visual design of e-learning applications
DESCRIPTION
Bachelorarbeit 1, 4. Semester BMT FH St.PöltenTRANSCRIPT
Visual design of
e-learning applications
Guidelines for improving learning experiences
Research Paper
Bachelor course on Media Technology
at St. Pölten University of Applied Sciences
by:
Ulrike Schwertberger mt131089
Supervising tutor: Teresa Sposato, BA.
[Vienna, 30-06-2015]
II
Declaration
- The attached research paper is my own, original work undertaken in partial
fulfillment of my degree.
- I have made no use of sources, materials or assistance other than those which
habe been openly and fully acknowledged in the text. If any part of another
person’s work has been quoted, this either appears in inverted commas or (if
beyond a few lines) is indented.
- Any direct quotation or source of ideas has been identified in the text by author,
date, and page number(s) immediately after such an item, and full details are
provided in a reference list at the end of the text.
- I understand that any breach of the fair practice regulations may result in a mark
of zero for this research paper and that it could also involve other repercussions.
.................................................. ................................................
Place, Date Signature
III
Abstract
E-learning has been gaining importance as a didactic method in recent years and
is now being used in both offline and online learning as well as mobile learning
applications. Previous research has shown the significant influence interface
design has on user experience, and guidelines on effective practices have
emerged. Several publications have appeared in recent years documenting the
general didactic design of e-learning courses, providing information on how to
structure and implement courses. However, few publications can be found that
specifically discuss the visual presentation of e-learning courses, covering both the
fields of interface and e-learning design. To gain insight, this work draws its
conclusions from works which discuss learning psychology as well as literature on
visual design.
Absorbing information and building knowledge are processes which are not only
determined by a person’s learning ability, but are also greatly dependent on the
presentation of learning material itself. By taking advantage of the learner’s
perception, applications can be designed to optimize information storage and its
subsequent retrieval. Several authors point out the need for consistent visual
design in instructional material, noting that any interruption of the user’s focus may
result in a poorer performance. Furthermore, studies have shown the importance
of simple design which does not interfere with perception.
The findings from the comparison of several works of literature illustrate that e-
learning applications and the learning process can be enhanced by effective
design. While aesthetic considerations should not be disregarded, designers are
advised to keep learning processes in mind. This supports the reduction of
cognitive load, which should be the ultimate goal of visual design in e-learning
applications. It can be concluded that the visual component of e-learning design
should be regarded as equally important as the selection of the presented content,
as it provides great potential to enhance said material.
IV
Table of contents
Declaration II
Abstract III
Table of contents IV
Introduction 1
Method 2
1 Cognitive processes 3
1.1 Attention 3
1.2 Perception and recognition 4
1.2.1 Gestalt principles 4
1.2.2 Five types of knowledge 5
1.3 Memory 6
2 Layout and structure 7
2.1 Visual grouping 7
2.2 Visual hierarchy 9
2.2.1 Hierarchy by graphical elements 9
2.2.2 Hierarchy by placement 10
2.2.3 Hierarchy by knowledge 11
2.3 Consistency 11
2.4 Simplification in e-learning 12
3 Readability in e-learning applications 13
3.1 Typographic design for display reading 13
3.2 Typefaces 14
3.3 Text size 15
4 Color considerations 16
4.1 Color psychology 16
4.2 Guiding attention with color 17
4.3 The importance of contrast 17
5 Instructional images & graphics 19
5.1 Text-image interplay 19
5.1.1 Split-attention effect 19
5.2 Icons and pictograms 21
5.2.1 Fast recognition of icons and symbols 22
5.2.2 Labelling icons 22
V
5.3 Animated and interactive visuals 22
Conclusion 24
References 25
List of Literature 25
Internet references 27
List of figures 28
List of tables 30
Introduction
1
Introduction
This bachelor thesis analyses the visual design of e-learning applications and its
influence on user experience. As well-designed applications may have the power
to attract more users and improve learning experiences and outcomes to a great
extent, developers of e-learning courses have to consider visual perception as a
key component in learning.
The importance of visual design is often overlooked, as great care may be taken
in defining the didactic structure of a course, yet graphical interface design is often
regarded as decoration. Considering the growing relevance of e-learning in recent
years, instructional designers will require an understanding of graphic design, and
interface designers will profit from know-how on cognitive processes and usability.
In light of the close interplay between visual design and cognitive processing, this
thesis examines how visual design may improve the learning experience.
The first chapter describes several theories on cognitive processing and human
knowledge. The following three chapters then go on to outline how layout, fonts,
colors and images can be used in accordance with these principles to improve
learning and which design mistakes should be avoided. A final summary on how
e-learning applications can be improved by effective visual design will be given in
the conclusion of the thesis.
To answer the question of how visual design can be used to maximize
memorialization and attention in e-learning courses (also referred to as “learning
experience”), the chapters also take a look at existing guidelines and practices and
whether they support successful learning. After all, Steve Krug has pointed out that
“as a rule, conventions only become conventions if they work” (2005, p.35).
