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Visual Media in Education: An InformalHistoryCarla Conrad FreemanPublished online: 04 Jan 2011.

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Visual Media in Education: An Informal History

by Carla Conrad Freeman

In his influential 1936 essay "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," the critic Walter Benjamin said that "In principle a work of art has always been reproducible. Man-made artifacts could always be imitated by men. Replicas were made by pupils in practice of their craft, by masters for diffusing their works, and, finally by third parties in the pursuit of gain. Mechanical reproduction of a work of art, however, represents something new."l

The visual resources profession as we know it today exists as a result of progress in the technology of mechanical reproduction combined with recognition of the visual image as an immediate and universal mode of communication. In the United States many of the largest and best-known slide and photograph collections document works of art, having been developed for use in departments of art history and professional fine arts programs. Art slide and photograph curators have also been responsible for much of the professional activity in the field during the past twenty years. In addition to the establishment of professional organizations and publica- tions, visual resources curators and librarians have made significant ad- vances in the selection, acquisition, production, conservation, classification, and automation of collections documenting the visual arts.

It is important to remember, however, that "visual resources" have not historically been limited to photographic media, nor to art programs exclu- sively. In order to view the phenomenal growth of visual collections in a broader perspective it is necessary to have some understanding of the conditions surrounding the introduction of new technologies, their per- ceived strengths and weaknesses, and their impact on museum and library service as well as on teaching. The following overview highlights some

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important developments in the use of visual media in education in the United States-not only in public schools and in higher education, but in the educational programs of museums and libraries as well. For more than a century, visual resources of various types have served the differing needs and goals of all of these institutions. By tracing their separate yet parallel lines of growth and development, we can gain a greater appreciation for the contributions made by our professional predecessors who were pioneers in the development of visual technology and the management of visual collec- tions.

I. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY TO WORLD WAR I

In Art in American Schools in the Nineteenth Century, Foster Wygant notes that "Through the colonial period and well into the nineteenth century, educa- tion, particularly secondary education, was for those who could afford it . . . the fight for publicly supported common elementary schools was not won until after mid-century, and compulsory attendance was not required by all states until 1918. Leading opinion was not agreed upon the need for universal education, or even for universal literacy, in the early days of the Republic."* Throughout much of the nineteenth century, public education in this country was frequently carried out in the "one-room schoolhouse" staffed by an itinerant teacher. The classroom was visually barren by today's standards, although an early textbook illustrated with woodcuts (the fa- mous New England Primer) was first printed in Boston in 1690 and continued to be used into the nineteenth century3 The curriculum was basically limited to reading, writing, and arithmetic, taught by the recitation method. The public schools were expected to serve a practical function, to equip citizens with certain skills; knowledge was not to be sought for its own sake. As a result, art education per se (which would almost surely have necessitated a greater use of visual examples) was almost nonexistent in this country before the middle of the nineteenth century. Art was eventually introduced into the curriculum in the form of instruction in drawing; but the type of drawing taught in the public schools at this time bore slight resem- blance to our contemporary concept of drawing as a means of creative self- expression. It was closer to what we know as "mechanical drawing," with an emphasis on accurate delineation of contour, line, and perspective. (Figure 1) It was seen as an adjunct to writing skills as well as a potential means of industrial employment. Reproductions of works of art did exist in the form of lithographs and engravings, but in general it was not considered neces- sary for elementary and secondary school students to have access to them.

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13. Draw a bowl. (fig. 12.)

Here is a semicircle ornamented with parallel fillets, and placed on a low pedestal.

14. Draw a rouy-dish or turenne. (fig. 13.) The body i formed of a half ellipse, surmounted by

a {ancy curve.

15. Draro a tea-pot. (fig. 14.)

Tlro principal part is a circle. the handle and nore fanciful.

Figure 1. A pagefrom The Eye and Hand; Being a Series of Practical Lessons in Drawing, for the Training of Those Important Organs: Adapted to the Use of Common Schools, by William B. Fowle [Louis Benjamin Fruncoeur1, Boston, Leml. N. Ide, 1849, p. 45. (Courtesy of the Fine Arts Library, Harvard University)

In addition, the average public school teacher at this time was simply not equipped by background or training to discuss the visual arts or to relate them to other areas of the curriculum.

By the 1830s, however, the first steps toward the invention of photography had already been taken in France and England. Photography was to have a major impact on the visual environment in American education. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century the development of new printing tech- niques, photographic processes, and manufacturing methods revolution- ized the production of educational materials. Illustrated texts were no longer scarce in the public schools and were now supplemented by a variety of charts, maps, pictures, and models, all of which were important visual resources in their time.

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In the 1870s, cooperation between museums and the public schools further enriched the learning environment. In New York State, for example, the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences prepared lantern slides and speci- mens for the use of classes visiting the museum. Such cooperative programs became increasingly successful, making the new visual materials available to schools which could not yet afford to acquire and maintain their own collections. After 1900 museums such as the Field Museum in Chicago and the American Museum of Natural History in New York City began to deliver nature study collections directly to the schools.

