividualscomprisingacommunityon

pilgrimagethroughachangingworldwithwhichtheyenterintodialogue,evenasthey

strivetoattainaheavenlykingdom.Atthesametime,thelocalChurchinmanycitiesand

countriesreflectsahistoryofmigration,inculturation,andadaptation,assuccessive

generationsofmigrantsfromawiderangeofcountrieshavearrived,putdownroots,and

contributedtothewell-beingoftheChurchandsociety.Particularlyinrecentyears,Pope

Francis,aswellasmanyofthefaithful,haveincreasinglyinvitedtheChurchtointensifyits

commitmenttomattersofmorality,ethics,andjusticethatconcernthemostpoorand

vulnerablemembersofthehumanfamily.Suchcommitmentnecessitatespowerfuland

propheticadvocacyindialogueaswellasintentional,generous,andrespectfulsolidarityin

action,andtheChurchofthe21stcenturyseemsbothcalledandpoisedtodoboth.

Essentially,bydrawingonitsownecclesiologicalimageofapilgrimpeople,theCatholic

Churchcanbetteridentifywithandadvocateformigrants,whosefaithandperseverancein

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searchofabetterlifeinviteusalltogreatersolidarity,inbothourearthlyandspiritual

journeys.

ForthosewithintheChurch,greatersolidaritywithmigrantsandenhanced

advocacyforaglobalorderthatprotectstherightsandwell-beingofallpeopleispartofa

calltorenewedfidelitytothelife,teachings,andexampleofChrist.Forthosewhowitness

theactionsandwordsoftheChurchanditspeople,thistestimonywillbeapowerful

invitationtorecognizeandfosterthedignityofallhumanbeings,andalsotoaccepttheir

responsibilitytotakepartincreatingamorejustglobalsociety.Migrants’hopeforabetter

lifeismanifestintheirdeterminedlabortoattainitdespitethegraverisksandfierce

hardshipsalongtheirjourneys.Oncesettled,migrantsalsotendtoinvestsignificantlyin

thecommunitiesthatreceivethem,strivingforpeaceandjustice,appreciationfor

diversity,andthefuturethattheyarecommittedtobuildingforthenextgeneration.They

expressapowerfulcallupontheChurchandtheworld,onethatdeservestobeheardand

heeded,totransformattitudesoffearandanxietyaboutmigrationtoactsofcompassion

andcommunity-buildingwithmigrants.FailingtorespondtothiscallasaChurch

jeopardizestheauthenticityofitsmissiontoproclaimandlivetheGospel,todefendthe

poorandthemarginalized,andtoprofessJesus’teachinginMatthew25thatwhateverwe

do(ordonotdo)fortheleastofourbrothersandsisters,wedo(ornotdo)forChrist.

Thisthesisbeginswithanintroductorysectionsituatingmigrationinitshistorical,

geographical,andsociologicalcontexts,presentingitasahumanphenomenonwith

economic,political,cultural,andlegalattributes,influences,andeffectsthatarefelt

stronglybyindividualmigrantsandthepeoplewithwhomtheycomeintocontactalong

theirjourneys.Chapter1willpresentanoverviewofthemesinsocialethicspertinentto

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theissuesassociatedwithmigration,particularlytheimpactofglobalizationandthe

experiencesoffamiliesseparatedbymigration.Casestudiesdrawnfromanearlierperiod

oftheauthor’sministrywillpresenttypicalscenarioshighlightingthecomplex

relationshipsanddifficultdecisionsthatdevelopasaresultofmigrationpoliciesthatdo

notfullycoherewiththeeconomicrhythmsofglobalization,northeconsiderationsof

humanflourishinginstablefamilylife.Chapter2willexplorethepoliticalandlegalaspects

ofcitizenship,situatingtheconceptualbasisofmigration’schallengesonaglobalscale.

ThischapterwillcontrastthisapproachtocitizenshipwithaChristiananthropologythat

assertsthedignityofallhumanbeings,alsoinordertobetterexaminetherelationships

betweenthephenomenonofmigration,theVaticanIIimageofapilgrimChurch,and

variouswordsandactionsfromthepapacyofFrancis.Chapter3willpresentapproachesto

migrationshapedbytheperspectiveofpracticaltheology,againusingconcreteexperience

togroundandelaborateuponrelevanttheoriesinthefield.Thefocusherewillbe

narrowedtoaddresstheLatinAmericanmigrationcorridormorespecifically–flowsfrom

the“NorthernTriangle”countriesofElSalvador,Honduras,andGuatemalaintoand

throughMexicotowardstheUnitedStates.Attentionwillbegiventoavarietyofissuesand

experiencesaffectingmigrants,aswellaslocalresidents,inMexicoandalongtheMexico-

UnitedStatesborder.Specialattentionwillbegivenheretotheauthor’sfive-weekjourney

withfellowJesuitsalongtheMexicanmigrationcorridorinsummer2015.Buildingupon

thesefoundations,theconcludingsectionwillreviewandsummarizethemainargumentof

thethesisandpresentahopefulvisionforresolvingthecontentiouselementsofthe

“migrationcrisis”throughattentiontosignsoffaithandimagesoftheChurchrevealedin

thephenomenonofmigration.Seenfromthisperspective,engagementwithmigrantsatall

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pointsalongtheirjourneywillbeguidedbyarenewedsenseofourcommonhuman

pilgrimagetowardgreaterflourishing,justice,andpeaceforallpeoplesoftheworld.

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Chapter1:MovingtheBorders:Globalization,Family,andtheEthicsofMigration

Writingin2009,DanielGroodynotedthat“nearly200millionpeople,oroneoutof

every35peoplearoundtheworld,arelivingawayfromtheirhomelands.Thisisroughly

theequivalentofthepopulationofBrazil,thefifthlargestontheplanet.”1Variousauthors

describetherangeoffactorsthatdrivepeoplefromtheirhomes:thelackofwork,thehope

foremployment,politicalstrife,persecutionandviolence,coercedactivityatthehandsof

criminals,climatechange,andsoon.Muchofthecontemporaryscholarshiponmigration

recognizesthisphenomenonasinextricablyjoinedwiththecontextofglobalization.David

Hollenbachaffirmsthat“themovementofmassivenumbersofpeopleacrossnational

bordersisoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsoftheworldtoday…oneaspectofthegrowing

phenomenonofglobalization.”2YetGemmaCruzobservesthatsuchlarge-scalemigration

flowsarenothingnew:“migrationisnotanewphenomenon…itisdeeplywovenintothe

storyofhumanity.”3Herperspectivecanhelptonormalizetheexistenceofmigrationasa

recurringthemeinhumanhistory,throwingintostarkreliefthecontestedpolitical,legal,

andethicaldimensionsthatareascribedtoittoday.Shealsoseesformsofglobalization

andattendantmigrationflowsstretchingbackoverfivecenturies,fromtheearliest

decadesofEuropeancolonialexpansionthrough“socialupheavalsbroughtbythetwo

worldwars”totoday’scomplexgloballandscape.4

1DanielGroody,“CrossingtheDivide:FoundationsofaTheologyofMigrationandRefugees,”TheologicalStudies70(2009):638.2DavidHollenbach,“MigrationasaChallengeforTheologicalEthics,”PoliticalTheology12(2011):807.3GemmaCruz,“BetweenIdentityandSecurity:TheologicalImplicationsofMigrationintheContextofGlobalization.”TheologicalStudies69(2008):357.4Ibid.,359.

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ParticularlywhenviewedfromtheUnitedStates,however,therearesome

surprisingelementsoftheglobalpictureofmigration.Cruzfound,“notsurprisingly,[that]

morethan60%ofmigrantsareindevelopedcountries…about75%ofallmigrantslivein

only28countries.”5Yetin2005,moremigrantsjourneyedtoAsiathantoNorthAmerica,

andEuropeledAsiaintheshareofmigrantsbyonlysixpercentagepoints.6Dataalso

indicatesaprofoundeconomicimpactofmigrantsupontheirhomecountries.Groody

notes,“in2006,migrantssenthometotheirfamilies,ofteninsmallamountsof$100to

$300atatime,morethan$300billion.Meanwhile,thetotalOverseasDevelopmentAid

fromdonornationstopoorercountrieswas$106billion…migrantslivingonmeager

meansspentthreetimesasmuchmoneyhelpingalleviateglobalpovertyastherichest

countriesintheworld.”7Migrants’tiestotheirhomecountriesacrossvastdistancesare

morethaneconomic;theyconstitute“aworldwidemigrationchain…[and]utilizeawide

arrayofglobalcommunicationandtechnologytoolstomaintainfamilialandothersocial

relations;anddeveloporengagesocial,political,andreligiousnetworkswithinthemigrant

communityandabroad.”8Seeninthisview,migrantsappearjustlikeanyotherfamily

whosemembersliveindifferentregionsofthesamecountryandmaintainrelationshipson

multiplelevelsusingthevarietyofmeansattheirdisposal.

LegalandPoliticalConsiderations

Groodyfindsthegreatestchallengestoarealisticvisionofmigrantsinthelanguage

usedtoframelegalandpoliticalapproachestomigration.“Agreatdivideexistsbetween5Cruz,“BetweenIdentityandSecurity,”360.6Ibid.,361.7Groody,“CrossingtheDivide,”647.8Cruz,“BetweenIdentityandSecurity,”362.

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theproblemofmigrationandmigratingpeople…betweenthepoliticalandsocialidentities

ofmigrantsandrefugeesandtheirhumanandspiritualidentities,”9hewrites.Legal

frameworksandpoliticalviewsoftenobjectifyandaggregatemigrants,retainingan

awarenessoftheirhumannatureyetdiscussingtheirregulationandmovementinterms

littledifferentfromthoseusedforgoodsandcapital.Groodyisnotalone,eitherin

academiaoringeneralsociety,inhisdiscomfortwithstructuresinwhich“itiseasierfora

coffeebeantocrossbordersthanthosewhocultivateit.”10

Manyapproachestoimmigrationlawandpolicystrivetobalancetheneedsand

rightsofmigrantsandtherightsandresponsibilitiesofstatesonbehalfoftheircitizens.

Mostethicalargumentsrecognizethevirtueofbothsidesinthedebate,whilealso

affirmingthat“whenpeoplecrossborderswithoutproperdocumentation,mostarenot

simplybreakingcivillawsbutobeyingthelawsofhumannature,suchastheneedtofind

worksoastofeedtheirfamiliesandattainmoredignifiedlives.”11Moreover,althoughit

canbeeasytoidentifyrefugees,suchasthosefleeingtheconflictinSyria,“neither

internationallawnorparticularnationstatesrecognizethecategoryofeconomicmigrants

asonethatmeritslegalprotection.”12Therearethousandsof“religiousandsocialservice

providerswho,withoutviolatingcivillaw,attempttorespondtothemigrantknockingat

thedoor”13astheybalancetheirlegalresponsibilitieswiththeirreligiousandethical

sensesofdutytofellowhumanbeings.

9Groody,“CrossingtheDivide,”642.10Ibid.,645-6.11Ibid.,656.12Ibid.,657.13UnitedStatesConferenceofCatholicBishops,StrangersNoLonger:TogetherontheJourneyofHope:APastoralLetterConcerningMigration(WashingtonDC:UnitedStatesConferenceofCatholicBishops,2003),#4.

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KristinHeyeralsonotestheprevalenceof“acriminalrhetoricalframe[that]

scapegoatsimmigrantsasthreatstotheruleoflaw,withoutevokingskepticismaboutroot

causesoroutmodedpolicies.”14Aftersurveyingcasesofbiasandprejudiceinvarious

countriesthatlargenumbersofmigrantscurrentlyattempttoenter,Heyerstrongly

critiques“thedeficienciesofanimmigrationparadigmcenteredoninstrumentalist

expediency,nationalsecurity,oreconomicefficiency,”15inwhichpeople–notjustgoods,

capital,andinformation–arereducedtocommoditiesandfigures.Thisisparticularly

apparentindevelopedcountrieswhoseimmigrationpoliciesfeature“impositionof

draconian‘deterrence’measuresalongsiderecruitmentofskilledmigrantsfrom

developingcountries,”16severelydownplaying(yetalsoworsening)theplightofsome

migrantswhileviewingothersasmeanstodesirableeconomicoutcomes.Despitethemany

yearsoverwhichcontemporarymigrationpatternshavedeveloped,stateshavebeenslow

toadaptto“theevolvinginternationalhumanrightsregime[that]challengesstate

sovereigntybyholdingnationsaccountabletonormstranscendentofnationalinterests.”17

Theresultisan“immigrationquandary[that]pitstheinterestsofdifferentconstituencies

againstoneanother,”18onethatoftenreliesoncontentiouslegislation,ratherthana

comprehensiveapproachtomanagingthevariouscausesandimplicationsofmigration,for

solutions.

14KristinHeyer,“ReframingDisplacementandMembership:EthicsofMigration,”TheologicalStudies73(2012):190.15Heyer,“ReframingDisplacement,”194.16Ibid.,196.17Ibid.,197.18KristinHeyer,“SocialSinandImmigration:GoodFencesMakeBadNeighbors,”TheologicalStudies71(2010):411.

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Anotherapproach,knownas“the‘migrationwithoutborders’(MWB)scenario”19

proposestheabolitionofstatebordersastheyarecurrentlyconceived.Notingthat“the

righttoleave[acountry]isnotcomplementedbyarighttoenter[anothercountry],”20this

theoryarguesthat“withinthecurrentglobalizationprocess,whichfavoursanincreasingly

freecirculationofgoods,informationandcapital,itisworthconsideringincludingfree

movementofhumanbeingsaswell.”21Althoughanygenuineapplicationofthisproposal

wouldhaveprofoundandunprecedentedimplicationsforstatesovereignty,itforcesthe

questionofwhether“thehumancostsofbordercontrols…arecompatiblewiththecore

valuesoftheinternationalcommunity,”22orforthatmatter,individualstates.Already

thereistherecognition,atleastontheethicallevel,that“humanrights…arebasedon

personhoodratherthannationality,andprotectbothnationalsandmigrants.”23However,

thecurrentsystemofstatesovereigntyenjoyssoundethicalsupport,aswellasthegeneral

approvalofhistoricalexperience,thoughrecentnotableexamplesofrepressive

governmentsandfailedstates–NorthKorea,Somalia,andSyriacometomind–are

obviouslyfarfromtheideal.Moreover,“despiteitsessentiallyinternationalnature,

migrationhaslongbeenoneoftheleast-discussedissuesattheinternationallevel.”24

Thesubsetofmigrantswhoareclassifiedasrefugeesalsocallsintoquestionthe

effectivenessanddefensibilityofstatesovereigntywhenstates“havefailedintheirduties19AntoinePécoudandPauldeGuchteneire,“TheMigrationWithoutBordersScenario,”inMigrationWithoutBorders:EssaysontheFreeMovementofPeople,ed.AntoinePécoud(Paris:UNESCOPub.,2007),1.20PierreSané,“Foreword,”inMigrationWithoutBorders:EssaysontheFreeMovementofPeople,ed.AntoinePécoud(Paris:UNESCOPub.,2007),ix.21Ibid.22PécoudanddeGuchteneire,“MigrationWithoutBordersScenario,”7.23Ibid.,18.24CatherineWihtoldeWenden,“TheFrontiersofMobility,”inMigrationWithoutBorders:EssaysontheFreeMovementofPeople,ed.AntoinePécoud(Paris:UNESCOPub.,2007),55.

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ofensuringthewell-beingoftheircitizens…[yet]resorttotheprincipleofsovereignty,

whichpreventsanyinterventionintheinternalaffairsofastate.”25Theformsofmilitary

interventionbyotherstatesintheSyrianconflictoverthelastfiveyears,exacerbatinga

horrificcollapseofsecurityandpublicorderleadingtoaprofoundrefugeecrisisand

worseningwartimeatrocities,isastarkcontemporaryexample.Thecurrentpracticesof

theinternationalcommunitytreatrefugeesnotprimarily“asahumanitarian,amoral,ora

developmentissue…[butasone]relatedtothenotionofnationalboundariesandstate

sovereignty.”26Apowerfulanduncomfortablequestionthatisraisedbythequantitiesof

migrantsandrefugeesfleeingmanynationsiswhytheyfailtoprovidewhatthesepeople

rightlyexpectfromtheirgovernments–humanrights,freedomfromunduerisksof

violence,astrongeconomythatservestheneedsofallpeople,andsoon.Yetdespitethis

situation,ArsèneBriceBadoisnotentirelyconfidentthattheMWBapproachwouldbe

effective,musinginsteadthat“removingborderscanmeanremovingresponsibilities.

Thereisnoworldgovernmentorworldauthoritythatcaneffectivelyensurethe

responsibilitytoprotectforcedmigrants,likerefugees.”27

TheologicalPerspectives

Asthescaleandscopeofmigrationpatternshaveexpandedaroundtheglobe,and

theplightofmanymigrantsatvariousstagesoftheirjourneyshasgarneredgreater

attentioninthemedia,inacademia,andamongvariousreligiousinstitutions,manyfields

ofinquiryhaveturnedtheirattentiontothisglobalphenomenon.Groodyclaimsthatonly25ArsèneBriceBado,DignityAcrossBorders:ForcedMigrationandCatholicSocialEthics(Denver:OutskirtsPress,2011),1.26Ibid.,7.27Ibid.,17-18.

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recently,andnotyetfully,hastheologytakenitsplaceinthisdiscourse:“Economics,

politics,geography,demography,sociology,psychology,law,history,anthropology,and

environmentalstudies…shapetheemergingfieldofmigrationstudies…theologyseemsto

entertheacademicterritoryfromoutside,asifitwerea‘disciplinaryrefugee’withno

officialrecognitionintheoveralldiscourseaboutmigration.”28Ononeview,theologycan

beseentoencompassalloftheabovedisciplines,insofarasScripture,Catholicsocial

teaching,andtheologicalethicsaddressissuesinthesefieldsthroughtheirexplorationof

therelationships,andespeciallythemutualresponsibilities,betweenindividualsand

societies.YetworkcertainlyremainstobedoneinordertobringChristiantheological

reflectionsandresourcesintoconstructiveandtrulymutualdialoguewithmoresecular

approachestothechallengingissuesofmigration.If,asEstherReedsays,“themajorityof

[Christian]reflectionsinthisareatendtobedoctrinallyselectiveandlimited,”29thenitis

nowonderthatsuchcontributionshavebeenmarginalized.If“atheologyofmigrationisa

wayofspeakingaboutthemissionofthechurchwithinthecontextofadisorderedpolitical

economy,”30thenthatmission,andthemoreorderedsocietythatitproposes,mustbe

compellingandcleartoabroadaudience.

In2003,theUnitedStatesConferenceofCatholicBishops(USCCB)andthe

ConferenciadelEpiscopadoMexicano(CEM)publishedStrangersNoLonger,ajoint

pastoralletterthatprovidesastrongtheologicalandpastoralfoundationforCatholic

approachestomigration,especiallywithrespecttotheborderbetweentheUnitedStates

andMexico.Thebishopsseethecomplexrealityofmigration“aspartofthedynamicsof28Groody,“CrossingtheDivide,”640.29EstherReed,“RefugeeRightsandStateSovereignty:TheologicalPerspectivesontheEthicsofTerritorialBorders,”JournaloftheSocietyofChristianEthics30(2010):60.30Groody,“CrossingtheDivide,”666.