Method
2
Method
Several scientific works of literature, including books on user interface design and
cognitive science, were the basis for writing this thesis. To name an example, Clark
& Mayer cover seven design principles of e-learning in “e-learning and the Science
of Instruction” (2003), highlighting the importance of consistent course design and
minimal cognitive load. In addition, works such as “Wissensvermittlung” by Steffen-
Peter Ballstaedt (1997) and “Interface design for Learning” by Dorian Peters (2013)
cover the visual design of educational material and the cognitive processing of
information.
Findings from existing research were compared and examined in regards to their
effect on learning processes such as attention and memorialization. Furthermore,
this work highlights several established design guidelines found in literature which
support findings from cognitive science.
Cognitive processes
3
1 Cognitive processes
The aim of any type of instruction is the presentation of information as well as its
uptake and successful storage and retrieval at a later time by the learner. Preece
et al. list several processes involved in cognition (Preece, Rogers & Sharp, 2002,
p.75).
The cognitive processes most relevant for visual design considerations are:
attention – directing the learners’ focus on relevant presented information
perception and recognition - the transformation of information into
meanings and ideas, i.e. creating knowledge
memory – recalling information
As they are highly dependent upon another, each of these processes has to be
taken into consideration when designing instructional content.
1.1 Attention
In learning situations, it is essential to secure attention. In a learning environment,
the user is not familiar with the presented content in most cases and therefore will
not have an exact idea what to look for. For example, learners often rely on their
own expectations when searching for important information in texts, which makes
human cognition prone to errors (Rakoczi, Bochud, Garbely, Hediger, & Pohl,
2013, p.3).
This underlines the necessity of directing attention to relevant information by visual
means and keeping the background – in the case of e-learning applications, the
interface – plain and easy to use (Preece et al., 2002, p.77) in order to avoid
distractions. Many techniques rely on the “pop-out-effect”, which results in the
“highlighting of the visual target” compared to distracting elements (ibid), for
example by changes in color or contrast.
Cognitive processes
4
Figure 1: The pop-out effect enhances efficient information processing.
(Rakoczi et al., 2013, p.4)
1.2 Perception and recognition
The term “Perception” describes the acquisition of information and its subsequent
transformation into experiences (Preece et al., 2002, p.76). Educational material
can be perceived in different ways depending on how visual elements are arranged
and what the learner associates with the presented information.
1.2.1 Gestalt principles
Several principles of human perception can found in Gestalt psychology, a school
of thought which explores the human mind and behavior. Gestalt theory laws are
closely linked to layout recommendations for instructional material (see chapter 2).
The law of proximity states that elements which are placed close to one
another are perceived to be related.
According to the law of similarity, the more similar elements are to each
other, the more likely we are to mentally group them together (Soegaard,
2014, n.p.).
Gestalt theory states that people perceive grouped elements as a whole.
This is referred to as the law of simplicity, which explains our tendency to
see the screen as a whole as opposed to only its components (Gutierrez,
2014, n.p.).
The law of closure states that the learner is able to fill in missing information
based on past experiences (ibid). This principle is relevant when relying on
conventions in user interface design.
Cognitive processes
5
Figure 2: Visual examples of Gestalt principles
(Gutierrez, 2014, n. p.)
1.2.2 Five types of knowledge
Ballstaedt describes five forms of mental knowledge, each used for different tasks
and situations.
Visual knowledge is a mental image of colors and shapes associated with words
and falls into the category of manner-specific knowledge, which may also be
referred to as sensory knowledge and stems from sensory perception (Ballstaedt,
1997, p.1). Vision is the most dominant sense of perception, which highlights the
importance of presenting information in a clear and easily distinguishable way
(Preece et al., 2002, p.77).
Spatial knowledge is used to describe the localization of objects, regardless of any
visual associations.
Conceptual knowledge, oftentimes considered the most important of the five,
refers to mental links and extensive conceptual networks (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.2).
These mental models are necessary when encountering unfamiliar systems and
dealing with unexpected events (Preece et al., 2002, p.92).
Procedural knowledge is required for the understanding of processes and activities
and the correct order of steps necessary to complete a task. Lastly, mental models
are helpful when constructing inner representations for complex topics, e.g. the
association of physical or chemical pathways with circuit-like figures (Ballstaedt,
1997, p.4).
The above distinction has implications on the visual design of e-learning
applications. The design, like any instructional material itself, should appeal to the
appropriate type of knowledge depending on the presented information in order to
Cognitive processes
6
ensure effective cognitive processing. Successfully determining which brain areas
should be addressed is an important step in creating educational content.
Type of knowledge Recommended presentation
Visual (sensory) Graphics, icons, pictograms
Spatial Maps
Conceptual Text, mindmaps, symbols
Procedural Lists and content chunking (see 1.3), graphics
Mental models Instructional graphics, pictograms, icons
Table 1: Although definite guidelines do not exist (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.1), the following chart gives suggestions on suitable methods of visual representation in learning materials based on the five types of knowledge.