A number of public school systems established "educational museums" of their own in order to provide visual materials to the schools on a regular basis. In Missouri, the St. Louis Educational Museum was one such exam- ple; it acted as the first instructional media unit in a public school system, using a horse and wagon to make weekly deliveries of materials to the St. Louis schools. Among these teaching materials was the stereograph, a non- projected image with the illusion of being three-dimensional, produced by a dual-lensed camera and viewed through a stereoscope. Other materials provided by the St. Louis Educational Museum included nature specimens, charts, pictures, maps, models, art objects, photographs, and lantern slide^.^

Slides of various types have a long and distinguished history as educa- tional resources. The earliest lantern slides, dating from the seventeenth century, were hand-painted in either watercolor or oils. They were often elaborate and beautiful creations, generally larger in size (about 8 x 5") than their successor^.^ In the United States they were shown for instruction and entertainment quite early in the nineteenth century. In 1821, for example, the artist Charles Willson Peale attracted visitors to his Philadelphia Mu- seum by giving "Magic Lanthorn" exhibitions on Saturday night^.^

Photographic lantern slides were first produced in the middle of the nineteenth century; many different processes were experimented with in an effort to improve their quality, and an equally large number of innovations in projection equipment had appeared by the end of the century. (Figure 2) The 3%" x 4" size became the standard, and was still in use until well into the twentieth century. (Figure 3) Lantern slides became a very popular teaching resource in the public schools. The New York State Education Department, for example, was actively involved in loaning lantern slides to classrooms as early as 1880 through what was later to become the Division of Visual Instruction. Over 260,000 slides on history, geography, science, literature, and art had been accumulated by 191L7 Unfortunately much of this original collection was destroyed by fire; the collection was begun anew after that,

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Visual Media in Education 1331

Figure 2 . Various lantern-slide projectors in use at the end of the nineteenth century. ( F m Thomas Cnukiock l3qmnfh, The Book of the Lantern Kmda: Hazell, Watson, and Viney, 1899; ~ ' n t e d by A m Press, New Ymk, 1978) pp. 6-15.)

reaching a maximum of 90,000 slides before this service to schools was discontinued in 1939. The slides were later accessioned by the State Archives in Albany.

As might be expected, visual media were also enthusiastically adopted for use in higher education. The place of the lantern slide in newly develop- ing college and university art history courses has been thoroughly dis- cussed in a 1982 article by Howard B. Leight~n.~ Leighton states that by the time of the Civil War, six colleges in the United States had instituted courses dealing with the study of classical art and historical architecture. Teaching resources were still quite limited, however. Momentum was gained with the opening of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1870, and their introduction of public lectures two years later; in 1874, Charles Eliot Norton of Harvard began teaching his influential course in the "History of fine arts and their relation to literat~re."~ Although lantern slides had been used as a form of public entertainment in the United States since the early nineteenth century, they did not appear in art history lectures until the 1880s,1° when they were also in increasing demand by the public schools as noted above. It was

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Figure 3. The "Crystal Magic Lantern Slide," c. 1877. ( F m L. J. Marcy, The Sciopticon Manual (Phila- delphia: James A. Mwre, 1877), p. 143.)

during this decade that the first academic lantern slide libraries were established at Bryn Mawr, Cornell, Dartmouth, the University of Illinois, Princeton, and the University of Michigan.ll Lantern slides were undenia- bly cumbersome to produce during these early years; Leighton notes that under certain conditions, the required exposure time for a plate might be as long as two days.12 And although they were ideally suited for communicat- ing information about the visual arts, they were still not considered essential to the discipline. Norton himself did not use lantern slides to illustrate his lectures until 1896. l3

One of the earliest suppliers of lantern slides in the United States was Lorenzo J. Marcy, a Philadelphia optician. Marcy was also the inventor of the Sciopticon (Figure 4), which he called "a greatly improved form of magic lantern." Marcy's Sciopticon Manual, which went into its sixth edition in 1877,14 gives us a glimpse of the state of the art in visual resources at this time. It provides technical information, followed by lists of slides available for purchase and suggestions for "descriptive lectures" to accompany them.

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Figurr 4. Diagram of the Sciopticon, c. 1877. ( F m Marcy's Sciopticon Manual, p 30.)