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creationandgraceontheonehand,andofsinanddeathontheother,thatformthe

backdropofallsalvationhistory.”31Theyalsoproclaimthat“faithinthepresenceofChrist

inthemigrantleadstoaconversionofmindandheart,whichleadstoarenewedspiritof

communionandtothebuildingofstructuresofsolidaritytoaccompanythemigrant.”32

Andunlikethevastmajorityofperspectivesthatseemigrantsunderthehegemonic

influencesofstructuralforcesbeyondtheircontrol,StrangersNoLongerboldlyurgesthat

“migrantsshouldberemindedoftheirroleasevangelizers,”33affirmingtheirdignityand

autonomyevenwhenfacedwithfewornomeaningfulchoices.Infact,Heyeraffirmsthat

“cultivatingmigrants’agencywillbeessentialforadequatehumanitarian,legislative,and

culturalresponses”34totheirmovementandpresenceincountriesotherthantheirown.

Moreover,asCruzandothershavewritten,“religionprovidedimmigrantsthespiritual

resourcestocopewiththepsychologicaleffectsofmigration”35throughouttheworld.

Manyauthorshavenotedthestrongbasisforadutytoprotectandcareformigrants

intheJudeo-ChristianScriptures.Badoobservesthat“theOldTestamentoffersmore

accountsofpeoplewhoareforcedtocrossbordersthanitoffersaccountsofpeoplewho

migratedbecausetheywerepleasedtodoso.”36Thesestoriespresentbothindividualsand

entiresocietiesasrefugees,andrecallthiscollectivememoryinrulesthatobligethe

IsraelitestohavethesamegenerousandbenevolentattitudetowardmigrantsthatGod

displayedtowardthem.Moreover,as“Israel’srelationtotheland…[was]arelationof

31USCCB,StrangersNoLonger,#23.32Ibid.,#40.33Ibid.,#46.34Heyer,“EthicsofMigration,”206.35Cruz,“BetweenIdentityandSecurity,”360.36Bado,DignityAcrossBorders,35-36.

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stewardship,”37theyweresubjecttoGod’scommandsastheyexercisedauthorityover

theirterritory.Themobilityofmigrantsandrefugeessuggeststhatthisethicisboth

portableandstable:peopleonthemovemustrespectthelandthroughwhichtheytravel,

anditscitizensareenjoinedtotreatthemwithhospitalityandkindness.Thelegacy

inheritedbyCatholicsocialteachingonmigrantshasas“thestartingpointofits

discourse…notthestateandborderprotection;butratherthehumanpersonandher

dignity.”38Withthisrecognitionofuniversalhumandignitycomesaresponsibilityto

defenditinthesituationsofthreat,harm,anddisplacementexperiencedbymigrants

duringtheirjourneys,andevenaftertheirarrivalinadestinationcountry.Badobelieves

thatstatesplayanessentialrolehereaswell:“moralprinciplesthattranscendnational

bordersdonotobviatetheutilityofterritorialborders…theyarereconceptualizedasan

assignmentofresponsibility…[that]consistsinpromotingboththenationalcommongood

andthegoodofallhumanity.”39

IntheUnitedStates,theologicalandpastoralperspectivesonmigrationhavebeen

profoundlyinfluencedbythegrowingnumbersofLatinoCatholics,manyofwhomhave

themselvesmigratedfromMexico,ElSalvador,andothercountriesinCentralAmerica.

TimothyMatovina,reflectinguponthecontentandeffectsofStrangersNoLonger,sees

greatpotentialin“Catholics[who]promoteeducationonthechurch’simmigration

teachingandonpolicydebates,seektofocusattentiononthehumanstrugglesandlife

storiesofimmigrants,andengageinconversationaboutrespondinginfaith.”40Atthesame

37Bado,DignityAcrossBorders,41.38Ibid.,49.39Ibid.,55-56.40TimothyMatovina,LatinoCatholicism:TransformationinAmerica’sLargestChurch(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2012),203.

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time,hehasfoundthat“themostwidespreadformofCatholicpublicpresenceon

immigrationisthenumerousoutreacheffortsinlocalfaithcommunities.”41

CaseStudies:TwoMexicanFamilies

DuringaperiodofworkinaHispanicparishintheMidwest,Iencounteredmany

individualsandfamilieswhohadmigratedtotheUnitedStatesfromvariouscountriesin

CentralAmerica,aswellasagreatnumberfromMexico.Despitetheunstablepolitical

situationsinsomeofthosecountries,thevastmajorityhadmigratedtotheUnitedStatesin

searchofbetteropportunitiesforemploymentandfinancialstabilitythantheyhadbeen

abletoattainintheirhomecountries.Insomecases,rampantcrimeandviolenceledthem

toseekasaferenvironment–theUnitedStates–inwhichtoraisetheirchildren.Thosewho

hadmigratedwithoutofficialsanction–whetherbysneakingintothecountryorstaying

beyondtheexpirationoflegallyacquiredtouristvisas–experiencedperiodsoffearand

anxietywhenlocalofficialsmadestatementsaboutillegalimmigrants.Insome

municipalitiesneartheparish,policeofficerswereknowntoprofiledriversandattemptto

ascertainone’slegalstatusduringtrafficstops.Severalcasestudiesdrawnfrommywork

inthisparish–withnamesandsomedetailsalteredtopreserveanonymity–highlightthe

complexarrayofcircumstancesinthesemigrants’lives.

LuísandMonicabothtrainedandwerecertifiedashealthprofessionalsinMexico,

butlosttheirjobswhentheclinicthatemployedthemshutdown.Unabletofindwork,they

obtainedtemporaryvisastotheUnitedStates,andcametotheMidwestinhopesof

workinginasimilarclinic.Theybroughta7-yearolddaughter,Esperanza;their16-year

41Matovina,LatinoCatholicism,204.

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oldson,Hector,remainedinMexicowithrelatives.ContrarytowhatLuísandMonicahad

beentold,theirMexicanmedicallicenseswerenotrecognizedintheUnitedStates,and

trainingtobecertifiedintheUnitedStateswouldhavebeenprohibitiveincostand

repetitiveinnature.Severalmonthsofnegotiationwithlocalmedicalofficialsproved

fruitless,jeopardizingthegroundsfortheirplantoapplyforcitizenshiporpermanent

residency.Meanwhile,Esperanzawasadaptingwelltohernewschool,andseemed

reluctanttoreturntoMexico.LuísandMonicafoundjobsintheconstructionand

hospitalityindustries,respectively,andwereabletoacquireahomeinadiversesuburban

neighborhood.Whentheirvisasexpired,thefamilydecidedtoquietlystayintheUnited

States;bythattime,theyhadbecomeconnectedtotheparishandencounteredother

familieslivinginsimilarcircumstances.Twoyearslater,anotherdaughterwasborn;Liana

istheonlyoneinherfamilywhoisaUnitedStatescitizen.LuísandMonicadecidedto

applyforgreencardsforthemselvesandEsperanza,buttheirapplicationstalledat

multiplestagesintheprocess,leavingthemwaitingforyears.Becauseshemissedan

opportunitytosignupforPresidentObama’sDeferredActionforChildhoodArrivals

(DACA)program,EsperanzawasforcedtoreturntoMexicowhensheturned18,orrisk

underminingherfamily’sapplicationbywillfullystayinginthecountryillegally.An

outstandinghighschoolstudent,capableofgainingadmissionintosomeofthebest

universitiesintheMidwest,Esperanzamadepreparationstoreturntoacountrythatwas

largelyforeigntoher,inhopesofonedaybeingpermittedtosettlepermanentlyinthe

countryshehadlongconsideredhome.

Juan,Rosa,andtheirthreeyoungchildrenwerelivinghappilyinCiudadJúarez,a

MexicancityacrosstheborderfromElPaso,Texas,untilthesuddenexplosionofcrime,

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violence,andmurdersrelatedtotheconflictbetweenrivalcartelsseekingtocontrola

majorsmugglingroutefordrugs.Mexicanauthoritiesseemedpowerlessasdruglords

assumedcontroloverthecity’sneighborhoods.JuanandRosaalsofearedfortheirtwo

daughters;thedisappearancesofwomenwereanominousandunpredictableoccurrence,

andmostofthesecaseswereneversolved.Juanworkedforaglobalcompanywithoffices

inMexicoandtheUnitedStates;whenhegotwordofacomingassignmentintheMidwest,

hesawanopportunitytomakeapermanentmovethatwouldremovehisfamilyfromthe

dangersofJúarezandofferabrighterfuturefortheirchildren.However,thecompanygave

himonlyasix-monthposition,withnoprovisionsforhisfamilytoaccompanyhim.Juan

reluctantlywentalonetotheMidwest.ButafterthreemonthsRosaobtainedvisasfor

herselfandthechildren,andthefamilywasreunited.Juanwaseventuallyoffereda

permanentpositionintheMidwestoffice,butwastoldthattheprocessofobtaining

permanentresidentstatus,evenwiththecompany’shelp,couldtakeyears.Beforethe

processwascompleted,therecessionhit,andJuan’scompanydownsized.Hispositionwas

retained,butheknowsthatwithoutthejob,thecaseforacquiringpermanentresidencyfor

himandhisfamilywouldquicklyfallapart.Meanwhile,thesituationinJúarezhasnot

improved;JuanandRosahavealreadydeterminedthattheycan’tbringtheirchildrenback

there,norcouldtheyleavethemaloneintheUnitedStates.

Synthesis:Migration,Ethics,andTheology

Consideringtheimplicationsofthesecases,inacontextthatsynthesizesethical

argumentsaswellastheologicalpropositions,willhighlightthecrucialdifficultiesfoundin

contemporarymigrationscenarios,andalsosuggestsolutionsthatupholdthemost

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importantindividualrightsandcollectivevaluesinthesesituations.Thoserightsand

valuesinvolvemigrants,citizensofthecountriestowhichtheytravel,national

governmentsheldresponsibleforpreservingorderandopportunitywithintheirborders,

andreligiousinstitutionsthataddressthemigrationissuethroughbothpracticalactionas

wellassocial,political,andculturaldiscourse.

HeatherWiddowsclaimsthat“globalization–theincreasinginterdependenceof

globalsocietyeconomically,socially,culturally,andpolitically–hascreatedtrulyglobal

dilemmasthatrequireglobalsolutions.”42Shealsoacceptsthat“partialandpiecemeal

measureswillgraduallycontributetoestablishingtrulyglobalmethods”43toaddress

globalissuessuchasmigration.TheUnitedStates-Mexicoborderseemsanaptplaceto

developanimproved,morehumane,morepracticalmigrationpolicythatbetterreflects

theneedsofindividualsinbothcountries,inlightofthecontentofthecasestudiesabove,

andtheopportunitiespresentedbythejointpastoralletterwrittenbytheCatholicbishops

oftheUnitedStatesandMexico.Widdowsacknowledgesthe“seeminglyeternaldebate

betweenmoraluniversalistsandmoralrelativists”44thatcanoftenconfoundmeaningful

andconstructivedebate,ratherthanseekingtoapplyethicalnormslikethedignityofthe

humanpersoninavarietyofparticularanduniquecircumstances.Thusasmall-scaleor

piecemealapproachseemstooffergreaterprospectsfordevelopingmorereasonable

responsestotoday’spatternsofmigration,andtheforcesthatinfluencethem.

Hollenbachassertsthat“thoughnationalborderscarryconsiderablemoralweight,

theyarenotmorallydeterminativeinthefaceofthegraveneedofrefugeesorthosewho

42HeatherWiddows,GlobalEthics:AnIntroduction(Durham,UK:Acumen,2011),5.43Ibid.,8.44Ibid.,31.

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havenoalternativebuttomigrate.”45Essentially,thesignificanceaffordedtobordersisa

geopoliticalconceptthatmustalwaysbesubordinatedtothecommongoodandthewell-

beingofindividualswhoseektocrossthem.InthecaseofJuanandRosa,thethreatsto

themandtheirchildreninacitybesetbyviolenceandabreakdowninofficialauthority

arguablysupportfulfillingamoralimperativetosafeguardtheirfamily’swell-beingby

migratingtoasaferlocale.Juan’splacementintheUnitedStates–anopportunityenabled

bytheglobalizationofcommerceandindustry–providedameanstoachievethisend.

Matovina’sresearchofLatinoCatholiccommunitiesrevealsthat“long-standinglinks

betweenLatinandNorthAmericaalreadyleadmanyLatinostoadoptamorehemispheric

perspectivetoCatholicismintheUnitedStates.”46Thatperspectivecouldextendto

migration,seeingmovementaroundthecontinentinawaythatrecognizesyettranscends

theinterestsofagivenstate.LuísandMonicagrapplewiththeimplicationsofthat

perspective,asdotheirchildren,especiallyEsperanza,givenherambiguousrelationship

withMexicoandherstrong,yetnotlegallysanctioned,bondwiththeUnitedStates.

Forbothofthesefamilies,aprimaryissueispreservingtheirunityonalllevels.

Obtainingcitizenshiporpermanentlegalresidencyforallmembersofthefamilyisthusa

paramountconcern.Althoughcitizenshipformigrantsisoftenaflashpointforcharged

rhetoricandacrimoniousdebateinlegislativesessionsandstreetdemonstrationsalike,it

doesseemtobearthegreatestconceptualpotentialforachievingalegaladaptationtoa

newdemographicreality.Pécoudsuggeststhat“immigrationfurthercallscitizenshipinto

question…[and]introducesintothecontentofcitizenshipnewcross-cuttingvaluesthatgo

45Hollenbach,“MigrationasaChallenge,”810.46Matovina,LatinoCatholicism,40.

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beyondthenationalframework.”47Aswillbeexploredinthefollowingchapter,theflowof

migrantsandrefugeesinsomepartsoftheworldisdirectlyrelatedtothebreakdownofa

givenstateanditsgovernment’sdutiestoprovideforitscitizens.Yetarguingfromsuch

casestowardaformofglobalcitizenshipremainsproblematic,bothconceptuallyand

practically.Widdowsrecognizesthepitfallsofarguingforglobalcitizenship,butnotesa

varietyofpropositionsfor“amoralideaofcitizenship…anethicalstanceandastatement

ofcommunityandidentity”48thatcouldthenhavedistinctpoliticalandsocialexpressions

indifferentcountries.GiventhelonghistorybetweentheUnitedStatesandMexico,

markedbybothcollaborationandconflict,theleadersandcitizensofthesecountriescould

drawonsomecommonmoralandethicalpositionstodevelopmigrationpoliciesthat

preservethepracticalinterestsofbothstateswhilealsopermittingadegreeofmigration

andsettlementthatmorereasonablyreflectstheeconomic,cultural,andsocialforcesthat

exerttheirinfluenceacrossthegeopoliticalborderbetweenthem.

Thetheologicaldimensionishelpfulhere,asitgoesbeyondethicalconceptsof

rightsanddutiestopresenttheclaimsstemmingfromhumandignity,justice,andthe

communalnatureofsociety.Catholicsandotherswhosefaithinspiresthemtoattendto

migrantsandtheirneedsreportthat“oneofthemostcentralissuesfacingmigrantstoday

isthestrugglesimplytoreclaimtheirstatusashumanbeings,especiallyinthecontextofa

worldthatdemeans,diminishes,anddehumanizesthem.”49Thiswascertainlytrueofthe

migrantswhomIencounteredinthatMidwesternparish;policeinoneoftheneighboring47WihtoldeWenden,“TheFrontiersofMobility,”60.48Widdows,GlobalEthics,132.49DanielGroody,“AMissionofReconciliation:TheologicalPerspectivesofPilgrimPeople,”inOn“StrangersNoLonger:”PerspectivesontheHistoricU.S.-MexicanCatholicBishops’PastoralLetteronMigration,eds.ToddScribnerandJ.KevinAppleby(NewYork:PaulistPress,2013),67.

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townsperiodicallymadeahabitofstoppinganydriverswhoappearedHispanicand

harassingthemforproofoftheirpermissiontobeintheUnitedStates.Manywerewearied

bythelongdelaysintheapplicationprocess,whichoftenmeantextendedseparationfrom

theirfamiliesandaninabilitytoreturntoMexicoforimportantoccasions,suchasthe

funeralofarelative.Fortunately,althoughtheparishwasknowntobesupportiveof

migrants,thelocalauthoritiesnevertargetedourparishionersastheytraveledtoandfrom

thechurch.Infact,officialsfromthenearestMexicanconsulatecametotheparishtwicea

yeartohelppeopleprocesstheirpaperworkandhaveavarietyofquestionsaddressed.

Theparishthusexpressed“aCatholicanthropology[that]profoundlycritiquespatterns

whereinstablereceivingcountriesacceptthelaborofmillionsofimmigrantswithout

offeringlegalprotectionsorviablepathstocitizenship.”50Suchadvocacywouldbe

particularlycrucialforEsperanza,aswellasthechildrenofJuanandRosa.

Badosketchesoutsomesuggestionsforbringingasynthesisofethicaland

theologicalconcernsintopracticalandeffectiveadvocacyformigrants.Amongtheseisthe

principleofsubsidiarity,whereby”itisthedutyofthecountryoforiginofrefugeesand

IDPs[internallydisplacedpersons]toresolvethecrisisthatdroveoutthepeople...afailure

ofnationalgovernmentstoprotecttherightsofpersonsresultsintheneedandthedutyof

outsideauthoritiestakingactiononbehalfofvictimizedpopulation.”51MarkEnsalaco

contendsforsomeextensionofahumanrightsframeworkthatpresently“reflectsthe

minimalconsensusoftheinternationalcommunity,aconsensusthatwouldnotexistif

50KristinHeyer,“LegalizationandtheUndocumentedAccordingtoCatholicSocialTeaching,”inOn“StrangersNoLonger:”PerspectivesontheHistoricU.S.-MexicanCatholicBishops’PastoralLetteronMigration,eds.ToddScribnerandJ.KevinAppleby(NewYork:PaulistPress,2013),92.51Bado,DignityAcrossBorders,59.

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rightsclaimswerefoundedonreligiousdoctrine.”52IntheUnitedStates,though,muchof

thesupportformigrantshascomefromchurches,andthesevariousformsofaidhelp

migrantstoachievealevelofsocialandculturalintegration.Thereisroomforasserting

theclaimofCatholicsocialteachingthat“sovereigntyandhospitalityaremutually

implicating…withlegitimateexercisesofsovereigntydependentuponpriordemandsof

humanrightsprotectionsandbasicconditionsofsocialjustice”53rootedasmuchinethical

andphilosophicalconceptsofthehumanpersonasintheologicalandreligious

perspectivesonmigration.Sovereigntywithouthospitalityreflectsapoliticalandsocial

orderdrivenmorebymaterialconcernsthanethicalandrelationalones.Moreover,when

“internationallawprovidesinadequateprotectionsofthehumanrightsofmigrants,no

doubtbecausetheconsensusnormsoftheinternationalcommunityundulyreflectthe

interestsofthepowerful,”54onecanraisenotonlytheologicalquestionsofjustice,butalso

ethicalconcernsaboutdutiesandtheendsofaglobalordermarkedbysuchunequal

allotmentsofpowerandinfluence.