1.3 Memory
Things to which we pay attention to (see 1.1) are passed on from sensory memory
(e.g. visual perception) to short-term memory (also known as working memory)
and in some cases may later be saved in long-term memory. (Dirksen, p.129).
Well-designed e-lessons should ideally guide this transformation of presented
material into knowledge and skills by highlighting important information and linking
existing short-term information with knowledge in the long-term memory (Mayer,
p.39).
The “chunking theory”, as it has been presented by George A. Miller, describes the
limitation of short-term memory. The concept states that humans can only hold 5-
9 (seven plus or minus two) chunks of information in their short-term memory at a
time. Memorization is “simply the formation of chunks, or groups of items which go
together, until there are few enough chunks so that we can recall all the items”
(Miller, 1956, p.95). Short-term memory load should be therefore be reduced in
instructional applications (Shneiderman, 2010, p.93) to help users focus only on
relevant items and maximize information uptake. Successful memorization is also
largely dependent on retrieval. Content will be easier to retrieve if it has been
presented in multiple ways, e.g. text-as well as image-based, and is therefore more
accessible in long-term memory (Dirksen, p.181).
Layout and structure
7
2 Layout and structure
To engage learners and optimize the uptake of information, educational content
should be presented in a structured way which takes cognitive processing into
consideration. This is even more necessary for multimedia learning applications,
as they provide more room for distracting elements which might interfere with the
users’ attention.
As explained in Ch.1, the learners’ attention needs to be guided to important
content. When viewing an image on-screen, the users’ brain usually splits it up into
“important” and “unimportant” elements while attempting to build structures and
combine elements (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.58). Using well-thought-out layout
and structure guidelines may be useful in supporting this process.
2.1 Visual grouping
Defining the relation between foreground and background by visually grouping or
separating elements helps the user in distinguishing on-screen objects (Kommer
& Mersin, 2002, p.60). In educational material, information may be presented in
smaller “chunks” relating to particular sub-topics of an overall subject. To keep
cognitive workload at a minimum and avoid confusion, screen layouts should
visually present existing relations, for example by placing chunks of text next to the
graphic being described (Mayer, p.108). This supports visual grouping, which
allows rapid visual search as well as faster recall of spatial knowledge
(Shneiderman & Plaisant, 2010, p.245).
Designers may use grouping to promote correct understanding of e-learning
content. Placing related elements together is in accordance with the law of
proximity found in Gestalt theory, which explains our tendency to perceive grouped
objects as a whole as opposed to individual parts (see chapter 1).
Several interface design guidelines highlight the importance of grouping related
items. Examples include Robin Williams’ PARC (proximity, alignment, repetition,
contrast) principles (Williams, source?), Mullet and Sano’s six design principles for
visual interfaces (one of them being “organization and visual structure”; Mullet &
Sano, 1994) and Mayer’s contiguity principle (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.91ff.) which
calls for placing text and corresponding images next to one another.
Layout and structure
8
Grouping can be achieved via the use of boxes, space or similar lightness, color
or orientation (Williams, 2000, p.1ff). Enclosures formed by lines or colored areas
can be helpful in establishing a visually separated group of elements. However,
when lines are used as separating elements, they should be visually secondary to
the text, and thick black lines should be avoided as they may provoke negative
mental associations (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.70).
As shown in a study including 16 different screen layouts, poor display design can
double the time users require to find information on a page (Parush, Nadir, &
Shtub, 1998). This difference in search time could largely be attributed to the
differences in grouping and alignment of related elements within the layouts
(Shneiderman & Plaisant, 2010, p.498). Steve Krug highlights the importance of
using grids to align elements on a page in order to keep the layout organized and
enable users to scan the contents in a short time (2013, p.58).
Figure 3: Two screen layouts which were shown to the participants in a study by Parush et al. (1998). The left layout, which sepeartes thematic areas of the
interface and includes consistent button and input field sizes, received the best quality rating. The right screen is an example for bad screen design due to
unorganized elements and inconsistent formatting.
(http://vip.cs.utsa.edu/classes/cs4393f2006/lectures/cs4393week7.html)
Layout and structure
9
2.2 Visual hierarchy
Establishing a visual hierarchy may help in communicating the relative importance
of individual elements (Malamed, n.d., n.p.) as well as their relationships (Krug,
2013, p.54). Effective layouts should save the user the work of trying to work out
this information for themselves (ibid, p. 55).
2.2.1 Hierarchy by graphical elements
One method to establish a visual hierarchy by using graphical elements is the
usage of tinted areas. These areas may be used to encompass larger screen areas
which are related to each other. However, color-filled areas tend to push into the
foreground and thus appear more prominent (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.68).
Colored areas as a visual design element in e-learning material may therefore be
used as a means to highlight information on which the course instructor wishes to
put extra emphasis on.
Other common graphical techniques include text alignment, visual grouping (see
2.1) or typographic variations (see chapter 3).
