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ost universities require pre-service teachers to take a tech-nology integration course that

shows how to use technology to design and enhance instruction. The course will normally include both training in technology skills and instruction on how to apply technology to the class-room in a meaningful way. Often, the culminating project for a software skills lesson is a technology product such as a web quest or an interactive PowerPoint designed for use as a learn-ing or productivity tool. The project is assessed by how well the student has demonstrated the technology skill and whether the product assists with or supplements existing instruction. However, while technology products created in these courses may meet skill and technology integration criteria, they are often difficult to use. In ad-dition, many times products created in technology integration courses do not look polished or professional. Even the most worthwhile technology-based curriculum enhancements will not be used if they do not appeal to the end user.

This article reports the result of an action research study that explored the need for visual literacy as an additional instructional input for students creat-ing technology integration solutions. The introduction of visual literacy concepts is useful in two ways. First, it raises visual considerations to the conscious consideration of students. Students who previously considered the visual design of their work as an “afterthought” become aware of the

importance of the visual aspect of their final products. Second, it provides ac-cess to practical, concrete visual design principles for students to apply to their work. In learning these principles, stu-dents become aware of visual design changes that will improve their work.

This paper is divided into four sec-tions that explore a specific case where visual literacy made a difference in the work products of a class. First, I discuss the foundations of visual literacy, the meanings of visual literacy, and the final operational definition of visual literacy used in the study. Second, I provide de-tails on the action research study pre-sented in this paper. Third, I report the results of the study. Finally, I conclude by making recommendations for other instructors who wish to integrate visual literacy into their instructional technol-ogy courses.

Visual LiteracyWithout those who foresaw the

importance of understanding and us-ing visuals to communicate, the study of visual literacy would surely have developed more slowly, if at all. Lida Cochran was one of the pioneers who championed the importance of visual literacy. Her work reminds us that visu-als are not an “add-on,” but an integral part of meaning making. Therefore, we must not only stress the addition of visuals in our students’ work, we must also provide our students with informa-tion about how and when to use visu-als.

During Lida Cochran’s notable ca-reer the definition of visual literacy was

Visual Literacy: The Missing Piece of YourTechnology Integration CourseBy Teri Sosa

Mnot static. Some defined visual literacy as a scientific process based on visual perception. Others defined it as a cog-nitive process; still others in aesthetic terms. These definitions were not so much contested or mutually exclusive, as malleable, changing, and evolving. In 1976, Lida Cochran wrote of the definition of “visual:”

Unanimity as to the mean-ing of “visual” is not only im-possible, but actually, unneces-sary. It can serve as a generic term which subsumes pictorial representation, or body lan-guage, or the sign language of the deaf, or any other iconic or arbitrary symbol system per-ceived through the eyes. “Vi-sual” focuses attention on the human modality for learning. I deplore the current emphasis on a “visual/verbal” dichoto-my. Words and picture serve complementary purposes. They provide different infor-mation, never exactly the same information about an object or an event. People convert this information into meanings, no meanings exactly alike for any two individuals (p. 2). As the term “visual” is evolving and

intuitive and has different meanings for different people so, too, “visual literacy” also may have a variety of meanings. Cochran (1976) continues:

Evidence of diversity in meanings for “visual literacy” was apparent at the 1976 Oko-boji Conference. Each delegate was asked to define visual lit-

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eracy. One group elected to analyze these definitions in an attempt to provide a compos-ite definition. The analysis of the 63 definitions revealed 53 different phases employed to define the adjective, “visual”. Meanings for the noun, “lit-eracy” were classified under three categories: 1. a group of competencies (40); 2. a process or method of teaching (11), and 3. a movement (8). All of which is very similar to the fa-bled blind men reporting that the elephant is like “a snake,” “a tree,” and “a wall”.

The blind mean [sic] were all “correct” in reporting on one aspect of the elephant. The responses of Okoboji del-egates demonstrate that “visual literacy” is being used to refer to three quite different types of things: human abilities, teach-ing strategies, and formal or informal promotion of an idea. This is a very interesting revela-tion. Three definitions (Oko-boji, 1976) of visual literacy are needed, because definitions are coined to fit popular inter-pretations. (p. 2-3)

These thoughts indicate some of the varied discourses present in the disci-pline of visual literacy. However, they do not address another aspect of visual literacy, the notion that use of visuals is mediated by the social context in which they appear. In 1980, Cochran, along with Younghouse, Sorflaten, and Molek pointed out that visual literacy is also a cultural phenomenon (p. 243), the result of social processes as well as individual processes.