ConcludingThoughts

Thecontemporarysituationofmigrantsinvariousregionsoftheworldisoften

fraughtwithdangeranduncertaintythatdiminishthevitalityoftheirlives.Althougha

numberoffactorshavebeenseentodrivepeopletoleavetheirhomes,theirmovements

aregroundedinafundamentalanduniversalconcernforsecuringabetter,morestable,52MarkEnsalaco,“IllegalImmigration,theBishops,andtheLaity:‘StrangersNoLonger’,”inOn“StrangersNoLonger:”PerspectivesontheHistoricU.S.-MexicanCatholicBishops’PastoralLetteronMigration,editedbyToddScribnerandJ.KevinAppleby(NewYork:PaulistPress,2013),265.53Heyer,“LegalizationandtheUndocumented,”95.54Ensalaco,“IllegalImmigration,”267.

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moresafe,andmorefruitfullifeforthemselvesandthoseundertheircare.Despitethe

achievementsofaglobalizedsocietyintheeconomic,technological,andculturalrealms,

thelegalandpoliticalclimatehasremainedambiguous,andinrecentyearsbecome

increasinglyhostile,withrespecttothemovementofpeoplewithoutwhommanyofthose

accomplishmentswouldnotpersist.Ahistoricalperspectiveonmigrationshowsthe

significanceofthisphenomenonforthedevelopmentofcontemporarycivilization,in

whichthelegacyofEuropeancolonialismcontinuestoexertheavyinfluenceinmanyareas

oftheSouthernHemisphere.

Althoughdismantlingthegeopoliticalframeworkofnation-stateswouldhardly

solvetheproblematicissuesofmigration,aglobalizedworldcallsforinternational

agreementsaimedat“ensuringthatthemigrationprocessdoesnotharmtheinterestsof

sendingandreceivingstatesnorofmigrantsthemselves.”55DonaldKerwinnotesthat“the

CatholicChurchsupportstheinternationalregimeofrefugeeprotectionandhasurgedall

nationstoadoptitsrelevantinstruments.”56IntheUnitedStates,“theCatholiccommunity

couldplayadecisiveroleinpushingimmigrationreformforward…havinggrownas

successivewavesofimmigrantsreachedU.S.shores.”57Informedbytheexperienceof

individualmigrants,richwiththestoriesoftheirpurposeinmigratingaswellastheir

difficultieswithlegalframeworksandprevailingattitudesinsocietyandpolitics,general

argumentscouldbebuilttoproposesensibleadjustmentstoimmigrationlawthatparallel

theopeningofborderstogoods,investments,andothertangibleandintangible

55PécoudanddeGuchteneire,“MigrationWithoutBordersScenario,”22.56DonaldKerwin,“TheNaturalRightsofNewcomersandMigrants:AChallengetoU.S.LawandPolicy”inAPromisedLand,APerilousJourney,eds.DanielGroodyandGioacchinoCampese(NotreDameIN:UniversityofNotreDamePress,2008),193.57ScribnerandAppleby,eds.,On“StrangersNoLonger,”296-297.

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commoditiesfromaroundtheglobe.Thepracticalrealityofcontemporarymigration

“pointstothenecessityofenvisagingamorecomprehensiverighttomobility.”58Yet

withoutadiverserangeofsupportivevoices–drawnfromethics,theology,politics,and

otherfields–suchavisionseemslikelytobeovershadowedbyastatusquothatseems

caughtbetweencompetingclaimsofopennessanddefensiveness,withmigrantstragically

stuckinthemiddle.

58PécoudanddeGuchteneire,“MigrationWithoutBordersScenario,”1.

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Chapter2:MovingGloballytoSecuretheRightsofCitizenship

Thesignificantriseinmovementsofrefugeesandmigrantsaroundtheworldraises

questionsabouthowtoredefinecitizenshipwhencertainstatesfailtoprovideanarrayof

basicandreasonablehumanrightsfortheircitizens.Thenotionofcitizenshipisinherentin

thecurrentsociopoliticalorderthatprivilegesthenation-state(orcountry)asakeyunit.

Yetquestionsaboutthevitalityandfutureofcertainnation-states,andtheireffective

provisionoftheattributesofcitizenship,areraisedbyincreasedflowsofrefugeesand

migrants,particularlyfromcountrieswhereprolongedwarfare,thebreakdownoflawand

order,thelackofbasicsocialprovisions,orclimatechangehaveplayedamajorrolein

triggeringthoseflows.

Certainsmallislandnation-states,mostlyintheSouthPacific,imperiledbysealevel

risehavealreadybeguntoenterintoagreementstomovetheircitizenstoothercountries,

afirststepinfacingtheprospectofliteraldisappearance.CountriessuchasSomaliahave

experiencedextendedperiodswithlittletonogovernment,bringingintoquestionwhat

citizenshipmeansthere.Despitetherecognitionbytheinternationalcommunitythatthere

isstillagovernmentinplaceslikeSyria,Yemen,andSouthSudan,prolongedcivilwarfare

andalargeexodusofrefugeeshascalledintoquestionthefutureviabilityofthesestates.In

NorthKorea,Eritrea,andothernation-stateswithhighlyauthoritariangovernmentsthat

severelyrestrictaccessto,andfreedomswithin,theirterritories,onecanwonderifthereis

anythingakintocitizenshipasitisunderstoodinthedemocraciesofmanyothercountries.

MigrantscontinuallyleavethecountriesofCentralAmerica’sNorthernTriangle–

Guatemala,Honduras,ElSalvador–toescaperampantgangviolenceandobtainmore

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gainfulemploymenttoprovidefortheirfamilies,seekingconditionsthattheirown

governmentsstruggletocreateandsustainthemselves.

Lookingatestablisheddefinitionsofstatehoodandcitizenshipinthecontextof

humanrights,andtakingintoaccountthephenomenonofmigrationasasignthatthese

rightsaregoingunmetinmanycountries,canprovideanadditionalperspectiveonthe

phenomenonofmigration,andsuggestpotentialresponsestotheseconcerns.Moreover,

arguingthatstatehoodandcitizenshipshouldservetheinterestsandwell-beingofall

humanbeingscanleadtoamorerealisticandhumaneunderstandingoftherightsand

responsibilitiesofstatehoodandcitizenship,andtheimplicationsforindividualsand

nation-stateswhenthoseconditionsgounmet.

IdealsofLiberalDemocracyandCitizenship

SeylaBenhabibclaimsthat“modernliberaldemocraciesowetheirstabilityand

relativesuccesstothecomingtogetheroftwoidealswhichoriginateindistincthistorical

periods:theidealsofself-governanceandterritoriallycircumscribednation-state.”59This

structureplacesthecitizenintheroleof“thesubjectofstate-administration,ormore

positively,asthesubjectofrightsandentitlements.”60Ultimately,inherview,thissenseof

citizenshipwasincreasinglyinterpreted–thoughperhapsnotuniformlywithinanygiven

governmentorcountry’scitizens–“astheformalequalityofcitizenswhonowsoughtto

realizetheequalvalueoftheirliberty.”61Thisarrangementostensiblyworkswellwithin

anygivennation-statethatcanbeself-sufficient,butinaglobalizedworldinwhichthe59SeylaBenhabib,“Borders,Boundaries,andCitizenship,”PS:PoliticalScienceandPolitics38(2005),673.60Ibid.61Ibid.

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welfareofeverycountryisinfluencedbytheactionsofothers,thesemattersquickly

becomecomplicated.Levelsofindividualandcollectiveliberty,thestrengthofcivilsociety

anditsassociatedinstitutions,andtherobustnessofgoverninginstitutionsandtheir

availabilitytoprovideforthebasicneedsoftheircitizens,andotherattributesofpublic

andprivatelifevarywidelyacrosstheroughlytwohundrednation-statesintheworld

today.Thatvariationalone,andtheawarenessofit,canbeenoughtodrivemovementfrom

onecountrytoanotherasamigrantorrefugee,thoughoftenmanyfactorsarepresent.In

anycase,accordingtoBenhabib,a“relativelysuccessfulsynthesisofrepublicanandliberal-

democraticideals,orofpublicandandprivateautonomy,istodayincrisis…thecrisisof

theterritoriallycircumscribednation-stateformation.”62

Amidthisincreasinglyturbulentgeopoliticalsituation,theCatholicChurch–bothas

awholeandinitslocalandregionalmanifestations–existsasaglobalcommunitythathas

thepotentialtotranscendthedivisionsandpolarizationarisingwithinandbetweenmany

nations.ItstheologicalvisionofitselfastheBodyofChristexpressesaconvictionthat

everypersonismadeintheimageandlikenessofGodandhasunassailabledignitythat

mustbeupheldandprotectedbyjustandequitablelaws.Inthisview,thereisroomto

criticizetheharmfuleffectsofaconceptofcitizenshipthat,asRainerBauböckdescribesit,

functionsas“asortingdeviceforallocatinghumanpopulationstosovereignstates,”63

whichinevitablyleadstocitizenshiplawbeingusedas“acontroldevicethatstrictlylimits

stateobligationstowardforeignersandpermitsgovernmentstokeepthemout,orremove

62Benhabib,“Borders,”673.63RainerBauböck,“CitizenshipandMigration–ConceptsandControversies,”inMigrationandCitizenship:LegalStatus,Rights,andPoliticalParticipation,ed.RainerBauböck(Amsterdam:AmsterdamUniversityPress,2006),16.

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them,fromtheirjurisdiction.”64Notonlydoesthisperspectiveofcitizenshipreduce

individualstomereabstractions,andcreateanautomatic,artificialdistinctionbetween

citizensandnon-citizens,italsofailstoaccountforthecomplexityofglobalaffairsandthe

largevariationinhow“citizenship”isactuallyexperiencedinthevariousnation-statesof

theworld.Bauböckwiselynotesthat“normativeconnotationsofmembershipinaself-

governingcommunitydonoteasilyapplytoregimesthatlackappropriateinstitutionsof

populargovernment…authoritarianstatesruleovertheirnationals,butthesenationals

canbecalledcitizensonlyinaverylimitedsense;”65EritreaandNorthKoreacometomind

asexamples.Particularlyintheseregimes,butalsoinrobust,stable,andvibrantliberal

democracies,“citizenshipmarksaboundarybetweeninsidersandoutsiders.”66

Withrespecttothequestionsposedtoconceptsofcitizenshipbyglobalization,as

wellastherecentsurgeinnumbersofmigrantsandrefugees,DavidAbrahamnotesthat

“elitesandcitizensalikeaskwhobelongstothenationalpoliticalandsocialcommunityof

the‘we’andwhatbelongingentailsinthewayofrightsandobligations.”67Recognizingthe

diversityofimpactsthatglobalizationhashadonthepoliticalorderofnation-statesand

theirsovereignty,understoodatleastterritorially,heclaimsthat“undertheimpactof

unprecedentedfreemobilityforbothcapitalandlaborandthecrisesofthesocialwelfare

state,thebordersandbondsofcitizenshiphavebeenchanging.”68Thevisionofcitizenship

intheliberal,affluent,democraticcountriesfromwhichsuchquestionsareraisedis“based

64Bauböck,“CitizenshipandMigration,”16.65Ibid.,17.66Ibid.,19.67DavidAbraham,“America,Germany,Israel:ThreeModesofCitizenshipandIncorporation,”InternationalLaborandWorking-ClassHistory78(2010),123.68Ibid.

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on…threekindsofrights:civil,political,andsocial.”69Thesepresumeamutualrelationship

betweenindividualcitizens,thevariousgroupsintowhichtheyassemblethemselves,anda

functional,reasonablytransparent,andwell-resourcedgovernmenttomaintainvarious

attributesofsocialorder,aworkingeconomy,education,publichealth,andsoon.Yetmany

nationsinthedevelopingworldarenotmarkedbythesecharacteristics,andassuch,do

notadequatelyorfullyenable“thesovereignself-determinationofapeople,andthewillto

actinitsnameandtomakesacrifices…a‘we’towhichmembersbelongand‘inwhose

deliberationstheyhaveavoice’and‘feelasenseofsharedfateandsolidarity.’”70Asthat

imageofcitizenshipfallsintodeclineinmanynations,drivingconflictsthatunderminecivil

societyandproduceflowsofmigrantsandrefugees,aChristiananthropologycanoffera

valuablecorrective.SuchavisionmotivatestheCatholicChurch’sdevotiontomigrantsand

refugeesthroughvariousformsofministryandadvocacy;thatimageisnothinglessthan

theKingdomofGod,inwhichallpeoplearewelcomedandenabledtocoexistinpeace.

PracticalChallengestoCitizenshipandSovereigntyinanAgeofGlobalizedMigration

Analyzingtheconceptsofcitizenshipandsovereigntyinthreecountries–theUnited

States,Germany,andIsrael–Abrahamfindsnotableweaknessesintheactualsituationof

theircitizensandtheirunderstandingandpracticeofcitizenship.IntheUnitedStates,for

example,heobservesthatcitizenship“isoflesssocialandeconomicvalueandofferslessof

apremiumovermerelegalresidence.”71Inaglobalpoliticalenvironmentwheremillionsof

peoplehavefledtheirhomecountriesonaccountofviolence,unemployment,lackof

69Abraham,“ThreeModes,”124.70Ibid.71Ibid.,123.

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education,theeffectsofclimatechange,andmanyothercauses,itisdistressingtoobserve

“aninverserelationshipbetweentheeaseofaccesstocitizenshipandwhatcitizenship

offers.”72Thisisparticularlyproblematicinsofarascitizenshipbecomesameansbywhich

residentsofonecountrycandistancethemselvesfrommigrantsandrefugeesfleeing

anothercountry.Afailurein“willingnesstoengagewithandassumedutiesonbehalfof

others…istheproblematicofthewelfarestateorofsocialdemocracy,”73andifitisfound

amongcitizenswithinthesamecountry,itisboundtohavetheharshesteffectsonthose

whoarenotcitizens.

Benhabiblikewiseobservesthis“dilemmaattheheartofliberaldemocracies:

betweensovereignself-determinationclaimsontheonehandandadherencetouniversal

humanrightsprinciplesontheother.”74Withrespecttomigration,withimplicationsfor

citizenship,Article13oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights“recognizestherightto

emigrate–thatis,therighttoleaveacountry–butnotarighttoimmigrate–therightto

enteracountry.”75Moreover,inthislistofrights,“Article15stipulatesthat‘Nooneshallbe

arbitrarilydeprivedofhisnationalitynordeniedtherighttochangehisnationality.’”76

Takentogether,thesestatementsrevealhow“aseriesofinternalcontradictionsbetween

universalhumanrightsandterritorialsovereigntyarebuiltrightintothelogicofthemost

comprehensiveinternationallawdocumentintheworld.”77Thisiscompoundedbythe

72Abraham,“ThreeModes,”123.73Ibid.,124.74Benhabib,“Borders,”673.75Ibid.,674.76Ibid.77Ibid.

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lackofaglobalenforcementmechanismforsuchinternationallaw;“states’sovereigntyto

disregardorabidebyornotimplementthem,goesunchecked.”78

Theissueofmigration,byitsverynature,cutsacrossnationalbordersanddraws

nation-statesandtheircitizenstogetherinmultipletypesofrelationship.Thereisnoeasy

solutiontothequestionsofcitizenship,inclusion,andidentitythatarisewhenindividuals

seektocrossborders,eithertemporarilyorpermanently.Asincreasinglyintractableissues

incertaincountries,suchasthoselistedintheopeningparagraphsofthispaper,showno

signsofresolution,underminingboththeirshort-andlong-termprospectsforproviding

humanrightstoalltheircitizens,countrieswheremigrantsandrefugeesareseeking

shelterand/orasylumhavegreatresponsibilitiestothesepeople,aswellastheirown

citizens.Attentionmustbepaidtobothgroups,forcitizenshaveeveryrighttoexpress

theirownwishesanddesiresfortheirowncountries,while“studyingmigrants’social

networksandorganisationsaswellastheirculturalandreligiousidentitiesis…crucially

importantsincetheseareamongthemostimportantfactorsinfluencingtheirpolitical

opportunitiesandactivities.”79Insofarasmigrationisbothaglobalphenomenonandan

issuewithprofoundlocalimplications,a“questionthereforeishowlocaltruthsare

legitimatelytransformedintouniversalcreeds…andwhethertheyredoundtothebenefits

ofpeopleseverywhere.”80

Bauböckdefinesmigrationas“aformofhumanmobilitythatinvolvescrossing

territorialbordersandtakingupresidenceinanothermunicipality,region,orcountry…

78Benhabib,“Borders,”674.79Bauböck,“CitizenshipandMigration,”15.80MakauMutua,“TheComplexityofUniversalisminHumanRights,”inHumanRightswithModesty:TheProblemofUniversalism,ed.AndrásSajó(Leiden:Netherlands:Brill,2004),52.

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mostsuchgeographicentitiesareorganisedasjurisdictionswithpreciselydefinedpolitical

borders.”81ThustherighttoemigrationenshrinedintheUniversalDeclarationonHuman

Rightsisintrinsicallybothachoiceprotectedbyinternationallawandapoliticalact

fraughtwithuncertainty.Giventhepoliticalsysteminplacetoday,thisuniversalrightis,in

practice,curtailedby“states[that]mayimposespecificrestrictionsoncertainnationals

(e.g.throughvisarequirements)whileopeningtheirbordersforothers.”82Therehavebeen

countlessinstancesofthisthroughouthistory;although“inthe1960sand1970s,the

exclusionofparticularethnicandracialgroupsfromimmigrationwasabandonedinthe

US,CanadaandAustraliaandis…regardedasillegitimateinEuropeanimmigration

states,”83thepushbackinmanyofthesesamecountriesagainstSyrianandAfricanrefugees

representsatroublingreversalinthistrend.Atatimewhenmanyfleetheircountriesmore

outofvulnerabilitythanpositivedesire,andspendincreasinglylongerperiodsoftimein

foreigncountries,eitherintransit,detention,ortemporarysettlement,“excludingsettled

immigrantsfromaccesstofullcitizenshipamountstopoliticaltyranny,”84acruellyironic

stateofaffairsforthosefleeingauthoritarianregimes.

Thepracticalexperienceofmanymigrantsandrefugeeswhospendsignificant

lengthsoftimeinhostcountriesseesthem“formallyclaimcertainbasicrightsofcivil

citizenshipthatareconsideredhumanrights…dueprocessrightsincourt…emergency

healthcareorpublicschoolingfortheirchildren.”85Inasense,theygraspandenactwhat

manycitizensofthosecountriesrecognize–“dutiesofeducationandpayingtaxesorsocial

81Bauböck,“CitizenshipandMigration,”17.82Ibid.,18.83Ibid.84Ibid.,20.85Ibid.,23.

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securitycontributionsarenotattachedtonationalitybuttoresidence,incomeand

employment.”86Migrantsandrefugeesundertake,perhapswithmoredevotionand

intentionalitythanmanyoftheirneighbors,thesocialandcommunalresponsibilitiestothe

commongoodfromwhichtheythemselveswishtobenefit.Migrantsfromcountrieswith

compromisedruleoflawandsocio-politicalinstitutions–fromSomaliatoHonduras–

investintheirreceivingcountriesinwaysthatarelessavailableormoreriskytothemin

theirhomecountries,likestartingabusiness,establishingareasonableamountofsavings

throughlaboratfair,livingwages,andparticipatingmeaningfullyinthepoliticalprocess.