Figure 4: This example illustrates how the alignment of a heading can completely change the perception the elements’ relationships on a page. The first image
suggests that the elements on the left side are subjections of “Computer Books”, whereas the relationship is better presented if the heading is aligned to the right.
(Krug, 2013, p.54)
Layout and structure
10
2.2.2 Hierarchy by placement
Elements on top of the screen are perceived as more important than those in the
lower half, and items positioned on the left side tend to appear more relevant than
on the right side for left-to-right readers (Peters, 2013, p.97). The users’ gaze tends
to linger longer at the upper corners, the middle of the screen and the lower right
corner, which makes these areas well-suited for the placement of important or
recurring elements (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.66).
A concept which describes this viewing pattern is the Gutenberg Diagram. It is
used to show western reading behavior and illustrates four quadrants of the
screen. Designers of e-learning applications may take advantage of stronger focal
areas in the diagram to arrange elements in a didactically effective way. For
example, a call to action should ideally be placed in the terminal area to avoid
breaking the user experience at an earlier point (Andrade, n.d., n.p.).
Figure 5: The Gutenberg Diagram, developed by Edmund C. Arnold, illustrates the natural eye movement when viewing a page (Lacey, n.d., n.p.).
(http://www.dirigodev.com/blog/preview/design-rules-as-guide-visual-weight/)
Figure 6: This image shows an e-learning application in which navigational elements and content have been placed in strong areas, whereas decorative
elements are located in the weak lower right corner.
(http://www.essentialskillz.com/rospa/food-safety-level-1/)
Layout and structure
11
2.2.3 Hierarchy by knowledge
Additionally, designers should consider the users’ expectations when defining the
hierarchy of text and visual elements on a page (Krug, 2013, p.48). It has become
a convention for logos and titles to be placed in the top-left corner and navigation
at the left side or across the top screen (ibid), and adhering to these conventions
may improve usability in e-learning applications as well.
Designers can also take advantage of the users’ existing knowledge when
presenting visual hierarchies. As explained in chapter 1, the concept of mental
models is a key element in forming knowledge on a topic. Metaphors such as trees,
ladders or mountains can be used in instructional materials because we already
associate an order with these mental models (Peters, 2013, p.109). Thus, a visual
hierarchy is formed very quickly when content is structured using these shapes.
Figure 7: Even without captions, a visual hierarchy is present in the food pyramid because of an established mental top-down association.
(http://www.anders-gestalten.de/portfolio/fit-durch-den-tag/)
2.3 Consistency
As shown in Fig. 3, consistent formatting is useful in improving the user experience.
Consistent interfaces can decrease cognitive load because the amount of new
information, which has to be processed when viewing the screen, is reduced.
(Dirksen, 2013, p.209). Smith and Mosier’s guidelines for data display call, among
other characteristics, for standardized formats and colors as well as minimal
memory load on the user (Smith & Mosier, 1986, p.132ff.). Changing elements
during an e-learning course distracts and disengages the learner (Lozano &
Yacovelli, 2014, p.17), whereas consistent design allows the user to build a specific
mental model of the system (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.47).
Layout and structure
12
However, Steve Krug notes that “clarity trumps consistency” (2013, p.54),
emphasizing that even though navigational elements should ideally be placed at
the same positions, in some cases slight inconsistencies are acceptable if they
allow information to be presented in a clearer way. Too much consistency may
also possibly result in the users ignoring recurring elements such as info-boxes
(Dirksen, 2013, p.209). It may therefore be useful to incorporate techniques which
take advantage of pop-out detection (see chapter 1) into the visual design of e-
learning applications. This can be achieved by changes in size or color or marking
elements such as arrows; however, these highlighting techniques should be used
carefully to avoid visually overwhelming the user (Shneiderman & Plaisant, 2010,
p.64).
2.4 Simplification in e-learning
Another technique to minimize cognitive overload is the overall visual reduction of
e-learning interfaces, which supports the Gestalt principle of simplicity (see chapter
1). On displays with a minimalistic, reduced design, users are less likely to oversee
on-screen changes (Rakoczi et al., 2013, p.6). A learner may also feel intimidated
by too much information on a single page, and inserting white space to draw the
focus to a smaller number of relevant elements can have a calming effect
(Gutierrez, n.d., n.p.).
To keep the display as simple and free of clutter as possible, Dorian Peters
recommends the use of inline contextual actions, which respond to hover-
movements. (Peters, 2013, p.90). Designers may even take on a “presumed guilty
until proven innocent” approach (Krug, 2013, p.58), removing all elements which
do not directly contribute to the current task.
Not only is white space a useful tool to visually improve a screen layout, it is also
necessary around buttons and navigational elements to help avoid clicking
mistakes (Peters, 2013, p.216). This is especially relevant when designing for
mobile devices, on which these slips are more likely to occur.