Reflecting Cochran’s contribution (1976, 1980), most current definitions include both an understanding of the scientific, cognitive, and aesthetic com-ponents of visual literacy and a consid-eration of the social contexts in which visuals are presented. In addition, most definitions include some delineation of both the skills and abilities needed to generate meaningful visuals and those needed to interpret or “read” those vi-suals.

As Avgerinou and Ericson (1997) point out, teaching about visuals is one of the practical aspects of visual litera-cy (p. 286). As this study is about the benefits of teaching visual literacy to pre-service teacher education students, I have merged the flexible theoretical definition outlined above with practical field-oriented criteria. The resulting op-erational definition of visual literacy in-cludes recognition of the importance of use of visuals, knowledge of principles of page and screen layout, use of color and font, appropriate line spacing, and selection of applicable images based on intended message and social con-text and the ability to implement that knowledge. This definition is drawn from a practitioner’s point of view. I am addressing the part of visual literacy that includes the practical and concrete principles of the creation of visual me-dia, acknowledging that this is a small subsection of the discipline.

The Problem and the PlanIn the beginning of my second year

as an assistant professor, I was asked to redesign an undergraduate instruc-tional technology class for pre-service teachers. A long list of technology com-petencies was developed by a small de-partmental committee and I set about putting all the skills requested into a sixteen week undergraduate course. Be-cause I had previously taught a similar course, I had a good idea of what proj-ects and rubrics for the class would look like. There would be a newsletter proj-ect, a PowerPoint project (including video and sound), a grade book proj-ect, a web quest project, and a portfolio web page. Each project had a detailed list of requirements. I entered the first class anticipating great success.

What I did not anticipate was the students’ difficulty in creating easy to use, attractive technology products. Students could demonstrate mastery of skills such as word processing, use of PowerPoint, and web page coding. They were able to translate these skills into projects that enhanced instruction such as newsletters, multimedia presen-tations and web quests. However, con-fusing and inconsistent visual cues of class-created products often made navi-

gation difficult. In addition, products sometimes lacked the visual appeal that would make them attractive, leading students to note that their work didn’t “look good.”

Realizing that students had done everything they were asked to do, I recognized that the original course de-sign left out some important elements. Additional instruction was necessary if the work products were to improve. I decided to experiment with an action research approach that involved the fol-lowing steps:1. Students would be made aware of

the importance of carefully consid-ering the visual aspects of their work. This would be accomplished through a teaching technique that provided examples of work products that were visually effective and those that were not visually effective.

2. Students would then analyze their own work and the work of their peers for visual appeal and usability. This was purposely done before any “formal” instruction on visual de-sign. The idea was to help students see the need for formal instruction.

3. Students were presented with prin-ciples of visual design (as specified below).

4. Requirements for visual consider-ations, both in image selection and in visual design, were made part of the product delivery rubric.

5. Resulting work products were ana-lyzed and compared to pre-instruc-tion work products.

Principles of Visual DesignAs noted above, a practical applica-

tion of visual literacy is its use in the ed-ucational arena. In an increasingly visual society, just making students aware (as in points 1 and 2 above) that using visu-als as a conscious activity is important. However, students must also be pro-vided with tools in order to make visual choices that are appropriate and suit the product they are creating.

To address this issue, students were given instruction in visual design includ-ing principles of page and screen layout, use of color and font, appropriate spac-ing and use of appropriate images. Spe-cifically, we discussed the following.

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• Balancing of images and text on a page. Students learned both formal and informal balance of elements on a page.

• Use of fonts. Students learned the use of serif and sans serif fonts. They learned the conditions under which each type of font works best.

• Displays of word art (and other graphical text). We discussed when word art should be used and the ways that word art must be considered as an element in composition like other images.

• Color. Students learned to use color consistently and meaningfully, avoid-ing colors that did not provide pleas-ing aesthetic combinations (unless they were needed for emphasis).

• Selection of applicable images. Learn-ing the technical skill of inserting an image was a requirement, and often students would use the first image they encountered whether it was ap-plicable or not. Students were taught to look at the content of an image and decide whether it complement-ed and enhanced the text. They were also asked to analyze and understand the social context in which the image was created and in which it would be received to ensure that the image did not carry inadvertently offensive messages.

• Appropriate spacing. Students were often asked to step back from their work, blur their eyes and inspect their work for overall compositional analysis.