Receivingcountriesareinabind,andoftenseektorelievethetensionbetweencitizensand

immigrantsby“assert[ing]aspecificdutytoimmigrantstoassimilateorintegrate…[using]

thenaturalisationprocessasanoccasionforassertingadutyofloyaltythatremainsatbest

implicitfornativecitizens.”87Thelongerthatthesecircumstancespersist,thegreaterthe

developmentofwhatBauböckcalls“transnationalcitizenship…migrants’political

activitiesdirectedtowardstheircountriesoforiginbutalsotoinstitutionalchangesand

newconceptionsofcitizenshipinstateslinkedtoeachotherthroughmigrationchains.”88

TheDoubleStandardsofBorders

Alloftheseissuesbecomemostevidentatthephysical,geographicalborders

betweencountries,wheretheirrespectivedecisionsregardingcitizenship,migrants,and

refugeesareenacted.AsBauböcknotes,today“aborderisasitewherepoliticalpowers

attempttoregulateflowsofgoodsandservices,moneyandcapital,informationandideas,

86Bauböck,“CitizenshipandMigration,”30.87Ibid.88Ibid.,28.

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andpeopleacrossdistinctterritorialjurisdictions.”89Acommoncritiqueofglobalizationis

thatitfacilitatesthemovementofeachofthese,exceptforpeople.Withrespectto

migration,“wherethereisapoliticaloradministrativeborderbetweenplacesofdeparture

anddestination,freedomofmovementiscomposedofthreedistinctelements:arightof

exit,arightofentry,andarighttosettlementatthedestination.”90Thisisconsistentwith

theidealsbehindtheUniversalDeclarationonHumanRightsconcerningmovementof

people,andgoesbeyondthatdeclarationbyassertingarightofentry.However,rapidly

expandingtherightofentrycanleadtotensionwhenthatrightisperceivedasbeing

exploited.TheEuropeanUnion’sresponsetotheSyrianrefugeecrisisduringthesummer

of2015–asituationthatremainsunresolved–highlightsthedifficultyinreconciling

concernsofhumanrightsontheonehand,andresponsibilitiesofpolitical,civic,andlegal

orderontheother.Indeed,Bauböcknotesthat“internalbordercontrolsintheSchengen

areacanbetemporarilyreintroducedifagovernmentclaimsthatthereisasignificantrisk

toitsnationalsecurity,”91andcertainEUcountries–notablyHungary–madejustthatclaim

astheyclosedtheirborderstorefugeesandmigrants.Thissituationindicatesthatmere

permissionofentryisonething;acceptanceofthatrightbycitizensofareceivingcountry,

letaloneapathtomorepermanentcitizenshipformigrantsandrefugeesarrivingthere,is

somethingelseentirely.

Withrespecttothosewhoarepermittedtoenter,“mostcountriesmakeiteasyto

enterasatourist,moredifficulttoenterasawould-beresidentorworker,andevenmore

89Bauböck,“CitizenshipandFreeMovement,”346.90Ibid.,350.91Ibid.,346.

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difficulttoenterasanimmigrant.”92Theunderlyingattitudehereisonethatharbors

suspicionofwhatincomingforeignersmightwishtodrawfromthatcountry’sresources,

yetismorethanhappytoreceiveindividualsforbriefstaysduringwhichtheywillmainly

benefitthatcountry’seconomythroughtourismexpenditures.Migrantworkersare

perhapsthemostnumerouscategory;yetmostmigrationpoliciesindevelopednations

exploitthem“asworkerswhilelimitingtheirclaimsashumanbeings.”93IntheUnited

States,where“theundocumentedalonerepresent5percentoftheU.S.workforce,andhave

becomeastructuralrealityintheU.S.economy,”94thisisanuncomfortablerealitythat

contributestotheintensityofdebateovermigrationpolicies.Innation-statesthatare

moreopentoimmigration,andperhapsevenperceiveittobenecessaryand/ordesiredfor

avarietyofpolitical,economic,andsocialreasons,“immigrationpolicymayencourage

peopletoenterbutdiscouragethemfromcomingiftheywouldonlybedependantsrather

thanworkers(andtaxpayers);itmightencouragethemtobecomeresidentsbutmakeit

difficulttobecomecitizens.”95Moreover,onceadmittedtothecountry,thesepeopleare

oftensubmittedtovariousrestrictionswithdeportationasathreatenedsanctionfor

noncompliance:“thosewhohaveenteredasresidentsmaybeforbiddentoworkinpaid

employment.Thosewithworkpermitsmayberestrictedtoworkwiththesponsoring

employerandprohibitedfromchangingjobs…insomecountriesforeignresidentsare

prohibitedfromcommentingonlocalpolitics.”96Insuchsituations,theyclearlydonot

92ChandranKukathas,“Expatriatism:TheTheoryandPracticeofOpenBorders,”inCitizenship,Borders,andHumanNeeds,ed.RogersSmith(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2011),327.93Campese,“¿CuantosMás?,”279.94Kerwin,“NaturalRights,”197.95Kukathas,“Expatriatism,”329.96Ibid.,330.

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enjoythefullsuiteofrightsaccordedtotheircitizenneighbors,creatinganunethical

disparitybetweenhumanbeingswhomeritfundamentallyequalrightsanddignity.

While“veryfewpeople(orstates)advocatecompletelyclosedborders”97today,

“manycountriesareconcernedaboutadmitting‘toomany’peoplefromparticulargroups,

orpeoplewhoarenotmembersofthedominantgroupinthecountry,”98andthose

concernsarereflectedintheirbordercontrolregimesandimmigrationpolicies.Thereare

strongargumentsintheirfavor:“anystablesociety,theargumentgoes,needstobeableto

keepcontrolofitspopulationtoguardagainstcriminality,politicalsubversion,andterror…

membersofanycountryhavebenefitsthataccruetotheminvirtueoftheirhavingaccess

toopportunitiesoutsidersdonot.”99Thislineofthinking,however,overlooksorignores

thenegativeeffectsofxenophobicsuspicionandpoliticalandculturalisolationonthe

socialfabricofanation.Moreover,thereisastrongsocialjusticecounterpointtothe

threadofprotectionisminherentinsucharguments,aclaimthatJosephCarensadvances

byidentifyingandcritiquingadeterministicunderstandingofcitizenshipthatisobsolete:

“citizenshipinthemodernworldisalotlikefeudalstatusinthemedievalworld.Itwas

assignedatbirth;forthemostpartitisnotsubjecttochangebytheindividual’swilland

efforts;andithasamajorimpactuponthatperson’slifechances.”100Thisalignswiththe

understandingthat“everystateimplicitlycreatesadefaultcategoryofthosewholive

outside[its]boundariesandarebydefinitionbeyondthepaleofmembership,”101thus

presentingcitizenshipasanexclusionaryforce,easilycriticizedfromasocialjustice97Kukathas,“Expatriatism,”334.98Ibid.,335.99Ibid.,336.100Bauböck,“CitizenshipandFreeMovement,”354.101NirajaGopalJayal,CitizenshipanditsDiscontents(CambridgeMA:HarvardUniversityPress,2013),82.

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perspectiveasprotectingtherichattheexpenseofthepoor,anunequalstatusquoinstead

ofamoreequitablevisionforthefuture.Otherpotentialconceptionsofcitizenshipinclude

“neoliberalcitizenship[that]looksatsocietyasasocietyofnatives;[and]integrationist

citizenship[that]looksatsocietyasonethatincludesimmigrantsandethnicminorities…

whoaretobemadepartof‘us.’”102

Completelyclosingborderswillnotsolvethesetensionsovercitizenship,yet

completelyopeningthemwouldbesimilarlyineffective.Afterall,Kukathasobserves,asthe

majorityofnation-statescurrentlyadvocatingstrongerbordercontrolshavedemocratic

societiesinwhichindividualfreedomisacherishedvalue,“anyjustificationforclosed

bordershastoofferreasonsstrongenoughtowarranttheinterferencewithindividual

freedom–bothofthosewhowishtomoveandofthosewhoareunabletowelcome

outsiders.”103Atthesametime,manyindividualsinsuchsocietieswouldsurelyrecognize

thestandingofanargumentfrom“aprincipleofhumanity[that]suggeststhatitisdifficult

tojustifyturningthepoorestpeopleawayfromthedoorsoftherichestsocieties…onthe

whole,thewelloffandtherichhavelittletroublecrossingborders.Thepurposeofclosed

bordersisusuallytokeepoutthepoor.”104Alongtheselines,“concedingthesignificanceof

socialjusticeargumentsisawayofrecognizingthatthereisatradeofftobemadebetween

doingjusticewithinsocietiesanddoingjusticeacrosssocieties.”105TheUnitedStatesand

theEuropeanUnionarebothengagedinintensepoliticalandethicaldebatesoverthis

tradeoff,withrespecttoglobalmigrationandanumberofothermajorissues.Ultimately,102ChristianJoppke,“Immigration,Citizenship,andtheNeedforIntegration,”inCitizenship,Borders,andHumanNeeds,ed.RogersSmith(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2011),163.103Kukathas,“Expatriatism,”337.104Ibid.,338.105Ibid.,340.

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anygivenstatehasthefreedomtochoosetowhomitgrants,bestows,orextends

citizenshipwithintheestablishedsociopoliticalandlegalframework.Yetthegrowing

numbersofmigrantsandrefugeesraiseformanycountries–andperhapstheentireglobal

systemofnation-statesandcitizenship–acrucialquestion:“Whenandunderwhat

conditionsdoesthemoralpersonhoodofarefugeeormigrantgeneratearighttolegalor

juridicalpersonhoodintheformofcitizenship?”106

TheoriesandPoliciesofCitizenshipforMigrantsandRefugees

NirajaGopalJayalnotesthat“thereisacuriousdisjuncturebetweenthewaysin

whichcitizenshipaslegalstatusistreatedintheworldsoftheoryandofpolicy.”107She

believesthatthereisadangerinagrowinggapbetweenhowcitizenshipislegallydefined

andgrantedontheonehand,andhowitisactuallyappliedandpracticedontheother

hand.IntheUnitedStatesandothercountriesthat,whatevertheirpastpolicies,arenow

manifestingoppositiontoreceivingmigrantsandrefugeesandofferingthemapathto

citizenship,thereis,inherview,aninadequategraspofwhatsuchargumentsactually

concern.If“thewelfare-statehasinducedpassivityinthepracticeofcitizenshipandhas

createdapatheticvotersandwelfare-dependentcitizens,whollyunmindfuloftheircivic

obligationsandduties,”108thensuchindividualslosetheirstandingforwithholdingfrom

othersacitizenshipthattheyneithergraspnorpractice.Thereisalsoaneedtomore

clearlyassessthevariousmoralandlegalthreadsinthisissue.AsJayalcharacterizesit,

“themoralclaimsofrefugeesareaddressedtohumanityingeneral,butitisnotveryclear

106Jayal,Citizenship,82.107Ibid.,84.108Ibid.,85.

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towhomthelegalclaimsmightbeaddressedintheabsenceofanewinternationallegal

regime.”109Moreover,whenevermigrantsandrefugeesarriveinanothercountry,“there

aretwocrucialaspectsofquotidianlifethathavetobeconfronted…first,thefulfillmentof

basicneedsandlivelihoods;andsecond,thehostilityofthehostpopulation.”110

Acleardistinctionisnecessarywhenspeakingofrefugeesandmigrantsintermsof

theirstatus;“refugeesarenotcitizens.Suchrightsastheyaregrantedarearesultofthe

humanitarianprovisionsofinternationallaw,andiftheyclaimcitizenship,itisonterms

specifiedbythestate.”111Despitetherhetoricofuniversalhumanrightsandthetheoretical

agreementofmostnation-statestoupholdtheserightsthroughinternationallawandtheir

ownlawsandstatutes,theystillhavegreatlibertytodefinecitizenshipastheywish,andto

bestowitupon–andsometimeswithdrawitfrom–whomevertheychoose.Jayalcitesan

instanceinIndia’shistorywhen“about60%of[approximately73,000statelessSriLankan

refugeeslivinginTamilNadu]havebeenborninIndiabut,duetothe2003amendment

whichdeniescitizenshiptoanyindividualoneofwhoseparentswasanillegalimmigrantat

thetimeofhis/herbirth,areineligibleforlegalstatus.”112ThesituationofpeopleofHaitian

descentlivingintheDominicanRepublicwhofacetherevocationoftheircitizenshipand

deportationtoHaitiissimilar,andhighlightsthepowerandautonomythatindividualstate

governmentsretainovercitizenship,althoughincreasinglytheconventionsofinternational

lawareresistingmeasuresthatcouldleadtostatelessindividuals.Theremaybesignificant

moralcriticism,andevenoutrage,oversuchdecisions,yettheycanbedefendedand

upheldfromastraightforwardlegalperspective.109Jayal,Citizenship,87.110Ibid.,93.111Ibid.,85.112Ibid.,88.

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Citizenshiphasgreatattraction;“bothforthosewhodonotyethaveit,aswellasfor

thosewhodo,citizenshipremainsthearchitectonicaspirationunderwhichalltheir

dreamsandhopesforgreatersecurityandabetterqualityoflifearesubsumed.”113

Christiananthropologyconsiderstheseattributesofcivilsocietyasanabsoluteright;the

currentgeopoliticalorderdoesnotconsistentlyfosterthem.Particularlyforpeoplewho

havelackedthecircumstancessupportingsuchbasichumanandpoliticalrightsintheir

owncountries,“citizenshipistheformtakenbyclaimsofwhatarelittlemorethanrightsto

thefulfillmentofbasicneeds,forthosewhoarecitizensinnomorethanjuridicalterms,

butalsoforthosewhoarenotyetcitizensevenintheminimumjuridicalsense.”114Like

Bauböck,Jayalhasalsonoted“internationaltrends,whereavisiblepluralizationof

citizenshiphasbeenevolvingoverthelastdecade,”115raisingthepossibilityofhowmoral

argumentsmightbemadeforadjustingthelegalstandardsandpracticesforgranting

citizenshiptoindividualsfleeingstateswherecitizenshipisnotpracticallyprovidedor

experienced.Therearealreadyallowanceswithinacceptedconventionsofdualcitizenship

thatprotectvotingrights.Anextstepistoarguethat“justbecausecitizensemigrate,they

shouldloserightsofcitizenshipintheircountryoforiginespeciallybecausetheywillnot,

atleastinitially,enjoyanyrightsofcitizenshipinthehostcountry,andnohumanbeing

shouldbealtogetherdeprivedofpoliticalrights.”116Shouldsuchaclaimhaveanylessforce

whensomeoneemigratesfromasituationinwhichtheyhavenopoliticalrightsorno

meansbywhichtoexercisethem?

113Jayal,Citizenship,94.114Ibid.,99.115Ibid.,102.116Ibid.,104.

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ConsideringthisquestioninvitesustofocusonwhatKukathas,speakingofopen

borders,thoughinawayapplicabletocitizenshipaswell,proposesas“threedimensions

alongwhichtheissuecanbeconsidered:entry,participation,andmembership.”117In

assessingvariousnation-statesaroundtheworld,itisclearthat“entry,participation,and

membershipareallamatterofdegree,”118influencedbytheparticularlawsofeach

country,whichinturnareshapedbytheattitudesofthesocieties,cultures,political

parties,andfaithcommunities,amongothers,therein.Theconcernoveropenborders

expressedinsomecountries,usuallyconceivedandpresentedintermsofathreattoits

nationalsecurityandthewell-beingofitscitizens,isactuallyrootedinthequestionof

“loweringoreasingrestrictionsonforeignentryinto,participationin,andmembershipofa

stateorpolity.”119Theanxietyaboutmakingsuchchangesisaveryrealandlegitimateone.

Kukathasupholdsasreasonabletheargumentthat“theadmissionofforeignersshouldbe

restrictedtoensurethatahomogeneoussocietydoesnotbecomediverseinunfamiliaror

uncomfortableways–evenifdiversityisnottoberepudiatedentirely.”120

ItisimportanttonotethatthediversitytowhichKukathasrefersisafactoflifein

manyofthecountrieswhicharenowfeelingpressuredbycontemporarysurgesin

migration,aswellasarichaspectoftheirheritage.Benhabibobservesthat“theUN

estimatesthatin1910roughly33millionindividualslivedincountriesotherthantheir

ownasmigrants,”121contributingtotheincreaseofdiversityinthecountriesthatreceived

them.Moreover,from1910to2000,“thepopulationoftheworldhasgrownthreefold,

117Kukathas,“Expatriatism,”332.118Ibid.,333.119Ibid.120Ibid.,335.121Benhabib,“Borders,”673.

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from1.6to5.3billion.Migrations,bycontrast,increasedalmostsix-foldoverthecourseof

these90years.”122Asmovementoutpacedgrowth,peoplefromvariousraces,cultures,

nationalities,religions,andsocialclassesinevitablymixedwithincreasingfrequency,even

ascertainareasoftheworldremainedfairlyhomogeneous.Diversitycannotbereversed

withoutintentional–andalmostcertainlycoercive–stepsthatwouldfaceseriouslegaland

moralcriticisms.Thustheargumentforrestrictingmigrationbasedonconcernsforthe

preservationofsocialhomogeneitywaversinthefaceofpasthistoryandpresentreality.In

contrast,asBenhabibargues,“citizenshiprightstodaymustberesituatedina

transnationalcontext”123thatrecognizesandaffirmsnation-statesovereigntywhilealso

challengingittoadapttothemoreuniversaldemandsofhumanrightslawandmoral

claimsabouthumandignityinaglobalizedworld.AsBenhabibnotes,thiscreatesavexing

tensionbetween“therepublicanidealofself-governanceandtheliberalidealoftheequal

valueofliberty,”124suchthatagivennation’spoliciesregardingmigrationareweighed

againstmoreuniversalargumentsforhumanrightsthatcouldsupersedeanation’s

interests.AnappealtoaChristianvisionofthehumancommunityandpoliticalsociety

wouldmorefirmlyidentifyandcritique“anoutrightcontradictionbetweenhumanrights

declarationsandstates’sovereignclaimstocontroltheirbordersandtomonitorthe

qualityandquantityofadmittees.”125

122Benhabib,“Borders,”673.123Ibid.,674.124Ibid.125Ibid.

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FreeMovement:AReplacementforBordersandCitizenship?

Newconceptsofcitizenshipareimplicitlybroughttotheforefrontofgeopolitical

debatebytheexpandingnumbersofmigrantswholeavetheirnativenation-stateswith

littlehopeofreturn.Theyoftenfacelittlechoicebuttoabandoncherishedhomesthathave

beencompromisedbytheravagesofwar,ineffectiveornonexistentgovernment,

authoritarianregimes,andclimatechange,tonamethemostsignificantpushfactors

drivingmigration.EuropecontinuestostrugglewiththeSyrianrefugeecrisis,withthe

cohesionoftheEuropeanUnionitselfstrainedbythepoliticalandhumanitarianaspectsof

thissituation.ImmigrationcontinuestobeapoliticallychargedtopicintheUnitedStates,

ofteninwaysthatmaskracismandxenophobiathatareopposedtothediversification

wroughtbyglobalization.Bauböck,inthiscontext,regards“thecitizenshipargumentfor

controllingimmigrationasindeedquitestrong,”126andprivilegesitabovecertain“positive

dutiesofglobalsocialjusticeand…negativedutiesofstatestorefrainfromrestrictingbasic

liberties.”127Byarguingforthevalueofnationalidentitydefined,inpart,byclearandwell-

enforcedborders,hecommitshimselftoupholdingthecurrentnation-stateframeworkin

whichcitizenship,migration,andthelikeareunderstood,whichrequireshimtoaddress

theweaknessesinthisstructureexposedbycontemporarycircumstances.