Readability in e-learning applications
13
3 Readability in e-learning applications
When confronted with texts, users tend to scan information rather than read
(Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.104). Good readability in an e-learning course can
help readers recognize letter patterns (Peters, 2013, p. 94) and structure content,
therefore text should be formatted to support sucessful scanning (Krug, 2013,
p.47).
3.1 Typographic design for display reading
It has been established that we read on-screen text 20-30 % slower than printed
words (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.87), hence, special considerations need to be kept in
mind concerning the design of display texts in comparison to traditional print media.
To avoid overwhelming the learner with large amounts of information, it is
recommended to keep line length between 60 (ibid, p.89) and 80 (Racozki et al.,
2013, p.6) letters maximum. Wider text blocks require more lateral eye movements
and increase the difficulty of following lines, which increases fatigue (Kommer &
Mersin, 2002, p.173). Line spacing should increase with line length (ibid, p.175)
and allow easy scanning without any distracting eye movements (Ballstaedt, 1997,
p.89). The recommended line spacing for displays is 120-140 percent of the font
size (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.175).
Furthermore, large blocks of running text should be avoided (Ballstaedt, 1997,
p.89) to keep pages easy to scan. Current research also advises against using
excessive scrolling in e-learning courses as it tends to be strenuous for most users
(Racozki et al., 2013, p.6) and may potentially split attention (see chapter 2).
Headings can help learners decide which parts of a text are most important (Krug,
2013, p.54ff.) and improve memorialization (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.329).
Headings with introductory information on the lesson in a sub-heading can highlight
the important contents of an e-learning course because of their signalling function
(ibid). To ensure easy recognition, correct formatting with a clear distinction of
heading levels is essential.
Readability in e-learning applications
14
Figure 8: Comparison between two heading styles. The left style provides no clear visual hierarchy, whereas the order of importance is represented more
clearly in the right example.
(Krug, 2013, p.60)
3.2 Typefaces
In a study by Song et.al, participants perceived tasks which were presented in an
easy-to-read font as easier to perform, whereas those who read the instructions in
a handwritten font evaluated the task as being more difficult (Song, Uchida, &
Liwicki, 2011).
While Rakoczi et al. argue that using serif or sans-serif fonts has no significant
influence on readability (Rakoczi et al., 2013, p.6), Shneiderman & Plaisant and
Ballstaedt recommend sans-serif fonts in longer body texts for better display
reading (Shneiderman & Plaisant, 2010, p.205; Ballstaedt, 1997, p.92). If
designers choose to include serif fonts in longer text blocks, typefaces such as
Rockwell or Georgia are preferable due to their pronounced strokes and larger x-
height, which support readability (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.122). Contrasting
heavy vertical serifs and hairlines make the Cambria typeface especially suitable
for reading on smaller displays (Monotype, n.d., n.p.).
Readability in e-learning applications
15
Rockwell
Georgia
Cambria Figure 9: Simple slab serif font families such as Rockwell can be used in body
text. Microsoft has commissioned the Georgia and Cambria typefaces specifically for display and body text use. Kommer & Mersin recommend Georgia as the
best-suited serif font for low display resolutions (2002, p.158).
Up to three different fonts may be used to attract the user’s attention (Shneiderman
& Plaisant, 2010, p.64), however, ideally only two fonts from different font families
should be included in a screen design (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.92). Text formatting
should ideally remain unchanged throughout an e-learning lesson so as to avoid
compromising consistency (see chapter 2).
3.3 Text size
Different recommendations regarding minimum font size can be found in literature,
ranging from 10pt (Nielsen, 2002, n.p.) to 12pt (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.92; Kommer &
Mersin, 2002, p.119). Ultimately, the reading environment and user devices should
be kept in mind when choosing a font size for an e-learning course (Rakocz et al.,
2013, p.6). An increased font size can improve readability (Peters, 2013, p.94),
which is the main criteria for typographic design (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.116).
Color considerations
16
4 Color considerations
Color can provide many functions as a design element, including highlighting
important content, establishing contrast or a specific mood. Before content, users
perceive colors within seconds when viewing a page and quickly form an opinion
on the presented work (Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.207), which makes color a key
element in the visual design of e-learning courses.
4.1 Color psychology
Different hues evoke certain emotions, which in turn can influence cognitive
reactions (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.242ff). However, designers should bear in mind that
the meaning of a color can differ between cultures (Peters, 2013, p.82) and the
following guidelines may not apply to a broad international base of users.
Color Temperature effect Psychological mood
Blue cold calming
Green very cold/neutral very calming
Red warm very provocative
Orange very warm stimulating
Yellow very warm stimulating
Brown neutral stimulating
Violet cold aggressive, unsettling
Table 2. Emotions which are evoked by colors are influenced by the associated color temperature and mood (adapted from Ballstaedt, 1997, p.243).
Research has shown that the color red has positive effects on detail-oriented tasks
and recollection, but may impair creativity and imagination, which is enhanced by
blue color (Mehta & Zhu, 2009). It is recommended to use warm colors such as
red and yellow for pointing out key elements and warnings, whereas cool colors
should be used for courses which require the user to calm down or in which a
difficult subject is presented (Reddy, 2014, n.p.).