Design principles were taught using two popular design books, The Non-De-signers Design Book by Robin Williams and The Non-Designers Web Book by Robin Williams and John Tollett. Both books provide detailed discussions and examples of visual design principles. Students used checklists in The Non-Designers Web Book to practice iden-tifying “design that works.” I supple-mented these books with information about the social context and meanings of visuals and reflective analysis and peer critique of work products.

ResultsThe look and usability of post-in-

tervention work improved dramatically

when compared to pre-intervention work. Students receiving visual literacy instruction generated work that was more usable in the following ways:• Uniform screen designs allowed for

consistent logo and navigation place-ment. Screens looked the same and navigated the same. All navigation buttons remained the same through-out the product.

• Both screens and paper products were more readable because students attended to principles of print lay-out, eliminating multiple font de-signs, jarring text size changes, and gaps in text caused by text justifica-tion (known as rivers of white).

• Color cues were used effectively to help those navigating through spreadsheets and other non-image data.

• Graphs and charts had proper spac-ing and were therefore more read-able.

• Images were carefully chosen to en-hance the written message. Students attended both to the supplementary value of the image, and to its social meanings to present the “right” image.In addition, students receiving vi-

sual literacy instruction generated work that “looked better” in the following ways:• Both paper and screen-based technol-

ogy enhancements were less cluttered and confusing.

• Considerations of color were evident in the complementary color palettes that students chose.

• Images chosen by students were sized and placed appropriately, balancing the page or screen and improving the professionalism of the product.

• Other elements, such as text boxes, tables, and word art were also ar-ranged in more visually balanced ways on the page or screen.One additional interesting result

was a change in students’ attitude to-ward their work. As the visual literacy intervention helped students to pro-duce more professional and visually ap-pealing work, students displayed more pride in their work. Nowhere was this more evident than in our concluding web-based portfolio project. Students exchanged URLs for their portfolio web pages, sent the web addresses home

to their parents, and even put the port-folio URL on their resumes.

RecommendationsThe results of this study indicate

that visual literacy truly is the missing piece of many technology integration courses. Students in my courses pro-duced work that was more usable and more professional looking when they attended to visual design principles. However, there is benefit to intro-duction of visual literacy beyond the implementation of design principles. That benefit lies in teaching students to consciously attend to the visual as an important element in their work prod-ucts. It also teaches students to inspect visuals that are presented to them and to become critical consumers of materi-als containing visuals.

To this end, my recommendations include:• Add visual awareness activities to in-

structional technology courses.• Provide examples of well-composed

useful projects.• Provide explicit instruction in visual

design.• Give students references for additional

information on design of technology-based products.

• Provide examples of culturally appro-priate graphics and discuss the social meanings of selected images.

• Add specific visual requirements to project grading rubrics. Give these requirements equal weight to dem-onstration of technical skills and technology integration.

Concluding RemarksAs Lida Cochran (1976) noted more

than 30 years ago, we will not all agree on a precise definition of visual literacy. However, whatever boundaries we draw around the use of the visual in education today, we can all agree that understand-ing the use of visuals is important. In our current increasingly visual age, where enhanced digital images are easily cre-ated and even more easily used, students must be made aware of the power of the conscious use of the visual. Anything less denies them the preparation they need to be effective, knowledgeable, and re-sponsible teachers.

58 TechTrends • March/April 2009 Volume 53, Number

Teri Sosa teaches courses in Instructional Tech-nology at St. Joseph’s University in Philadelphia. She also teaches social foundations of educa-tion. Her main research interest is discover-ing ways to create empowering instruction for members of underserved populations. Prior to coming to St. Joseph’s University, Dr. Sosa co-ordinated graduate programs in Instructional Technology at Northern Illinois University. She is active in several professional organizations

and has served on the board of directors of the International Visual Literacy Association. Her background also includes seven years experience in K-12 environments as a technology coordina-tor and 17 years of experience as a computer programmer and software designer.

ReferencesAvgerinou, M., & Ericson, J. (1997). A review of

the concept of visual literacy. British Journal of Educational Technology, 28(4), 280-291

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Cochran, L. M. (1976). What is visual literacy? In Visual Literacy. Lamberski, R. J. (Ed.). AECT Research and Theory Division News-letter, V(3).

Cochran, L. M., Younghouse, P. C., Sorflaten, J. W., & Molek, R. A. (1980). Exploring ap-proaches to researching visual literacy. Edu-cational Communications and Technology Journal, 28(4), 243-266.