Bauböcknotes,quiterightly,that“proponentsoffreemovementmaythinkthat

statesdonothavemoralrightstocontrolimmigration,buttheyrarelyquestionthatinthe

currentinternationalsystemtheydohavepositivelegalrightstocontrolit.”128Hetraces

thislegalconventionnottotheoriginofthenation-stateframeworkitself,buttoamuch126RainerBauböck,“CitizenshipandFreeMovement,”inCitizenship,Borders,andHumanNeeds,ed.RogersSmith(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2011),343.127Ibid.128Ibid.,345.

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morerecenthistoricalperiod–“duringWorldWarI,wheninternationalpassportswere

introducedforreasonsofmilitarysecurity.”129Itthusseemsironic,acenturylater,thatthe

majorityofmigrantsseekingentryand/orasyluminothernationsdosoinflightfromwar

andconflict,ratherthanaspotentiallydesiringtoundermineordestabilizeahostnation.

Moreover,itisonlyrecentlythattheapproachtomigrationhasshiftedfromtheprevious

paradigm,inwhich“freemovementacrossstateborderswasstillmuchmorefrequently

constrainedbyemigrationrestrictionthanbyimmigrationcontrols.”130Whilethereare

stillafewnation-statestodaythatseektopreventtheircitizensfromdeparting,themore

commonstanceisthatofnation-statesseekingtorestrict–oftenquiteforcefullyand

unevenly–whoispermittedtoenterandremainintheirterritory.Theseissuesall

convergearoundborders,whichhavetakenonnewsignificance–aswellasambiguous

meaning–intheeraofglobalizationlargelydrivenbycapitalisticeconomicvaluesrather

thanuniversalhumanones.

Bauböckexploresthephenomenonofdualcitizenshipasapossiblemeansof

resolvingthesetensions,oratleastclarifyingsomeoftheirunderlyingfoundations.Inhis

view,“apluralityofcitizenshipsformigrantsiscompatiblewithdemocracyunder

transnationalarrangementsthatdeterminewhichrightswillbeprotectedandwhich

dutiescanbeenforcedbywhichstate.”131Yetthispresumesthatbothstatesinquestionare

functioningwellandcanprovidetherequisiteenvironmentinwhichtherights,services,

duties,andrewardsofcitizenshipcanbeenjoinedandenjoyed.Theweaknessinthis

argumentismanifestbythegreatmajorityofrefugeesandmigrants,forwhomatleastone

129Bauböck,“CitizenshipandFreeMovement,”345.130Ibid.131Ibid.,349.

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ofthestatesinplayhasfailedtoestablishtheconditionsinwhichcitizenshipispractically

feasible.Sometimesthefirststateinwhichrefugeesandmigrantsarriveafterleavingtheir

nativeoneisitselfweak,besetbystrainsonitsownpopulation,orotherwisebarely

capableofsupportinganinfluxofpeople.ThishasbecometrueastheSyrianrefugeecrisis

persistsinEurope;inclosingtheirborderstonon-EUcitizens,someofthewealthierand

morewell-resourcedEUnationshaveobstructedtheflowofrefugeesandcausedtheir

numberstoswellinGreeceandvariousBalkanstatesill-equippedtohandlethem.The

sameappliesinthecaseofescalatingviolenceanddeterioratingruleoflawintheCentral

AmericancountriesoftheNorthernTriangle–ElSalvador,Honduras,andGuatemala.

Inthesesituations,thereisoftenacalltoradicallyadjusttheconceptofbordersto

onethatismuchmoreopenandpermissiveofthefreemovementofpeople.Afterall,as

ChandranKukathasnotes,throughouttheworld“everyday,largenumbersofpeoplecross

bordersthatseparateonepoliticaljurisdictionfromanother.”132Theborderscharacterized

bymilitaryfortification,officialcheckpoints,andotherhumanmeansofcontrolgarnera

greatdealofattention,buttherearemanyothersthatarenolessclearlydefinedyetpassed

withgreatease.Regardlessofhowclearlydefinedand“builtup”theymaybe,Kukathas

claimsthatbordersareunderstoodtodayasreflectingthetensionsbetweencitizensand

foreigners.Thesetensionsfallmostsquarelyandpracticallyupontheauthoritiesmade

responsibleformindingthoseborders,oftenatthebehestofeconomicandpoliticalforces

beyondtheircontrol,forcesoverwhichcitizens,migrants,andrefugeesalsohavelittle,if

any,influence.Intheory,“theauthoritieswithinbordersareresponsibleforattendingto

132Kukathas,“Expatriatism,”324.

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theinterestsofthosewithintheirjurisdictionratherthankeepingothersout,”133butin

practice,agreatburdenisplacedonborderofficialstoassesseveryonewishingtoenter

andtoenforcelawsthatclearlydenyentrytomanyindividuals.

ConcludingThoughts

WritingabouttheEuropeanUnionin2005,Benhabibobservedthat“theconflict

betweensovereigntyandhospitalityhasweakenedinintensitybuthasbynomeansbeen

eliminated.”134Thatconflicthasgainedrenewedvigoronthenationallevelinthepasttwo

yearsinmanypartsofEurope,buthasbeenmatchedbygroupsonsmallerandmorelocal

levels–provinces,cities,towns,individualfamiliesandcitizens–strivingtoofferhospitality

andsupporttomigrantsandrefugeeswithinthesocialandlegalframeworkssurrounding

them,motivatedbycultural,moral,religious,andothervalues.Perhapstoaprophetic

degree,Benhabibenvisioned“ashrinkingoftheeffectivenessofpopularsovereigntyand

theemergenceofasovereigntybeyondtheboundariessetbytheruleoflaw.”135Thistrend

isoftenconsideredineconomicterms,evidentingovernments’acquiescencetothe

realitiesofglobalizationandtheirconstructionoflawsthatfacilitatethemovementof

goods,capital,andotherimmaterialitemsacrossbordersmoreeasilythanthatofcertain

classesofpeopledeemedthreateningorundesirablewithinasocialcontextfocusedonthe

accumulationandpreservationofwealthandprivilege.AsBenhabibnotes,“thelosersin

thisprocessarethecitizensfromwhomstateprotectioniswithdrawn,or,morelikely,who

133Kukathas,“Expatriatism,”326.134Benhabib,“Borders,”675.135Ibid.

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neverhadstrongstateprotectioninthefirstplace.”136War,violence,persecution,and

climatechangeareothercontemporarycontextsinwhichsuchstateprotectionsare

intentionallywithdrawnorunintentionallylostasgovernments,throughbothactionand

inaction,failtoprovideforthehumanneedsanddignityoftheircitizens.

Insuchacontext,arenewedunderstandingofhumansolidarityisnecessary.Ina

homilyhegaveontheislandofLampedusainsummer2013atacampformigrantsrescued

fromperilouseffortstocrosstheMediterraneanSeafromAfricatoEurope,PopeFrancis,

onlymonthsintohispontificate,powerfullyoffered“somethoughtsmeanttochallenge

people’sconsciencesandleadthemtoreflectionandaconcretechangeofheart.”137

Lamentingthedrowningdeathsofsomanymen,women,andchildren“tryingtoescape

difficultsituationstofindsomeserenityandpeace…lookingforabetterplacefor

themselvesandtheirfamilies,”138heurgedhisaudience–intheory,abroadswathofthe

globe,giventhecoveragehismessagereceived–toresistandescapeforcesthathavemade

them“complacentandclosedamidcomfortswhichhavedeadenedtheirhearts.”139With

respecttothetangleoflaws,policies,anddisconnectionfromsufferingthathavemade

manyinsensitivetotheplightofmigrantsandrefugees,Francispowerfullyasserts,“when

humanityasawholelosesitsbearings,itresultsintragediesliketheonewehave

witnessed,”140inwhichhundredsofmen,women,andchildrendrownedatsea.Heoffered

noconcretesolution;onlyanuncomfortableclaim:“weareasocietywhichhasforgotten

136Benhabib,“Borders,”676.137PopeFrancis,“VisittoLampedusa,”VaticanCity:VaticanPress,2013.138Ibid.139Ibid.140Ibid.

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howtoweep,howtoexperiencecompassion…theglobalizationofindifferencehastaken

fromustheabilitytoweep!”141

Renewedhumansocietycanorientcommunities,cities,nation-states,andtheglobal

communitytoconsidertherights,privileges,andresponsibilitiesofcitizenshipenjoyedin

affluentandprosperousareasoftheworld,aswellasonesinwhichthisconceptfunctions

wellevenwithoutneedingtoprovideexceptionalwealth.Theforcesofconflict,economics,

andclimatechangethatwillincreasinglydriveflowsofmigrantsandrefugeesinthe21st

centurychallengeallcountriestoconsidertheirrightsanddutiestoprovidebasichuman

rightstoallpeople.Consideringthegapbetween,ontheonehand,thestandardsofthe

UniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsandtheCatholicChurch’steachingofuniversal

humandignity,andontheotherhand,therealitythatsuchrightsandsuchdignityare

violated,marginalized,andignoredonadailybasisinmuchoftheworld,itistruethat“the

humanrightscorpus,iffullyimplemented,wouldalterthefundamentalcharacterofany

state,itscultures,andsociety.”142Yetthesocialandpoliticalupheavalsoccurring

throughouttheworldcarrynolesspotentialtofundamentallyaltertheconditionofthe

worldanditspeople,notnecessarilyforthebetter.

Consequently,citizenshipisbutoneconceptthatmayneedtoevolveandbemore

firmlysupportedasahumanright.Benhabibhasnoted“areturntocitizenshipinthecityas

wellasthetransnationalinstitutionsoftheEU.”143Shealsoobservesthat“democratic

legitimacyrequiresthatallthosewhoseinterestsareaffectedbycollectivedecisionsin

whichtheyhaveastake–asworkers,parents,residents–alsohaveasayinthese

141PopeFrancis,“Lampedusa.”142Mutua,“UniversalisminHumanRights,”52.143Benhabib,“Borders,”675.

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decisions.”144Whethertheyreceiveofficiallegalstatusornot,migrantsandrefugeeshave

thisstakeholderstatusinthecommunitieswheretheysettleandstrivetobuildlivesfor

themselves,theirfamilies,andtheirnewneighbors.Evenfurther,allarestakeholdersina

globalcommunitythatisincreasinglyinterconnectedandinterdependent.Citizenship

seemspoisedtoreceivesomechangeandadaptiontobetterreflectthisreality,andbetter

supporttheidealsofuniversalhumanrightsandsolidarityforthebenefitofall.

144Benhabib,“Borders,”676.

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Chapter3:MigrantPeople,PilgrimChurch:PracticalEcclesiologyandTheological

JusticeforCommunitiesontheMove Formanyyears,IhavebeeninvolvedinministrywithLatinAmericanparish

communitiesintheUnitedStates,firstinSt.LouisandcurrentlyinBoston.Ihavetraveled

throughmanycountriesinLatinAmerica,doingministryandgainingadeeperlived

experienceofthesocial,cultural,andreligiousenvironmentinbothurbanandruralareas.

Mostrecently,insummer2015,IspentfiveweekswithasmallgroupofJesuitsalongthe

migrationcorridorfromtheso-calledNorthernTriangle(ElSalvador,Honduras,

Guatemala)throughMexicoandintothesouthwesternUnitedStates.Weaccompanied

hundredsofmen,women,andchildrenastheymadetheriskyjourney.WhileIhadbeen

awareforyearsofthecomplexissuesofmigrationinthelivesofparishionersI’vemetinSt.

LouisandBoston,participatingmoredeeplyinthedailyexperiencesofmigrants–

predominantlyatsheltersalongtherouteoperatedbyvolunteershavingsomedegreeof

affiliationwithlocalchurchesandfaithcommunities–raisednewquestionsandadded

greaterweighttoknowledgethatIhadpreviouslyacquired.

AwarethatmanymembersofmyparishcommunityinBostonhavemigratedtothe

UnitedStatesfromthe“NorthernTriangle”regionofCentralAmericaandformedstrong

communitiesinthiscityrootedintheircommonmembershipintheparish,I’vebecome

morecuriousabouttheirexperienceandpracticeoftheirCatholicfaithduringtheweeks

thattheyspentintransit.Ineachmigrationshelter,Inoticedtheextenttowhichasenseof

communityformed,giventhedifferinglengthsoftimethatindividualmigrantsstayedat

eachshelter,whetherornottheyweretravelingwithanyfamilymembers,andhowmany

differentcountrieswererepresented.Thissenseofcommunity,inturn,affectedthe

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migrantsthemselves;theshelterswere,ineffect,theonly“homes”thattheyencountered

alongtheirjourneys,theonlyplaceswheretheycouldcountonsturdyshelter,safespace,

reliableprovisionoffood,andarelativelystableenvironmentinwhichtocontemplate

theirnextstepsandfutureprospects.AsIcontinuetoreflectuponthismigration

experienceinlightofmyongoingministrywithLatinAmericans,andwherethatfitsinto

thebroaderministryoftheCatholicChurch,Ifindmyselfdesiringabettersenseof

connectionandintegrationbetweenthesespheresoffaithandpractice.Inthischapter,I

arguethataviablepracticaltheologycapableofaddressingthecomplexrealityof

migrationinvolvesanecclesiologygroundedinthepeopleofGodonpilgrimage,drawing

robustandattentiveengagementwiththeirlifecircumstancesandtheirfaithintomutually

constructivedialoguewiththeChristiantraditionanditsvariouslivedexpressions.

AlthoughIfocusontheMexicanmigrationcorridor,suchanapproachwouldsurelyhave

muchtooffertothedialogueinEuropeconcerningthemigrantsandrefugeesarriving

therefromtheMiddleEast,Afghanistan,northernAfrica,andotherregionsoftheworld.

Itisimportanttobearinmindthatgreatvariationexistswithinthevariouslevelsof

theCatholicChurchwithrespecttoconceptsandexperiencesofecclesiologywritlarge.

Individualsandcommunitiesattheparishlevelmayhaveastrongsenseofsolidarityand

connectiontofamiliesandrelativesintheirlocalregions,butalessdevelopednotionof

communionandsolidaritywiththeuniversalCatholicChurchasitexistsindiverseforms

indifferentplaces,andindifferentethnic,socioeconomic,orevenliturgicalenvironments.

AwarenessoftheconceptoftheCatholicChurchasafaithcommunityonpilgrimage

throughtheworldsurelyvarieswidely,anddoesnotnecessarilyconnecttotheconcept,or

eventhepracticalexperience,ofmigration.Althoughthereisadegreeofintentionaland

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autonomouschoiceinembarkingonapilgrimageandemigratingfromone’shome,

migrationisquiteoftendrivenbyconcernsforone’sownlife,safety,anddignity–aswellas

thatofone’sfamily–toadegreenotfoundinthemotivationsofthevastmajorityof

pilgrims.Pilgrimageisoftenorientedtowardrenewalandrediscoveryinaspiritualkey;

migrationislargelyamatterofsurvival.Yetthespecialattentionbeingdrawnandgivento

migrantsandtheirplightondiverselevelsoftheChurch–fromPopeFrancistoclergy,

religious,andlaityfromsmallparishesinMexico–suggestspotentialconnectionsbetween

faith,ecclesiology,andmigration.Usingapraxis-basedecclesiologytoreflectuponmy

experienceswithmigrantsintransitandinreceivingcommunities,Ihopetoshowthat

theirinsightsandwisdomcanrepresentaneededlinkbetweenhowtheChurchseesitself,

howitformsitsmembersinafaithexhortingpracticalactionorientedtowardsjustice,and

howministrywithandformigrantsisconsistentwiththeChurch’smissionandpurpose.

Context:TheMexicanMigrationCorridor

TheMexicanMigrationCorridorrunsthelengthofthecountry,beginningwith

northernandsouthernbranchesontheborderwithGuatemala,narrowingthroughthe

IsthmusofTehuantepecinVeracruzandOaxacastates,thensplittingintothreebranches

afterMexicoCity:awesternroutethroughGuadalajaranorthtowardsSonoraandBaja

Californiastates,acentralroutetowardsChihuahuaandCoahuilastates,andaneastern

routethroughSanLuisPotosítowardsNuevoLeonandTamaulipasstates.Intermsof

destinationsintheUnitedStates,thewesternrouteleadstowardsSanDiego,LosAngeles,

Tucson,andPhoenix,thecentralrouteleadstowardsthecitiesofCiudadJuarezandElPaso

straddlingtheUnitedStates-Mexicoborder,andtheeasternrouteleadstowardsthecities

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ofsouthernTexas:Laredo,McAllen,andBrownsvilleontheborder,SanAntonioand

Houstonintheinterior.Muchoftheterritorybetweenthesecitiesissparselypopulated,

particularlynorthofMexicoCity,thereforemigrantsoftentravellongdistancesbetween

localeswheretheycaneasilyrest,replenishsupplies,andobtainvariousservices.Those

distancesbecomeevenmorearduousas,accordingtoarecentarticleinCommonweal,an

increasingnumberofmigrants“arewalkingmostofthewayfromCentralAmericatothe

U.S.border,”145adistanceofmorethantwothousandmiles,astheprospectofridingthe

freighttrain–knownas“TheBeast”–thattravelstheseroutesbecomesmoreperilous,the

resultofincreasedmigrationenforcementbyMexicanauthoritiesaswellasgreater

violencebyMexicangangs.

Thecorridorisdefinedbynumerousattributes,someofwhicharefixed,while

othersaredynamicandfluid.ThephysicalgeographyofMexicovarieswidelyfromthesub-

tropicaljunglesandwetlandsofthesouthtothemountainousinteriortothedesertsofthe

north,allriskyterrainformigrantstotraverseonfootwhenothertransportationoptions

areunavailableorrisky.Thisgeographyalsodictatesthearrangementoftheground

transportationinfrastructureusedbythevastmajorityofmigrants.Thecitiesandregions

throughwhichlargenumbersofmigrantspassbecamenaturallocationsforthe

humanitarianaidsheltersestablishedbychurches,religiouscommunities,volunteer

groups,andprivatecitizens,sometimeswithalevelofsupportfromtheMexican

government.Thus,aswordspreadamongmigrantsaboutthelocationsoftheseshelters

andtheservicestheyoffered,thecorridorbecamemoredefinedbythischainofshelters.In

fact,mostsheltersdistributemapsofthemigrationcorridortoallwhomtheyserve;one145JosephSorrentino,“ALongWalkThroughMexico,”Commonweal,November13,2005,10.

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evenfeaturesitasaprominentmuraloutsidethemainoffice.Furthermore,asconditions

alongthecorridorchange–Mexicanauthoritiesintensifyingapprehensionanddeportation

ofnon-Mexicanmigrants,enhancedsecuritymeasuresonthefreighttrainsmanymigrants

catch,fluctuationsinassaultsandkidnappingsbylocalgangsanddrugcartels–migrants

adjusttheirtimingandpathfromsheltertoshelter,towntotown,astheygraduallymove

northward.