Color considerations
17
4.2 Guiding attention with color
Colors are an excellent tool for grouping information, as same-colored text or areas
are perceived as being related in accordance with the law of similarity found in
Gestalt theory (see chapter 1). Color-coding describes the assignment of
distinctive colors to different lesson materials and is an effective way of improving
memorialization as it supports cognitive functions such as searching, recognition
and grouping (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.246).
Dorian Peters names distinctiveness and consistency as the two key elements in
color-coding (2013, p.106), noting that the number of colors in a palette should be
limited to avoid including two colors which look too similar to each other (ibid).
Similarly, Shneiderman & Plaisant suggest limiting color palettes to seven colors
to avoid confusion (2010, p.511) and call for consistent color-coding throughout a
system (ibid, p.513). This recommendation is supported by the findings of a 2006
study in which changes in text color were found to attract the users’ attention more
than any other visual change within a GUI (Kempter & Ritter, 2006, p.54).
4.3 The importance of contrast
The interplay between colors and the contrast between visual elements is closely
linked to readability (see chapter 3). Studies have shown that significant contrast
enhances readability experience in text materials (Rakoczi et al., 2013, p.6).
Similar hues should not be used in a text-background combination (ibid) and a
clear contrast between text and background should be maintained (Krug, p.?) to
ensure readability.
Contrast is frequently used to induce a pop-out effect (see chapter 1), which
increases the efficiency of information uptake (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.247). As color is
an element users recognize unconsciously, cognitive workload can be decreased
significantly by highlighting important elements with distinctive colors (Peters,
2013, p.100).
Color considerations
18
Analogous color schemes with varying saturation can establish visual hierarchies
and procedural steps. Greater saturation implies greater quantity (Peters, 2013,
p.97) and final steps in procedural graphics (Jan, 2014, n.p.).
Figure 10: The decrease in saturation is analogous to the displayed values and supports the data hierarchy
(Peters, 2013, p.97)
Figure 11: Procedural steps can be presented with varying hues of a color.
(https://blog.edynco.com/instructional-design/how-colors-can-enhance-memory-
performance/)
On a final note, designers of e-learning applications should always keep
accessibility in mind when using color-coding in a screen design (Shneiderman &
Plaisant, 2010, p.26). Users with impaired eye-sight or related disabilities may not
be able to take advantage of colored visual cues, therefore literature recommends
the use of varying color intensities (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.244) or distinctive shapes
(Peters, 2013, p.107) in addition to color-coding.
Instructional images & graphics
19
5 Instructional images & graphics
As shown in a study by Paechter et al., a varied presentation of the subject matter
is one of the main motivational aspects for students using e-learning applications
(2006, p.121). Such a presentation oftentimes includes instructional images, the
functions of which mostly involve visual and spatial knowledge (Ballstaedt, 1997,
p.200) and the construction of mental models via the visualization of processes
(ibid, p.202). These facts suggest that visuals may have a beneficial effect on both
motivation as well as memorization of users who study via e-learning courses and
are therefore well-suited to support text in educational material. Visual elements
as part of the user interface (e.g. icons and navigational elements) which are
pleasing to the eye of the user can improve their evaluation of the system as a
whole (Preece et al., p.144).
5.1 Text-image interplay
While more experienced users may be able to create mental images based on text
alone, novices are more likely to require a graphic representation relating to words
(Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.83). It has been proven that the general content of simple,
distinct images, such as those suited for digital media, is recognizable in one
hundredth of a second because they are easier to process than text (Kommer &
Mersin, 2002, p.257). However, the interplay between text and images is crucial to
the learning process as well. Busch and Mayer have shown that images and
graphics which are unrelated to presented facts and function merely as motivation
tend to impair memory retention (2002, p.141ff.). Research involving decorative
graphics has come to similar conclusions (Dirksen, 2011, p.150).
5.1.1 Split-attention effect
In the visual design of e-learning courses, particular attention has to be paid to the
correct placement of relevant graphics near corresponding text. Mayer et al.
conducted a study in which two groups of learners were either shown a text which
was placed near the described illustration, or separated from it. The learners who
looked at the integrated presentation performed significantly better in subsequent
problem-solving tests (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.107). This decrease in cognitive
performance due to the separation of related visual sources such as text and
Instructional images & graphics
20
images is referred to as “split attention effect” (Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller,
1999).
Figure 12: The left image splits the viewer’s attention because it requires extra time to establish a link between the numbers and the corresponding description.
(http://www.elearning-psychologie.de/text_bild_integration_i.html)
In e-learning applications, corresponding text and graphics may become separated
by scrolling (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.96). Possible practices to avoid the
interruption of grouping by scrolling include the use of fixed screen displays or
mouse-hover activated pop-up boxes.
Figure 13: Informational text and corresponding graphic which have become separated in a scrolling area
(Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.96)
Instructional images & graphics
21
Ballstaedt supports the argument for placing related text and images together;
stressing that cognitive load increases if corresponding visuals are placed on
different pages or require long eye movements (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.250).
If a text and the corresponding image are aligned horizontally, the image should
be placed on the left side (ibid, p.251) in accordance with western reading patterns
(see chapter 2). As vertical eye movement is more strenuous than horizontal
movement (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.250), the latter may be didactically more efficient.
5.2 Icons and pictograms
Although the terms “icons” and “pictograms” are often used interchangeably, they
actually describe two different types of non-verbal communication elements. While
pictograms are used for guidance and instruction (Knapp, 2012, n.p.), icons are
not limited to instructional use and may also serve as interactive GUI elements in
multimedia applications (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.284).
Icons and pictograms are well-suited for conveying general ideas and instructions
(Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.265). Designers of e-learning courses can take
advantage of the users’ existing mental models, which are oftentimes shared
among cultures. In situations in which explaining the content via language would
be difficult or obstructed by language barriers, pictographic elements can provide
a way to quickly activate cognitive processes (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.271) regardless
of the users’ cultural background.
Ballstaedt describes three types of pictograms (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.272ff.):
Iconic pictograms are visual depictions of the represented concepts.
Symbolic pictograms provide a meaning which has been defined by
conventions and has been learned at some point in time.
Hybrid pictograms are combinations of the above.
Figure 14: From left to right: Iconic pictogram, symbolic pictogram, hybrid pictogram
(adapted from Ballstaedt, 1997, p.273ff.)
Instructional images & graphics
22
5.2.1 Fast recognition of icons and symbols
The visual design of icons as GUI elements calls for reduced graphics on a
relatively small space, which still have to be quickly and easily understood
(Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.290). As the goal of any e-learning application is to
convey information on a subject rather than on the function of specific GUI icons,
designers should rely on conventional icons, such as the floppy disk as a symbol
for “save” (ibid, p.291), to keep additional cognitive load at a minimum. To ensure
rapid visual recognition in addition to quick understanding, it is recommended to
use typical examples which appeal to the mental models of a broad audience, such
as apples for the iconic representation of fruits (Peters, 2013, p.103).
Symbolic pictograms require more previous knowledge, whereas iconic
pictograms are self-explanatory (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.275). In general, the user
should be able to recognize pictographic meanings with as little effort as possible.
Therefore, the size of the symbol should allow an interpretation which does not
require any additional eye movement (ibid).
5.2.2 Labelling icons
There is some debate over whether icons and pictograms should be labelled.
Ballstaedt recommends additional labels for cases in which no distinct symbol
exists for a pictogram and the label may function as an introduction to the icon
(1997, p.283). On the other hand, users who are unfamiliar with computer
conventions may require textual labels for icons as simple as “print” and “save”
(Kommer & Mersin, 2002, p.293). Along similar lines, Ben Shneiderman & Plaisant
suggests adapting the implementation of labels to the users’ knowledge
(Shneiderman & Plaisant, 2010, p.490).
5.3 Animated and interactive visuals
Interactive and animated visuals are an essential advantage e-learning provides
over traditional learning methods. It has been shown that learning was more
successful for people who watched animations than for those who looked at static
frames explaining the same content (Mayer et al., 2005).
Video sequences and animations can be useful in illustrating scientific simulations
or technical processes which would be difficult to describe in words (Weidenmann,
p.119). Watching instructional videos activates brain areas associated with actually
performing tasks (Peters, 2013, p.177), and is therefore more helpful than
Instructional images & graphics
23
explaining manual tasks with illustrations and text (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.86).
Explanatory text which is directly embedded into videos and animations may
potentially split attention (see 5.1.1); it is therefore recommended to use audio
narration in videos or present text beforehand (Peters, 2013, p.234).
A major drawback is the fact that these “active” media may inhibit active learning
because they do not encourage mental animation from the users themselves and
additionally may overwork the learner’s memory (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p.84).
Motion should therefore generally be used sparingly in e-learning applications to
avoid blindness by habituation (Johnson, 2013, p.5), meaning users may come to
ignore overly eye-catching elements such as animations on a page.
Conclusion
24
Conclusion
As the thesis shows, visual design and cognitive uptake of information are closely
linked. Although it happens on a subconscious level, attention and perception can
be enhanced using specific design techniques such as the pop-out effect and
chunking.
Several studies have shown that a reduction of cognitive load via the use of visual
design is possible and results in improved learning outcomes. If the method for
presenting information is adapted to target individual brain areas, the formation of
knowledge can be improved. In practice, specific design techniques involving
components such as layout and text formatting can be chosen so as to optimize
information uptake.
The importance of continuity and consistency in visual design has been highlighted
in several works of literature and thus can be regarded as a key element in
enhancing learning experience. Findings suggest that sudden changes within a
system tend to confuse users, which may interfere with learning. Furthermore, an
overall reduction of the visual design in e-learning applications may be helpful in
preserving learning capacity, as it keeps distractions at a minimum. In general,
established design guidelines apply to e-learning applications as well, although
designers may be advised to consider clarity and simplicity a priority in comparison
to aesthetic considerations.