MigrantswhoareabletoreachtheUnitedStatesbordermeetanewsetof

challengesanddifficultchoices.TheongoingintensificationofUnitedStatesCustomsand

BorderPatrol(CBP)activityalongthisborderhasbecomestarklyevidentinimposingsteel

fences,walls,andconspicuoussurveillanceequipment,inadditiontotheextensivepatrols

conductedinbothurbanandruralareasthroughwhichtheborderruns,apolicythat

seemsposedtocontinuewithevengreaterintensity.TheKinoBorderInitiative(KBI),a

binationalprojectoftheSocietyofJesusinthetransbordercityofNogales–asmallportion

inArizona,themajorityinSonora–thatengagesineducationalworkandpoliticaladvocacy

onthenorthernsideanddirecthumanitarianaid,legalsupport,andpastoralcounselingon

thesouthernside–recentlycommissionedareport146thatdetailedsignificantlevelsof

abuseofmigrantsandseparationoffamiliesintheprocessofapprehensionanddetention

ofmigrantsbyCBPofficers.Thereportnotesthat“tomakeunauthorizedandirregular

entryintotheU.S.territorymoredifficultandtomakeunauthorizedimmigrationand

repeatattemptsatentryafterdeportationlesslikely”147isacleargoaloftheCBP,yetone

146MichaelDanielson,“OurValuesontheLine:MigrantAbuseandFamilySeparationattheBorder”(ReportpreparedforJesuitConferenceofCanadaandtheUnitedStates,September2015).147Ibid.,6.

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thathasresultedin“anumberofnegativeandunintendedconsequences”148thatvergeon

officialsanctioningofabusivetreatmentasadeterrencepolicy.AsCBPjurisdictionextends

onehundredmilesfromanyborderorpointofentryintotheUnitedStates,includingallof

thenation’scoastalmetropolitanareas,migrantswhodomanagetocrosstheborderstill

faceanarduousandextensivejourneytoescapethegreatestriskofarrest,deportation,

anddetention.Manyarecaughtbyofficersstaffingcheckpointsonhighways–suchas

Interstate19betweenNogalesandTucson–orbyvehicular,horseback,andhelicopter

patrolsinthedesertsandranchesoftheSouthwest.IntheKBIstudy,“morethanone-third

ofdeportedmigrantsinterviewedsufferedsometypeofabuseormistreatmentatthe

handsofBorderPatrolagentsandwhileinDHS[DepartmentofHomelandSecurity;CBP’s

parentagency]custody.”149Sadly,thisisnotanewexperienceformanyofthem;asJoseph

SorrentinowritesinhisarticleontheMexicancorridor,“almostallthethirty-fivemigrants

Iinterviewedtoldmetheyhadbeenassaultedduringtheirjourney.”150

AlthoughtheKBIstudydidnotaskmigrantswhytheyhadlefttheirhomelands,

Sorrentino’sinterviewsandresearchpresentclearevidence:“asbadasthepovertyis,it’s

theviolencethat’sdrivingpeopleout.Hondurashastheworld’shighestmurderrate,El

Salvadorthefourthhighest,Guatemalathefifth…perpetratedby…themostviciousgangs

intheAmericas…PeoplewillcontinuemigratingnorthuntilconditionsinCentralAmerica

improve.”151Thefactthatmigrantswhoexperiencethislevelofviolenceanddisplacement

intheirhomelands,encounterfurtherdangersandhardshipsalongthejourney,andface

additionalabuseuponarrivalintheUnitedStatescontrastssharplywiththerationalefor148Danielson,“OurValues,”6.149Ibid.,6-7.150Sorrentino,“ALongWalk,”11.151Ibid.,10,12.

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“theincreasedcriminalizationofunauthorizedimmigration”152enforcedbytheCBP,

namely,thatmostmigrantsaredangerousindividualswhowillthreatencommunitiesin

theUnitedStates.Quitetheopposite;themajorityofmigrantsdesire,andwouldworkto

uphold,theverycommunitystabilityandreliabilityofsocialorderthathascollapsedin

theirowncountries,apointoftenovershadowed,ifnotoutrightignored,inrhetoricthat

paintsmigrantsascriminalswhodestabilizethecommunitiesinwhichtheycometoreside.

Moreover,the“2004memorandumofunderstandingbetweentheU.S.andMexico[that]

stipulatesthatitisDHSpolicytoprotecttheunityoffamilies”153hasbeensorelyneglected

giventheevidencethat“twooutofthree(64.6%)migrantswhocrossedintotheUnited

StateswithimmediatefamilymembersandweredeportedtoNogaleswereseparatedfrom

atleastoneofthosefamilymembersbytheBorderPatrolduringtheprocessofdetention

anddeportation.”154Theseandotherfindingsindicatethat,asGiaocchinoCampesehas

written,“ifthereisoneconstantinU.S.borderpolicy,itishypocrisy.”155

APracticalTheologyforthePhenomenonofMigration:IdentityandActivity

Thephenomenonofmigrationstirsacomplicatedhostofquestions,emotions,

issues,andresponses.Thevoicesofmigrantsareoftenneglectedordrownedoutinthe

increasinglyraucousdebatesaboutpolicy,economics,andsocialandculturalidentityas

receivingcountrieswrestleoverhowtorespondtothousandsofmigrantsreachingand

crossingtheirborders.TheCatholicChurch’sengagementwithmigrationhastakenon152Danielson,“OurValues,”13.153Ibid.,14.154Ibid.,15.155GiacchinoCampese,“¿CuantosMás?:TheCrucifiedPeoplesattheU.S.-MexicoBorder”inAPromisedLand,APerilousJourney,eds.DanielGroodyandGioacchinoCampese(NotreDameIN:UniversityofNotreDamePress,2008),279.

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variousforms,fromPopeFrancis’srepeatedcallsformercyandhospitalityasaresponseto

migrants’plight,totheinvolvementofreligiouscommunitiesandlaypersonsindeveloping,

staffing,andsustainingthearrayofsheltersalongtheMexicanMigrationCorridor.Some

bishopshavebeenparticularlyoutspokeninsupportofmigrant’srightsanda

comprehensivereformofimmigrationpolicyintheUnitedStates;oneCatholicandseveral

ProtestantbishopsservinginsouthernArizonahavewrittenasetofpersonalandspiritual

reflectionsontheirpastoralinvolvement–andthatoftheircongregations–inthe

immigrationissue.Theyaffirm,inbothwordanddeed,that“Christianshavealwaysbeen

sent,likeJesus,toservethosewhoarepoorandmarginalized.Ourpresenceontheborder

ofourcountryiswherewebelieveJesusdirectsustobe.”156Extendingtheactionstakenby

individualChristiansinresponsetotherealityofmigration,andtheconcreteexperiences

ofmigrants,intoabroaderattitudeoftheChurchthatreflectsitsverynatureisastepthat

seemstofollowfrom–andperhapsimplicitlymotivates–thesediverseandsomewhat

scatteredministries.Acrossdiversesettingsandcommunities,“theChurch’sinnerunity

movesittobeasignandinstrumentofunityintheworld;itscatholicitycallsittobeasign

andinstrumentofdiversityinunityforalltosee,”157expressingtheChurch’snatureasa

communityofdiscipleschargedbyChristtoimitatehislovingserviceandpresenceamong

thepoorandthemarginalized.Developingandarticulatingapraxis-basedecclesiologythat

presentstheChurch’smigrationthroughearthlytimeandspacetowardseternallifewith

Godasintimatelyboundupwiththemigrationofthevulnerablefromplacesofwar,chaos,

andviolencetoplacesofpeace,justice,andcommunitywouldbeadeep,forceful156KirkSmith,“Foreword,”inBishopsontheBorder:PastoralResponsestoImmigration,eds.MarkAdamsetal.,(NewYork:MorehousePublishing,2013),x.157StephenBevansandRogerSchroeder,ConstantsinContext:ATheologyofMissionforToday(MaryknollNY:OrbisBooks,2004),299.

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counterpointtorhetoricandactionthatmeetsmigrantswithsuspicion,fear,abuse,and

rejection.

Apracticaltheologyorientedtowardecclesiologicalquestionsofidentity,

evangelization,andmissioninevitablyinvolvesattentiontothevariousenvironmentsin

whichtheChurchanditsmembersarefound.Suchattentioninherentlyrequiresameasure

ofdialoguebetweentheChurchandtheworld,justastheSecondVaticanCouncilnoted.

ParticularlyinitspastoraldocumentontheChurch,GaudiumetSpes,“theCouncil

summonedthepeopleofGodtobeattentivetotheaspirationsandlamentsofallpeople,

bothinthechurchandincontemporarysociety.”158Insubsequentdecades,“thisnew

semanticsofdialoguecontributedtoanewpracticalgrammarofthechurch,inwhichit

wasnowassumedthatpracticesofdialoguearenecessarytorealizethechurch’sidentity

andmission.”159Thecontoursofthatdialoguevariedwidelyenoughthatsomeconcerns

wereraisedabouttheChurch’smissionbeingdistortedbysecularandpoliticalissues;

liberationandfeministtheologiesfacedcriticismforpromotingvaluesandcausesthat

couldbeinterpretedtobeatoddswithcertainvaluesclaimedbymoreconservativevoices

intheChurch.Ferventdebateandpalpabletensionaroseas“Catholicsshapedbyneo-

Scholastictheology[who]conceivedofGodasthesovereignOnewhocreatestheworld,

theLawgiverwhoestablishestheorderoftheworldaccessiblethroughnaturallawand

divinelaw”160perceivedtheemergenceof“newwaysofthinkingaboutGod[that]gave

greaterattentiontothedialogicalnatureoftheTriuneGod.”161AstheChurchstroveto

158ClaireWolfteich,ed.,InvitationtoPracticalTheology:CatholicVoicesandVisions(NewYork:PaulistPress,2014),236.159Wolfteich,InvitationtoPracticalTheology,234.160Ibid.,243.161Ibid.

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reinterpretitselfforthecontemporaryworldandprojectthatidentityintoconcrete

situations,itbecamevulnerabletoneglectingthenecessityofinternaldialogueabouthow

itsawandexpresseditself.Wolfteichnotesthat“justastherearemanyothersocial

lamentsthatdeservewidespreadattentionandcollectiveaction…thereareotherecclesial

lamentsthatmeritattentioninparishesanddioceses.”162Missionandecclesiologydepend

deeplyononeanother,andbothrequirehonestanddiscerningdialogue.

TheSecondVaticanCouncil’sdecreeonmission,AdGentesDivinitus,“attemptedto

pointtothemissionarynatureofeverylocalchurchandnottoconfinemissionarypractice

toexotic(i.e.,non-Western)placeswiththeworkcarriedoutbywomenandmenwith

specializedvocationsandtraining.”163Italsosoughttoreorienttheconceptofmissionary

workbymakingitauniversalresponsibilitycapableofbeingfulfilledanywhereandatany

time.Missionaryactivitywastobecarriedout“notwiththemorbidurgencyofsaving

souls,butwiththejoyfulmotiveofsharingtheunsearchablerichesofChrist,doneinways

thatmodelJesus’practiceofopenness,listening,gentleness,andvulnerability.”164An

ecclesiologymodeledontheseprinciples,andattentiveto“Jesus’inclusiveministry

[revolving]aroundthemarginalizedandsinfulpeopleofhistime,”165improvesthe

Church’sabilitytograspandarticulateitsidentityasthepeopleofGodrelyingondivine

gracefortheirgrowthinholiness,andprogressingalongthatpaththroughtheirministry

withalltheirneighbors.

ContemplatingandexpressingtheidentityandactivityoftheChurchasawhole,a

living,dynamiccommunitymanifestinculturesandsocietiesthroughouttheworld,isa162Wolfteich,InvitationtoPracticalTheology,248.163Ibid.,258-259.164Ibid.,259.165Ibid.,264.

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centraltaskofecclesiology.Inthehalf-centurysincetheSecondVaticanCouncil,thistask

has,bynecessity,involvedgrapplingwiththeopportunitiesandchallengesraisedbythe

Church’sinteractionwiththeculturalandsocialenvironmentsinwhichitwishestoexist.

GeorgeWeigel’smulti-facetedconceptofevangelicalCatholicism,largelyinfluencedbyhis

studyof(andconcernsabout)theChurchintheWest,urges“deeperreflectiononthe

missionaryheartoftheChurch.”166Examiningitshistoryinthelandsthatbecamethe

UnitedStates,TimothyMatovinaattendstothe“encounterandconflictofpeoples,

primarilythesouthward-movingFrench,thenorthward-movingSpanish,thewestward-

movingBritish,thenativeswhoalreadylivedontheland,andtheslavesandimmigrants

whosettledamongthem.”167InsuchapresentationoftheCatholicChurchanditspeople,

hearguesthattoday’sexperienceofmigrationisnothingnew,butratheraninherent

aspectnotonlyofourecclesialhistory,butalsoournationalhistory.Lookingatthepresent

andfutureoftheCatholicChurchintheUnitedStatesfromaHispanicministryperspective,

HosffmanOspinoasserts,“attheheartofevangelizationoneencounterstheconvictionthat

theChurchisinapermanentstateofmissionwhoseultimateaimistoguidewomenand

mentoatransformingencounterwithChrist.”168ThehistoryandmissionoftheChurchin

theUnitedStateshaslonginvolvedthecontributionsofpeoplefrommanydifferent

countries,languages,andcultures,sharingtheirfaithincommonyetoftenbeingdivided

alongtraitsdeeplyentwinedwithpersonalandcommunalidentity.Matovinanotesthisas

“acentralandlong-standingfeatureofU.S.Catholicism:thevariedattemptstoincorporate166GeorgeWeigel,EvangelicalCatholicism:DeepReforminthe21st-CenturyChurch(NewYork:BasicBooks,2013),5-6.167TimothyMatovina,LatinoCatholicism:TransformationinAmerica’sLargestChurch(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2012),6-7.168HosffmanOspino,HispanicMinistryinthe21stCentury:PresentandFuture(Miami:ConviviumPress,2013),291.[AllcitationsaremytranslationsfromtheoriginalSpanish]

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diversegroupsintoaunifiedbodyoffaith.”169Anotableecclesiologicalaccomplishmentin

theUnitedStates,“nationalparishesbuiltunitybyallowingnewcomerstointegrateintheir

owntimeand,toanextent,ontheirowntermsratherthanthoseoftheirestablished

predecessors.”170TheChurchappearsasacommunitywhosejourneyanddevelopmentare

markedbytheprocessesofimmigration,inculturation,andintegrationundergonebythe

diversegroupscomprisingit.

PreservingtheChurch’sIdentityalongJourneysofMigrationandLife

Inordertonavigatethispath,theChurchmustbefirmlyrootedinitssenseofitself

asindividualsandcommunitiesunawareoftheiridentityarepronetowanderingand

becominglost,bereftofanyreliablelandmarksbywhichtoorientthemselves.Asan

example,Weigelclaims,“theChurchinEuropehasbeeninfreefallthroughoutthe

postconciliaryearsbecausetoomanyofitspeopleceasedtobelievethattheGospelis

true.”171Althoughotherfactorsaresurelyatplay,hisobservationallowsforahelpful

contrastwitharenewedemphasisonthelifeofChristfortheChurch’sidentityand

mission:“evangelicalCatholicismbeginsnotwithknowingaboutJesus,butwithknowing

Jesus.”172SucharelationshipwithJesus,fundamentaltothelifeoftheChurchandtoeach

memberofthefaithful,isoftendevelopedthroughformalandinformalcatechism;parents,

grandparents,clergyandreligious,teachers,andotherfigureshanddownthefaithfrom

onegenerationtothenext.Weigelnotestheimportanceofsuchcatechismandformation

forensuring“adeeperevangelizationthatcannolongerbeimaginedtohavetakenplace169Matovina,LatinoCatholicism,43.170Ibid.,48.171Weigel,EvangelicalCatholicism,51.172Ibid.,57.

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throughtheambientculture,”173fittinghisconcernsaboutthedeclineofCatholicisminthe

West.Conversely,amongHispanics,“itisinthefamilyandthecommunitythatLatino

Catholicsprimarilyformourculturalandreligiousidentity,”174ataskmademorearduous

giventhefactsthat“thousandsofHispanicfamilieslivedividedbecauseoftransnational

separation,longhoursofworkandtheongoingstruggletoadapttoanewculture.”175

Indeed,“85percentofimmigrantHispanicteenagershavelivedapartfromoneorboth

parentsforatimespanofatleastsixmonths.”176AChurchthatseesitsvitalityas

dependentonitsidentity,whichreliesheavilyonitstransmissionfromonegenerationto

thenext,“mustcreativelyarticulatemodelsandresourcesfortheformationinthefaithand

evangelizationthatcanbesharedindistinctcommunities”177whosemissionistoserve,

teach,andformthefaithful.

Thesamestructuresandresources–family,culture,education,socialservices–that

influencemigrantsalongtheirjourneyfromsendingcountrythroughtransitcountriesto

receivingcountrieshaveparallelsintheChurch’sevangelizationandfaithformation;the

degreeoftheirpresenceorabsencehasprofoundeffectsontheindividualscomprising

thesecommunities.Asoneexample,MatovinanotesthatoftenyoungHispanics“arenot

offeredpastoralcareandreligiousformationinanappropriatesocioculturalcontextfor

them,andtheyendupeitherbeingunchurchedorseekinganecclesialcommunity

elsewhere.”178Thisrepresentsanimmensepotentialloss,bothindemographicandmission

terms,for“outreachtoyoungpeople‘onthemarginsofsocialandcongregationallife’is173Weigel,EvangelicalCatholicism,64.174Ospino,HispanicMinistry,286.175Ibid.,287.176Matovina,LatinoCatholicism,223.177Ospino,HispanicMinistry,294.178Matovina,LatinoCatholicism,232.

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nothinglessthan‘thegospelcall.’”179Italsopointstothevitalroleoffaithformationforthe

vitalityoftheChurchinthepresentandthefuture.Althoughhetendstooverlooktherole

ofpopularreligioninCatholicisminHispanicandothernon-Europeanculturalsettings,

TomBeaudoinnotesthat“researchershavefoundthattheconstellationofbeliefsand

practicesthatindividualsconsolidateduringadolescenceandearlyadulthoodmoreorless

becomeapermanentpartof[their]identities.”180Thequestionofwhysomanybecome

“secularCatholics…tryingtolivetheirsecularity,whichoftenincludestheirownsenseof

spirituality,withmuchmoreinvestmentthantheirecclesiality”181is–orperhapsoughtto

be–asmuchofaconcerntotheChurchastheflowofmigrantsthroughvariouspartsofthe

worldhasbecometogovernmentsintheUnitedStatesandEurope.Thetoolsandmethods

ofpracticaltheologyseemapplicabletobothconcerns,andbringingthemintocloser

dialoguewithoneanothercouldalsobridgetheracialandculturaldividesevidentin

Westernhostilitytomigrantsandrefugees.

AsWolfteichasserts,“‘Catholicpracticaltheology’shouldbeunderstoodasa

dialogicalcontributiontoalargerdiscourse;”182thusitsapplicationtoissuesofmigration

orecclesiologyoffersexperientialwisdomandinsighttotheseareasindividuallyand

together,aswellastotheChurchandtheworldmorebroadly.If“practicaltheologiansdo

andshouldconcernthemselveswiththehermeneuticalinvestigationoflivedreligion,”183

thenarguablytheirtoolsandmethodsarenotsolelyapplicabletopurelytheological

matters.Therefore,practicaltheologycanspeculateaboutaconnection,evenamerely179Matovina,LatinoCatholicism,241.180TomBeaudoin,“SecularCatholicismandPracticalTheology,”InternationalJournalofPracticalTheology15(2011),22.181Ibid.,25.182Wolfteich,InvitationtoPracticalTheology,330.183Beaudoin,“SecularCatholicism,”26.

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tangentialone,betweenindifferencetomigrantsamongmanycitizensandleadersin

certainreceivingcountriesontheonehand,andtheperceivedindifferenceofsecular

CatholicsinthosesamecountriestothemissionandidentityoftheuniversalChurchonthe

otherhand.Theformerconcernspeakstoquestionsofsocialcohesion,thelatterto

concernsforecclesialcommunion;bothinvolve“makingtheologicalsenseofhow

contemporarypeoplepracticerelatingtothesacredintheirlives,”184oratleastthecall

thatexternalforces,persons,orfaithitselfmakesontheirpersonallivesandactions.

Beaudoin’snotionofdeconversion–leavingformalaffiliationwithafaith

community–canparallelthehistoricalamnesiathatappearsinresistancetomigrationin

EuropeandtheUnitedStates.Intheecclesialrealm,“thedeconversionperspective

emphasizestheprocessbywhichaparticularfaithpraxisisleftbehindortranscended;”185

onecouldarguethatindividualsopposedtoreceivingmigrantsintotheircountries,yetare

themselvesthechildren,grandchildren,orgreat-grandchildrenofmigrants,have

undergoneasecularversionofthisprocess,thoughitmustbenotedthatthisseemsto

applymostlytodescendantsofEuropeanmigrants.If,asJohannMetzclaims,“the

formationofidentityalwaysbeginswiththeawakeningofmemory,”186thenignoranceor

rejectionofourecclesial,social,cultural,anddemographicheritageerodesouridentityin

wayswemayfailtorealize.ArenewedecclesiologythatpresentstheChurchasa

communityjourneyingthroughspaceandtimetowardsfullnessoflifeandcommunion

withGodandoneanothercouldinjectclaimsoftheologicaljusticeintothe“personal,

emotionaleventsandstories…expressingthewayspeoplehavelearnedofholdinglife184Beaudoin,“SecularCatholicism,”27.185Ibid.,28.186JohannMetz,FaithinHistoryandSociety:TowardAPracticalFundamentalTheology(NewYork:Crossroad,2007),75.

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together.”187CarryingoutsuchataskmustdrawonthemissionarytraitsoftheChurch’s

identity,andbegroundedinpracticingatheologicalapproach“thatwillencouragepeople

tolivewithintegritywhatevertheirfaithpraxismustbe.”188Approachingsuchasignificant

demographicgroup–thosewhocouldbeconsidered“deconverted”–isanuncompleted

taskfullofpotentialfortheChurch,andinsofaras“practicaltheologies…haveapotential

contributiontomaketounderstandinga‘missionto’(aswellas‘missionfrom’)this

emergingcultureofsecularCatholics,”189itisonethatcriesoutforattention,echoingthe

criesofmigrantsfromlandslongplaguedbywar,violence,andpoverty.TheChurchalso,

arguably,hasadutytoproclaim“theunbelievablefaithandresilienceofthehumanspirit

foundamongthemigrants”190whocross–mostlyonfoot–mountains,jungles,oceans,and

desertsinsearchofabetterlifeforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.

Againstthecritiquesofthosewhofearapotentialreturntotheperceivederrorsor

excessesofliberationtheologyandsimilarmovementswithpoliticalovertones,Metz

assertsthat“thepoliticaltendencyofapoliticaltheologyisvalidonlyifitstheological

tendencyisvalidaswell.”191Whatevergoodatheologicalmovement,attitude,orpractice

mightintend,itmustbetheologicalinessenceandorientation.WhatMetzclaimsforone

crucialareaoftheology–“forthesakeofthetruththatispropertoit,everyChristologyis

nourishedbypraxis:thepraxisofdiscipleship”192–couldbeclaimedforecclesiologyand

missiologyaswell.TherearefundamentaltruthsaboutthenatureoftheChurchanditscall

todrawallpeopleintorelationshipwithGodthatcannotbefullytaughtapartfrom187Beaudoin,“SecularCatholicism,”30.188Ibid.189Ibid.,32.190Campese,“¿CuantosMás?”272.191Metz,FaithinHistoryandSociety,60.192Ibid.,62.

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experience,andcannotbefullyarticulatedwithoutbeingpracticed.Claimingtheexistence

ofaneatandtidyseparationbetweentheChurchandtheworld,thespiritualandthe

secular,one’sfaithlifeandone’ssociallife,isultimatelyafalsecharacterizationthat

createsadividedself.Metzassureshisaudiencethat“thesocialdependenceofmoral

actionshouldcertainlybetakentobeanecessarybutnotasufficientconditionfordefining

Christianpraxis;”193thereligiousdimensionisnolessessential,andalsonomoresufficient

initself.Althoughsynthesizingthesespheresofone’shumanexistencecanbedeeply

challenging,evenpainful,Metzrightlyasks,“whowilldenythatChristianpraxismustnot

onlybeconcernedwithone’sownbeingasubjectbeforeGod,butalsohastobeconcerned

preciselywithhowpersonscanbecomeandliveassubjectsinsituationsofmiseryand

oppression?”194

APracticalEcclesiologyinanAgeofMigration

Attemptingtodrawconnectionsbetweenanecclesiologythatseestheexperienceof

migrantsmirroringthenarrativeandtrajectoryoftheChurchentailsavisionofeachthat

attendstoboththeindividualandthecommunallevel.Amidthecontemporarysecular

environmentthatprizestheindividual,sometimesattheexpenseofthecommunalor

social,fearingtheself-negatingpoweritperceiveslurkingthere,developingatenable

conceptofsolidarityiscrucial.Makingtheefforttoenterintorelationshipwiththose

aroundus,asanessentialaspectofourrespectivespiritualjourneys,“requiresthatone

holdoneselfresponsible…inordertokeeponbeingasubject…[andto]fightagainstmen

193Metz,FaithinHistoryandSociety,66.194Ibid.,64.

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andwomen’sbeingoppressedandheldincontempt,inordertobecomeasubject.”195

Migrantsarehumansubjects,nomoreandnolessthanthosewhodebateabout

immigrationlegislation,whorescuethemfromdangeratseaandonland,whovocally

criticizetheirpresence,whoministertotheirneedswithgenerosity,andsoon.Thistruth

mustbeaffirmedifanymeaningfuldialogueandlastingpositivechangeinthecurrent

realityofmigrationistooccur.AlongtheMexicanMigrationCorridorthissummer,many

ofthemigrantsImetseamlesslywovestoriesabouttheirhardshipandsufferingwith

assertionsabouttheirfaith.Metzclaimsthat“itisabsolutelytruethatauthenticreligion

canbefoundinalifelivedunderoppression;”196migrantsbearwitnesstothis,andthus

offerpotentiallydangerousmemoryandunsettlingtruthtothosewhoarereluctantto

encounterandacknowledgethisoppressionandtheindividualswhomitharms.

StephenBevansandRogerSchroedercontendthat“thechurchisonlythechurch

insofarasitfocusesonGod’sreign…asitrealizesthatitiscalledbeyonditself.”197Tracing

variousstagesintheChurch’ssenseofitselfasfundamentallymission-oriented,theyseeit

growing“bybeingfaithfultoeachcontext…[whereitis]calledforthbyitsLordtoshare

andcontinuehismission.”198Oneofthegreatchallengesarisingfrommysummer

experiencewithmigrantsinGuatemala,Mexico,andtheUnitedStates,buildingonyearsof

ministryintheUnitedStateswithmigrantsfromcountriesrangingfromMexicotoChile,is

bearingwitnesstotheirfaithandtheirstories,andtheirinfluenceonmyown.If“missionis

communitarian,orbetter,ecclesial…doneonbehalfoftheChristiancommunity,”199thenI

195Metz,FaithinHistoryandSociety,71.196Ibid.,79.197BevansandSchroeder,ConstantsinContext,9.198Ibid.,31.199Ibid.,8.

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oughttobeabletorelyuponthewiderChurchforsupportandresourcesinsuchan

endeavor.IfIshouldfindsuchaidtobelacking,thenperhapsthissuggeststhattheChurch

isinneedofevangelizationinthisregard.BevansandSchroederimplicitlysuggestthatthe

Churchasawholedoesstandinneedofreorientationinlightof“twonewrealitiestoday:a

post-ChristianWestandapost-WesternChristianity.”200Theyseeoneofthestrongest

voicesraisedtoaddressthiscontextinthelanguageoftheSecondVaticanCouncil’s

dogmaticconstitutionontheChurch.Inthisdocument,LumenGentium,“themajorimageof

thechurch…isthatofthechurchasthepilgrimpeopleofGod…agroupofpeopleina

commonsearchforthekingdomorreignofGod.”201AstheChurchworkstograspand

incorporatethisimageofitself,individualsandcommunitiesonthelocallevelarecalledto

carrythatprocessforward.Justlikethespreadandsuccessofindigenousmovementsthat

BevansandSchroedercitetoclaim“thefactthatordinaryChristiansareultimatelythe

oneswhocanbothsensetheconstantsandengagethecontext”202ofmission,as

governmentsandpoliticalpartiesstruggletoresolve,orsimplyignore,theconflictsand

entrenchedpovertythatgiverisetomostofthecurrentflowsofmigrants,themost

effectiveworkisbeingdonebyindividualsonsmallscales.BevansandSchroederaskhow

thisgrassrootsoriginofministryandadvocacyformigrantsmighttakeonamissiological

tone;itseemstobeamatterofhowtheologicalandsecularvisionsofthehumanperson

andsocietyinteractamidthetensionsinvolvedinthephenomenonofmigration.Howthe

choice–forindividualsandtheChurchasawhole–tostandwithoragainstmigrantsin

theirdignifiedhopesanddevotedeffortsforabetterlifewillreshapetheChurchisa

200BevansandSchroeder,ConstantsinContext,242.201Ibid.,250.202Ibid.,271.

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crucialecclesiologicalquestion.Howtheirdecision–anditsinfluenceonpublicopinionand

publicpolicy–willaffectmigrantsintheirhopes,dreams,struggles,andsufferingisa

matteroftheologicalandsocialjustice.

Inpracticalterms,thiscallsforanefforttopreservethesafety,dignity,andintegrity

ofindividualsandfamilieswhomigratetothefullestpossibleextent.TheKBIreport

documentsfamilyseparationasasignificantandwidespreadformofabuseandinjustice

experiencedbymigrantswhocomeintothecustodyofCBPagentsinvariousways.The

Churchisacommunitythatseesitsorigininthelovingself-revelationofatriune,

fundamentallyrelationalGod,incarnatedinahumanbeing,bornandraisedinahuman

family,whoneverthelessexpandedthenotionoffamilytoincludeallfellowhumanbeings

livinginrelationshipwithGod.Religiousorders,layassociations,evenordinaryparish

communitiespresentanimageoffamiliesinthelocalmanifestationsoftheuniversal

Church,andthroughtheirministrysupportthefamilieswhopassalongfaithandpractice

fromonegenerationtothenext.Reflectingonitsownidentitywithinthisecclesial

perspective,theSocietyofJesuscollectivelycelebrateshow“wehaveagainandagainbeen

privilegedtoknowourselvesasoneintheLord:oneunited,apostolicbodyseekingwhatis

bestfortheserviceofGodintheChurchandfortheworld.”203Thissenseofitselfasa

religiousfamilyisintimatelytiedto,andsupportiveof,itssenseofmission:“itisasa

worldwidecommunity–and,simultaneously,asanetworkoflocalcommunities–thatwe

seektoserveothersacrosstheworld…webearacommonresponsibilityforthewelfareof

203JohnPadberg,ed.JesuitLife&MissionToday:TheDecrees&AccompanyingGeneralDocumentsofthe31st-35thGeneralCongregationsoftheSocietyofJesus(SaintLouis:TheInstituteofJesuitSources,2009),733[GC35,Decree2,#2].

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theentireworldanditsdevelopmentinasustainableandlife-givingway.”204Thisclaimis

rootedinCatholicsocialteachingaboutthecommongood,whichassertsthat“thecommon

goodwillnotbeattainedbyexcludingpeople…wecan’tenrichthecommongoodofour

countrybydrivingoutthosewedon’tcarefor.”205Arenewedpracticalecclesiologyalong

theselineswouldbeapowerfulstatement,inbothwordanddeed,inacontextofignoring,

rejecting,orcastingasidemigrantsandtheirplight.

ConcludingThoughts

TheChristianfaithhasguidedpeopleforcenturiesindiversecontextsthroughout

theworld.TheChurchhasevolvedthroughouthistory,asthemysticalbodyofChrist

makingChristpresentandmanifestintheworld,andasahumaninstitutionstrivingto

carryoutthetaskofevangelization,faithformation,andreconciliationentrustedbyChrist

toeachgenerationofdisciples.Readingthisecclesiologicaljourneyandthearduous

odysseysundertakenbymigrantsinlightofoneanotherisasignificantandnecessary

contributionthatpracticaltheologycanmaketotheChurchandtheworldatatimewhen

bothsorelyneedsuchwisdomandguidance.Inengagingwiththesecularworld,the

Churchhopesforarenewaloffaith,andisurgedtoseethatthisdoesnotentailarejection

ofworthytheological,aesthetic,andsocialadvancesthroughthecourseofhumanhistory.

Infleeingviolence,poverty,andotherformsofoppression,migrantshopeforabetterlife

forthemselvesandtheirfamilies,adreamthatincludesthepossibilityoflaterreturningto

thelandsandhomesthatmayhavefeltgreatreluctancetoleave.Forthoseofusinthe

UnitedStates,themigrationoftensofthousandsofCentralAmericanmen,women,and204Padberg,JesuitLife&Mission,741[GC35,Decree2,#20].205Kerwin,“NaturalRights,”195.

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childrenthroughtheterritoryofMexico,oursouthernneighbor,andtheirimpactonour

countryandtheCatholicChurchherecallsustotakestockofourownheritageasmigrants,

andourspiritualjourneythatlongsforsalvation,harmony,andpeace.Asteptowardthat

harmonyisrealizingthatmostoftheforcesassaultingandthreateningmigrantsarethe

veryonesthatweourselvesfear.Sotooarethedeepestvaluesofmigrants–peaceand

safety,honestlabor,responsibilitytofamilyandsociety–theveryonesthatweinthe

UnitedStatesclaimtochampion.OursharedChristianfaithoughttohelpusrecognize

thesecommonhopesanddreams,fearsandanxieties,socialandreligiousvalues,bridging

thegapsofsuspicionandprejudicethatunderminetheflourishingofusall.Doingso

requiresarenewaloftrust,awillingnesstotellourstories,andopennesstothewisdom

andexperiencethatwebring,individuallyandcommunally,toourlivesandfaith.Asthe

Thirty-SecondGeneralCongregationoftheSocietyofJesusaffirmedin1975,reflectingon

itsidentityanditsmissionadecadeaftertheSecondVaticanCouncilconcluded,itentails

“theserviceoffaith,ofwhichthepromotionofjusticeisanabsoluterequirement.”206

EnhancinganecclesiologyrootedintheimageofmigrationwouldimprovetheChurch’s

visionofitselfasapeopleonthemove,strivingtoauthenticallyliveitsfaith,transformthe

worldaccordingtoGod’sdesiresforhumanflourishing,andbearwitnesstoitstruenature.

206Padberg,JesuitLife&Mission,298[GC32,Decree4,#2].

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Conclusion:RenewingFaithfulDignityandSolidaritywithMigrantsandRefugees

Theprecedingchaptershaveshownthatmigrationisinextricablytiedtohuman

nature,humanrights,andthefullcourseofhumanhistory,notjustthecontemporaryera

ofhypermobility.Migrationmaybeunderstoodinvariousways,butitisfundamentally

“anytypeofmovement,whethertemporaryorpermanent,voluntaryorforced,of

individualsandgroupsofpeoplecrossingterritorialboundaries.”207Suchabroadconcept

invitesustoreflectonthenotionthatallhumanbeings–foreventraditionalsocietiestend

tomovefromplacetoplaceinsearchoffood–aremigrants,andthusinvitedtosolidarity

withoneanotherthroughouttheworldaspeopleonthemove.Manytheologianswould

addtheobservationthat“migrationisnotonlyasocialrealitywithprofoundimplications

butalsoawayofthinkingaboutGodandwhatitmeanstobehumanintheworld.”208

ElainePadillaandPeterPhan,mindfuloftheharsh,dangerous,andundignifiedliving

situationsthatdrivemanymigrantstomove,stressthat“atthepersonallevel,migration

causesmuchdislocationtothemigrantsaswellastheirfamilies…inspiteofthis,migrants

relocatethemselves,compelledbycircumstancesandforcesbeyondtheircontrolsuchas

extremepoverty,war,violence,andpoliticalpersecution.”209

Thehostilityagainstmigrantsandrefugeesincontemporarypoliticalandsocial

crisesabouttheirmovementandtheirfatenotonlyoverlookstheroleofglobalizationand

thepoliciesofwealthynationsincreatingtheconditionsdrivingthemfromtheir

homelands,butalsofailstorecognizethecommonhumandignityandbasichumanrights

207ElainePadillaandPeterPhan,“MigrationandChristianTheology”inContemporaryIssuesofMigrationandTheology,eds.ElainePadillaandPeterPhan(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),2.208Ibid.,5.209Ibid.,4.

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ofoneandall,insteaddeepeningdivisionsamongus.AsGustavoGutiérrezaptlyasserts,

“globalizationisanambiguousprocessthathasbroughtaboutanambiguousworld.The

ideabehindthetermisthatofoneworld,andyetwearegoingtoendupwithtwo.”210The

veryfactofmigrationreflects,onthepartofmigrants,both“a‘desireforsomethingmore’

anda‘refusaltoacceptthewaythingsare,’escaping‘conditionsofviolence,starvation,or

deprivation’”211antitheticaltotheirsurvivalandflourishing.Gutiérrezclaimsthatthe

parableofLazarusandtherichmanisplayingoutintheinequalitiesofglobalization,and

specificallytheconsequentflowsofmigrants:“werecognizethatpoornationsarelyingat

thedoorofrichnations,andthelatterareignoringtheformer…somepeopleindeveloped

countriesreacttothisfactbyrejectingthepoorandthemigrant.”212Advocacyformigrants

andrefugeescarriedoutbyChristians,Jews,andMuslimsrisesfromthefundamentalplace

ofmovementinthenarrativesoftheseAbrahamicfaiths.Amidalltheirpossible

interpretations,onecanask,“Whatwouldbeaviabletheologicalengagementwithland,

community,andlivelihoodseenundertheaspectofmigration?”213

AspecificallyCatholicresponse–thoughcertainlynotconfinedtoCatholicismin

termsofitsdetails,aspirations,andimpacts–isrootedinadeeplyfeltresponsibilitytothe

poorandoppressed.Effortstotranslatethisconcernintoeffectivepracticeinapluralistic

societywhereChristianvaluesareamongmanythatcompeteforinfluenceentailsbringing

theGospeltobearonissueslikemigrationandcatalyzingmeaningfulsocialchangerooted210GustavoGutiérrez,“Poverty,Migration,andtheOptionforthePoor,”inAPromisedLand,APerilousJourney,eds.DanielGroodyandGioacchinoCampese(NotreDameIN:UniversityofNotreDamePress,2008),79.211MarionGrau,“CircumambulatingExodus-Migration-Conquest:ATheologicalHermeneuticsofMigratoryNarrativity”inContemporaryIssuesofMigrationandTheology,eds.ElainePadillaandPeterPhan(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),19.212Gutiérrez,“OptionforthePoor,”76.213Grau,“Exodus-Migration-Conquest,”12.