The findings of this thesis can be used in the design of any e-learning application
and they are especially relevant in light of the growing importance of mobile e-
learning. As a greater variety of possible learning environments requires more
focus to ensure memorialization of the content, the necessity for visual design
which supports rather than distracts increases even more. This outlook suggests
that further research on optimal design guidelines for mobile learning applications
would be of interest.
25
References
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Busch, F., & Mayer, T. B. (2002). Der Online-Coach: Wie Trainer virtuelles Lernen optimal fördern können (1st ed.). Weinheim: Beltz.
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning (3 edition). San Francisco, Calif: Pfeiffer.
Dirksen, J. (2011). Design For How People Learn (1st edition). Berkeley, CA: New Riders.
Johnson, J. (2013). Designing with the Mind in Mind: Simple Guide to Understanding User Interface Design Guidelines. Elsevier.
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1999). Managing split-attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction. Applied Cognitive Psychology - APPL COGNITIVE PSYCHOL, 13(4), 351–371. http://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199908)13:43.0.CO;2-6
Kempter, G., & Ritter, W. (2006). Zunahme von Gedächtnis- und Aufmerksamsleistung durch Änderung von GUI-Elementen. In Usability im eLearning und eLearning Strategien. FH Vorarlberg: Forum Neue Medien.
Kommer, I., & Mersin, T. (2002). Typographie und Layout für digitale Medien. München: Hanser Fachbuch.
Krug, S. (2009). Don’t Make Me Think: A Common Sense Approach to Web Usability (2nd ed.). New Riders.
Krug, S. (2013). Don’t Make Me Think: A Common Sense Approach to Web Usability (3rd revised edition.). Berkeley, Calif.: New Riders.
Lozano, J.-C., & Yacovelli, S. (2014). 61 Tips for Making Learning Memorable with Graphics and Visual Design. The eLearning Guild.
Mehta, R., & Zhu, R. (Juliet). (2009). Blue or Red? Exploring the Effect of Color on Cognitive Task Performances. Science, 323(5918), 1226–1229. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1169144
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Peters, D. (2013). Interface Design for Learning: Design Strategies for Learning Experiences (1st ed.). Berkeley, Calif: New Riders.
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List of figures
Figure 1: The pop-out effect enhances efficient information processing. .............. 4
Figure 2: Visual examples of Gestalt principles .................................................... 5
Figure 3: Two screen layouts which were shown to the participants in a study by
Parush et al. (1998). The left layout, which sepeartes thematic areas of the
interface and includes consistent button and input field sizes, received the best
quality rating. The right screen is an example for bad screen design due to
unorganized elements and inconsistent formatting. ...................................... 8
Figure 4: This example illustrates how the alignment of a heading can completely
change the perception the elements’ relationships on a page. The first image
suggests that the elements on the left side are subjections of “Computer
Books”, whereas the relationship is better presented if the heading is aligned
to the right. ................................................................................................... 9
Figure 5: The Gutenberg Diagram, developed by Edmund C. Arnold, illustrates the
natural eye movement when viewing a page (Lacey, n.d., n.p.). ................. 10
Figure 6: This image shows an e-learning application in which navigational
elements and content have been placed in strong areas, whereas decorative
elements are located in the weak lower right corner. .................................. 10
Figure 7: Even without captions, a visual hierarchy is present in the food pyramid
because of an established mental top-down association............................. 11
Figure 8: Comparison between two heading styles. The left style provides no clear
visual hierarchy, whereas the order of importance is represented more clearly
in the right example. ................................................................................... 14
Figure 9: Simple slab serif font families such as Rockwell can be used in body text.
Microsoft has commissioned the Georgia and Cambria typefaces specifically
for display and body text use. Kommer & Mersin recommend Georgia as the
best-suited serif font for low display resolutions (2002, p.158). ................... 15
Figure 10: The decrease in saturation is analogous to the displayed values and
supports the data hierarchy ........................................................................ 18
Figure 11: Procedural steps can be presented with varying hues of a color. ...... 18
Figure 12: The left image splits the viewer’s attention because it requires extra time
to establish a link between the numbers and the corresponding description.
................................................................................................................... 20
29
Figure 13: Informational text and corresponding graphic which have been
separated in a scrolling area ....................................................................... 20
Figure 14: From left to right: Iconic pictogram, symbolic pictogram, hybrid
pictogram .................................................................................................... 21
30
List of tables
Table 1: Although definite guidelines do not exist (Ballstaedt, 1997, p.1), the
following chart gives suggestions on suitable methods of visual representation
in learning materials based on the five types of knowledge. .......................... 6
Table 2. Emotions which are evoked by colors are influenced by associated color
temperature and mood (adapted from Ballstaedt, 1997, p.243). ................. 16