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infaithandaction.Justoveracenturyago,theSocialGospelmovementwasbornasWalter

Rauschenbuschrecognized“thattheKingdomofGodwasnotanapocalypticvisionthat

couldbepassivelypostponed,butapropheticcallforsociety’stransformationinthehere

andnow.”214Believingthat“theChurch,theorganizedexpressionofthereligiouslifeofthe

past,isoneofthemostpotentinstitutionsandforcesinWesterncivilization.Itsfavorand

moralinfluencearewooedbyallparties.Itcannothelpthrowingitsimmenseweighton

onesideortheother,”215heenvisioneditclaimingitspropheticheritageandbecominga

majorplayerineffortstobuildamorejustsocietyintheUnitedStates.Moreover,

Rauschenbuschbelievedthatthesocialcrisisheencounteredattheopeningofthe

twentiethcenturydevelopedwhen“themoralforcesinhumanityfailedtokeeppacewith

itsintellectualandeconomicdevelopment,”216aclaimthatremainsstrikinglyapropos

today,asdubiousargumentsaboutsecurityandstabilityfailtoresolvetensionsover

migrationpolicyintheUnitedStates,furtherweakeningconfidenceinabrokensystemand

inconsistentlawsthatgrowincreasinglyoutoftouchwithsocial,political,andeconomic

realities.Rauschenbuschdesiredthat“theChurchshouldhelppublicopiniontounderstand

clearlythedifferencebetweenthemoralqualitiesofthecompetitiveandthecommunistic

principle,andenlistreligiousenthusiasmonbehalfofthatwhichisessentially

Christian,”217andindeed,itcontinuestodoso.

AroughcontemporaryofRauschenbusch,ReinholdNiebuhrclearlysawtheability

ofthenationtocreateanarrativeandcommandaloyaltytoitthatwouldtrumpmoral

214PaulRauschenbusch,ed.,ChristianityandtheSocialCrisisinthe21stCentury(NewYork:HarperCollins,2007),xi.215Ibid.,xix.216Ibid.,182.217Ibid.,321.

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concernsorobjections,apositionthattheChurchwouldbecalledupontorefute.He

allegedthat“patriotismtransmutesindividualunselfishnessintonationalegoism…the

unqualifiednatureofthisdevotionistheverybasisofthenation’spowerandofthe

freedomtousethepowerwithoutmoralrestraint.”218Moreover,inbelievingthemselvesto

beguardiansofthehealthofthenation,governmentalandpoliticalleaderscaneasilybe

swayedbyconcernsofprosperity,security,authority,andprestige,ratherthanserviceand

justiceonbehalfofthosewithinandbeyondtheirterritory’sborders,attitudesthathave

becomeclearlymanifestintheUnitedStatesandseveralEuropeannations.Niebuhrnow

readsasominouslyprescientamidthefailureofmanygovernmentstodevelopa

comprehensive,just,andsustainablestrategyforrespondingtothetensofmillionsof

migrantsandrefugeesmovingthroughouttheworld.Hebelieved“asocietyofnationshas

notreallyproveditselfuntilitisabletograntjusticetothosewhohavebeenworstedin

battlewithoutrequiringthemtoengageinnewwarstoredresstheirwrongs.”219Today,

thosebattlesmayinvolvemilitaryaction,butmoreoftentheyincludetheravagesof

economicinjustice,environmentaldegradation,religiouspersecution,andotheraffrontsto

humandignity.Niebuhrseemedconsignedtoacceptthat“themostsignificantmoral

characteristicofanationisitshypocrisy;”220itfallstoanation’spopulation–leaders,

citizens,andmigrantsalike–torefutethatdarkassessment.

TheSecondVaticanCouncilgavegreatimpetustoatransitionintheCatholicChurch

towardamoreengagedpastoralism,agreatersensitivitytothediverseexpressionsof

humanityintheworld’scultures,andarenewedrelationshipbetweentraditionalGospel218ReinholdNiebuhr,MoralManandImmoralSociety:AStudyinEthicsandPolitics(Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,2013),91.219Ibid.,111.220Ibid.,95.

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valuesandpracticeactiontofosterthewell-beingofallpeopleinaworldincreasingly

overshadowedbywar,persecution,economicinjustice,andenvironmentaldegradation.

Theologywasenabled,asGustavoGutiérrezhassaid,tobecome“‘God-walkinsteadof

[merely]‘God-talk.’”221AnoutgrowthoftheChurch’sdeclarationthat“thejoyandhope,the

griefandanguishofthemen[sic]ofourtime,especiallyofthosewhoarepoororafflicted

inanyway,arethejoyandhope,thegriefandanguishofthefollowersofChristaswell”222

hasbeentheargument“thattheologyshouldaddresstheoppressedfirstand,onlythen,

policy-makers,citizenry,andtheChurchwithadisturbingmessage”223aboutthelatter

groups’complicityinsinful,oppressivestructures.Moreover,churcheshaveevolvedtosee

themselvesnotmerelyassettledpurveyorsofcatechesis,counsel,andsacramentstothose

whocometoparishesoutoffaithfulroutine,butmorepowerfullyas“alifeline…aninterim

havenforthosewhohavelostonehomeanddonotasyethaveanewone…an‘eye[in]the

hurricane’of‘theindifferent,destructiveforcesintheworld.’”224Thecareandattention

thatmanypriests,religious,andlaymenandwomenofferintheirministrytoand

accompanimentofmigrantsembodiesthislifeline,butisonlyaninitialsteponthepathof

convertinglargercommunitiesandentiresocietiestogreaterconcernandpracticalaction

onbehalfofthepoorandthevulnerable.Thefactthat“migrants–CatholicandProtestant,

frequentandrarechurch-goers,menandwomen–drawonsacredimagesandlocalclergy

221SusannaSnyder,Asylum-Seeking,MigrationandChurch(BurlingtonVT:Ashgate,2012),16.222AustinFlannery,ed.VaticanCouncilII:TheConciliarandPostConciliarDocuments(Boston:St.PaulBooksandMedia,1992),903.223Snyder,Asylum-Seeking,32.224Ibid.,198.

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toprepareforthehardshipsanduncertaintyofthemigrationjourney”225oughtto

encouragechurchesandfaithcommunitiesthattheirservicesareneededandtheir

convictionsaresound.Asstudieshavefoundthat“regardlessoftheparticularfaithoreven

thelevelofindividualreligiosity,undocumentedLatinAmericanmigrantspreparingforthe

journeynorthtotheUnitedStatespermeatetheirleave-takingwithspiritualityandthe

searchforreligioussupport,”226individualsandcommunitiesarecalledtorespondwith

theresourcesoftheirplacesofworshipandtheirfaithtothesecleardesiresofmigrants.

SusannaSnydernotesthatthissituationis“nudgingchurchestorenewtheir

liturgicalpracticesandself-understanding,”227becomingmoretrulyrelational,restoring

andexpandingthepracticeof“one-to-one,face-to-face,embodiedrelationships,which

haveadesiretohelpthe‘other’inneedattheirheart.”228GemmaCruzobservesthat

“migrationis,indeed,redefiningreligiouslandscapesworldwide…migrationbrings

religiousdiversitybothacrossandwithinreligioustraditions.”229Shestressesthat

“migrantcongregationsalsobringamoreprofoundmeaningtowhatitmeanstobechurch

sincethe“church”isnotjustthesiteofliturgicalcelebrationbutalsotheirrefugeintimes

ofcrisisandtheirhomewhentheywanttocelebratetheircommunalidentity.”230Their

225JacquelineHagan,“FaithfortheJourney:ReligionasaResourceforMigrants”inAPromisedLand,APerilousJourney,eds.DanielGroodyandGioacchinoCampese(NotreDameIN:UniversityofNotreDamePress,2008),5.226Ibid.,14.227Snyder,Asylum-Seeking,208.228Ibid.,198.229GemmaCruz,“ANewWayofBeingChristian:TheContributionofMigrantstotheChurch”inContemporaryIssuesofMigrationandTheology,eds.ElainePadillaandPeterPhan(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),96.230Cruz,“ANewWay,”113.

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examplethuschallengesthebroaderChristiancommunity“tobecomewhatthechurch

mustbe:sanctuaryfor‘refugees’(andforeveryoneinneed).”231

Giventherealitythatmanymigrantsfindtheirwaytourbanareas,andthatcities

havebecomeprominentinpoliticalandlegaldebatesaboutlocalandnationalpolicies

regardingmigrationinmanypartsoftheworld,itisimportanttorecallthatcitiesaswe

knowthemtodaydependonvariousformsofmigrationfortheirveryexistence.AsDale

Irvinnotes,“themostimportantcomponentthatseemstohaveappearedintheemergence

ofurbansocialform…wasthedifferentiationandspecializationamongtheinhabitantsof

thecity.”232Tracingtheevolutionofcitiesthroughhistory,henotesthatmigrantsformeda

particularlyimportantclassofspecializedinhabitants,oftenbymaintainingexpanding

tradenetworksthatenrichedcitiesconnectedtothem.Whenheassertsthat“thesimple

realitywasthatthemorestrangersthataparticularcitycouldsupport,tolerate,orsustain,

thegreaterwasitseventualsize,wealth,andinfluenceoverothercities,”233hemakesa

caseforthenecessityofmigrantsforaflourishingcity.Althoughtheexploitationof

migrantsforthebenefitofnativeurbanelitesisasoldasmigrationitself,“systemsarose

forprotectingtheenslaved,artisans,andmerchants(thoseresidentaliens)from

uncontrolledviolencetoinsureprosperitybyregulatingsocialbehaviorofall,”234in

previouscenturies.Ironically,manyoftoday’smigrantsarefleeingfromcitiesandother

regionswherethoseeconomicandlegalsystemsofprotectionhavebrokendown.

231Cruz,“ANewWay,”113.232DaleIrvin,“MigrationandCities:TheologicalReflections”inContemporaryIssuesofMigrationandTheology,eds.ElainePadillaandPeterPhan(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),75.233Ibid.,77-78.234Ibid.,84.

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Writingin1986,inthecontextofanincreasinglyglobalizedeconomicsystem,the

CatholicbishopsoftheUnitedStatescalledattentiontothepowerofeconomicstructures

tofosterflourishinghumancommunities,ortocreatedeepandentrencheddivisions

betweenthewealthyandthepoor.“Everyeconomicdecisionandinstitutionmustbe

judgedinlightofwhetheritprotectsorunderminesthedignityofthehumanperson”235is

afundamentalassertionthatechoesthroughoutthisletter.Itspracticalcorollaryisboth

individualandcommunal;ontheonehand,“allmembersofsocietyhaveaspecial

obligationtothepoorandvulnerable,”236ontheotherhand,“societyasawhole,acting

throughpublicandprivateinstitutions,hasthemoralresponsibilitytoenhancehuman

dignityandprotecthumanrights.”237Thisapproachfindsconcreteapplicationinthe

preferentialoptionforthepoor,whichis“notonlyaquestionofsocialandpastoral

commitment…[butalso]trulyatheocentricoptionbecauseChristiansarecalledtobe

witnesses”238toJesusandtheGospel.Whilethebishopsaredrawingsignificantlyon

Catholicsocialteachinginthesestatements,theirassertionsaredirectedtowardabroader

audience:“humandignity,realizedincommunitywithothersandwiththewholeofGod’s

creation,isthenormagainstwhicheverysocialinstitutionmustbemeasured.”239Theyalso

insistthatthefaithfulareobligedtoparticipateinciviclifeinsuchawaythatjusticewillbe

upheldforall.Beyondeducatingthemselvesonpolicyissuesandvotingforcandidatesand

measurescapableofdevelopingajusteconomicsystem,“thevarioussubgroupswithinour

235UnitedStatesCatholicConference.EconomicJusticeforAll:PastoralLetteronCatholicSocialTeachingandtheEconomy(WashingtonDC:UnitedStatesCatholicConference,1986),#13.236Ibid.,#16.237Ibid.,#18.238Gutiérrez,“OptionforthePoor,”81.239UnitedStatesCatholicConference,EconomicJustice,#25.

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society[must]sharpentheirconcernforthecommongoodandmoderatetheireffortsto

protecttheirownshort-terminterests.”240

Irvinsynthesizestheseobservationsofeconomicsandurbanstudieswithhistorical

theologyandecclesiologytoassertthat“thecityofGodiscurrentlyapilgrimcitywhose

entirebodyofcitizensaresojournersorevenexiles…theekklesiaofChristisacityof

migrants,amigratingcity,acityofpilgrimsandexiles,acityonthemove,acitythatlivesin

themidstofothercities,andacitywhosecitizenslivebyfaithaccordingtothelawsof

anotherage.”241Drawingsuchastrongparallelbetweenphysicalsettingsofcities(andthe

localchurcheslocatedwithinthem)andthebroaderrealitiesofaglobalChurchaswellas

globalizationingeneralsituatesministrywithmigrantsattheheartoftheChurch’s

identity.Hisclaimimpliesthat“everyecclesiologyoughttohavemigrationasbothits

startingpointanditsendingpoint.Thereisnokoinoniathatdoesnotsimultaneouslyentail

passageways,migration,exile,andofcourse‘beingsent.’”242

Thepastoral,spiritual,andtheologicallevelsofmigration243areultimatelyrootedin

thephysicalspacethatmigrantsoccupyandtravelthrough;asDanielGroodynotes,

“biblicalgeographyrevealsaspiritualgeography,assertingthatwhatischronicledonthe

surfaceasaphysicaljourneyisinfactanarchetypicalelaborationofthesoul’sjourneyto

God.”244HavingtraveledoftentotheSonorandesert,heisquiteawarethat“theparallelsof

240UnitedStatesCatholicConference,EconomicJustice,#318.241Irvin,“MigrationandCities,”87.242Ibid.,88.243DanielGroody,“TheSpiritualityofMigrants:MappinganInnerGeography”inContemporaryIssuesofMigrationandTheology,eds.ElainePadillaandPeterPhan(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),140.244Groody,“TheSpiritualityofMigrants,”142.

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theimmigrantnarrativetotheExodusstoryarestriking(Exodus13:17-17:7).”245

ParticularlyinthecaseofmigrantsfromLatinAmerican,theirjourneysaredrivenasmuch

byeconomicinsecurityasfearofviolenceintheirhomecountries.Eitherway,“itisnotso

muchforwealthasitisfordignity,andforanenvironmentwheretheycandevelopand

growashumanbeingsandmovebeyondthestruggleforsurvival”246thattheyembark

uponharrowingjourneys.

Niebuhr,recognizingthat“itisimpossiblecompletelytodisassociateanevilsystem

fromthepersonalmoralresponsibilitiesoftheindividualswhomaintainit,”247effectively

forcedsocialhypocrisyintotheopen.HeaffirmedthattheGospelbears“aprudentialstrain

inwhichthewholesomesocialconsequencesofgenerousattitudesareemphasised.”248

Givenhisrathernegativeviewofsociety,heplacedhishopesonthemoralreformof

individuals,whichwouldinturnspreadthroughtheirreligiousandcommunitynetworks.

Ultimately,heclaimed,thesegroupsmustbesupportedbythehopethatcomesfromone

anotherandthereligioustraditioninwhichtheystand.PopeFrancishasbuilthis

pontificatearoundfulfillingthathopethroughpowerfulstatementsmotivatingand

validatedbypracticalaction.HisapostolicexhortationEvangeliiGaudiumcarriesaclear

andengagingassertion,“thejoyoftheGospelfillstheheartsandlivesofallwhoencounter

Jesus,”249placedincontrastwithasoberingassessmentoftoday’ssociety:“thegreat

dangerintoday’sworld,pervadedasitisbyconsumerism,isthedesolationandanguish

bornofacomplacentyetcovetousheart,thefeverishpursuitoffrivolouspleasures,anda

245Groody,“TheSpiritualityofMigrants,”143.246Ibid.,144.247Niebuhr,MoralManandImmoralSociety,249.248Ibid.,265.249PopeFrancis,EvangeliiGaudium(VaticanCity:VaticanPress,2013),#1.

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bluntedconscience.”250Theexhortationgoesontoaddressanumberofthemesrelatedto

faithanditsencounterwiththeworld,fromtheindividualtothegloballevel,butatits

heart,itstrivestoproclaimthat“webecomefullyhumanwhenwebecomemorethan

human,whenweletGodbringusbeyondourselvesinordertoattainthefullesttruthof

ourbeing.”251

Thistruth“canbecomeanimportantimpetusintheministryofreconciliationanda

compellingforceinunderstandingandrespondingtomigrantsandrefugees,”252aneffort

demandedbyavisionof“JesusastheimmigrantGod…whomigratestohispeopleinlove,

wantingtodrawallpeopleintothereconciliationofthedivineembrace.”253Itassuresus

that“ourcommitmenttothepoorandthemigrantsisconcernedwiththeirhumandignity,

whichincludesholdingtheirowndestinyintheirhands…eachpersonbecomethesubject

ofhisorherhistory.”254Acenturyago,Rauschenbuschpreachedthenecessityof“a

combinationbetweenthefaithofJesusintheneedandpossibilityofthekingdomofGod,

andthemoderncomprehensionoftheorganicdevelopmentofhumansociety,”255to

motivatepracticalChristianactiontoalleviatethesocialcrisisofhistime.Today,Pope

FrancisenvisionsacreativeandmutuallyinformingrelationshipbetweentheGospeland

theworld,reflectedintheencountersbetweenChristiansandtheirfellowhumanbeings.

Divinegracesupportsandinspires“missionarydiscipleswhotakethefirststep…boldly

taketheinitiative,goouttoothers,seekthosewhohavefallenaway,standatthe

250PopeFrancis,EvangeliiGaudium,#2.251Ibid.,#8.252PadillaandPhan,“MigrationandChristianTheology,”5.253Groody,“TheSpiritualityofMigrants,”151.254Gutiérrez,“OptionforthePoor,”84.255Rauschenbusch,TheSocialCrisis,72.

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crossroadsandwelcometheoutcast.”256Today’smigrantsandrefugeesstandatthe

crossroads,oftenquiteliterally,betweennations,religions,andraces.TheGospelurges

Christians,andstronglyencouragesallpeople,toseeeachmigrantandrefugee“notmerely

anindividualtoberespectedinaccordancewithnormsestablishedbylaw,butaperson

whochallengesthemandwhoseneedsbecomeanobligationfortheirresponsibility.”257

Today,“churcheshavetorediscovertheirpropheticrolewithinsocietyandraisetheir

voicesagainstdeceptiveandunilateralreadingsofimmigration.”258Moreover,“the

eschatologicalhorizonoftheimmigrantrealityalsoleadsustoconsiderwaysinwhichthe

crucifiedpeoplesoftodayareintegrallyrelatedtothesalvationoftheworld.”259For,as

IgnacioEllacuríaandothershaveaffirmed,“crucifiedpeoplesunmaskthesinoftheworld

andexposeitsneedforconversion,redemption,andrenewal.”260Ifwearetolivethe

Gospel,inourheartsandinourcommunities,withgenerosity,devotion,andauthenticity,

wemustworkforthesafety,acceptance,andloveofallmigrantsandrefugeesasour

brothersandsistersinChrist.

256PopeFrancis,EvangeliiGaudium,#24.257JonathanYan,“AnAsianTheologyofMigrationandItsInterreligiousImplications:InsightsfromtheDocumentsoftheFederationofAsianBishops’Conferences(FABC)”inContemporaryIssuesofMigrationandTheology,eds.ElainePadillaandPeterPhan(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2013),134.258Campese,“¿CuantosMás?,”292.259Groody,“TheSpiritualityofMigrants,”152.260Campese,”¿CuantosMás,”284.

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