Hundreds of slides were available, including historical, scientific, and travel slides, plus sentimental illustrations and "moral lessons." Marcy was also able to supply a number of painting and sculpture slides, including four slides depicting Cole's "Voyage of Life" series. The slides were relatively expensive for their time, ranging in price from about 504 to $2.50 apiece. Novelty slides were even more costly. "Dioramic painting" slides with moving figures were priced at $4.00; these actually consisted of two plates about a foot long, with a scene painted on one and figures on the other. Also available were "Dissolving Views," "Paintings with Revolving Motion," and "Paintings with Levers, giving Laughable Motion to the Figures." (Figure 5) Such innovations may not have exhibited the highest educational or aes- thetic qualities, but they undoubtedly livened up many a public lecture in the 1870s. During the 1880s and 1890s the choice of slides became much greater as the demand for high-quality teaching slides increased. The Met- ropolitan Museum of Art, for example, was an early source for photographs and transparencies.15

Public and academic libraries also began to acquire and organize large

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Figure 5. The koer slide, m i s t i n g of one d k and one fixed glass plate, giving the illusion of movement. (From Marcy's Scioptical Manual, p 55.)

numbers of visual materials during this time period. By around 1890, the Denver Public Library had established the first picture loan collection. Another large picture collection was developed at the Newark (New Jersey) Public Library; its first list of subject headings was published by the H. W. Wilson Company in 1910,16 to be followed by a number of later editions. The Library of Congress established a Department of Graphic Arts (a forerunner of the present Prints and Photographs Division) in 1897 to care for a collec- tion of 54,000 prints and other commercially available items.17 The New York State Library had accumulated 60,000 prints by 1906. Motion pictures also began to be produced and collected systematically; by 1910, when educational films were being introduced into the public schools, the Bell and Howell Film company had over 1200 silent and sound motion pictures in its film library. l8

This early period, then, was characterized by the development of more sophisticated visual materials, the increasing acceptance of these resources in primary, secondary, and post-secondary education, and their accelerated acquisition by schools, museums, and libraries.

11. BETWEEN WORLD WAR I A N D WORLD WAR I1

In the area of public education, several important developments in the use of visual media took place between 1918 and 1924. The first formal credit courses in visual instruction were offered for teachers at the college level; the first professional organizations, such as the Visual Instruction Association of America, were established; and the first professional journals devoted to visual instruction for the public school teacher (such as Reel and Slide,

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Moving Picture Age, Visual Education, and Visual Review) were introduced.19 It is evident that those who developed, distributed, and utilized visual media in the public schools were now taking themselves seriously as profes- sionals in an increasingly specialized field. A 1923 survey of fourteen city school systems revealed that slides were the most widely used media, and that well over 7% of the average budget was spent on slides added to the library.20 (Figure 6)

These developments in elementary and secondary education were paral- leled by increasing attention to visual materials in public and academic libraries, including the American Library Association's establishment of a Visual Methods Committee in the early 1920s. Articles by librarians work- ing with visual collections began to appear in the periodical literature. In 1919, Helen Gardner of the Ryerson Library, Art Institute of Chicago, wrote an article describing their circulating collection of 51,000 photographs, lantern slides and postcard^.^^ Ten years later, J. R. Patterson of the Chicago Public Library observed in "Lantern Slides and Stereographs in the Library" that "other visual aids have their advantages, but glass or film slides are forging rapidly to the front in elementary and high schools and in the

Figure 6 . The lantern-slide library of the Pittsburgh public school system, c . 1930. (From Harry C . McKown and Alvin B . Roberts, Audio-Visual Aids to Instruction (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1940), p. 330. Photo courtesy of Pittsburgh Public Schools, and Educational Screen.)

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colleges."22 In New York City there were at least a dozen suppliers of lantern slides for sale or loan by 192tiZ3 However, the lantern slide was destined to be phased out by new developments in the photographic industry during the next decade. The standard lantern slide was first succeeded by a 2x2" format which was easier to handle; but still more significant was the intro- duction of the Kodachrome three-color film process, which made the 35mm color slide less expensive to produce than a standard lantern slide. Betty Jo Irvine notes that this in turn led to the establishment of a large number of new slide collections between 1930 and 1960.24

Professional literature of the 1930s and 40s showed an increasing concern for the classification of visual materials. Many institutions based their classification schemes upon a system devised much earlier at the Metro- politan Museum of Art for cataloging its own slide and photograph collec- tion. In 1930, E. Louise Lucas of the Fogg Art Museum Library published an article entitled "The Classification and Care of Pictures and Slides," refer- ring to their collection as "the laboratory in which fine arts students work out their problems."25 A 1939 article on "The Fine Arts Picture Collection" by Elizabeth M. Fisher of the Art Institute of Chicago's Ryerson Library provided detailed information about accessioning, classification, and the establishment of authority files.26 In "The Photograph Collection and its Problems," published in 1942, Eleanor Mitchell noted the large number of classification schemes being used for visual materials, speculating that it might already be too late "to bring order out of the present chaos" by working toward a universal system.27 This issue is still a subject for discus- sion today, nearly fifty years later. Mitchell's article may also be one of the earliest to use the term "curator" rather than "librarian" in print to denote the caretaker of a visual collection. All of the articles cited above are good illustrations of the increased information sharing among visual resources professionals in the first half of the twentieth century.

Motion pictures were also being produced at an ever-increasing rate during this time period, resulting in the rapid growth of film libraries in the public schools. (Figure 7) Museum and public library film collections also grew as film became a subject for serious study. With the help of a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, the Museum of Modern Art established its Film Library in 1935. The Cleveland Public Library also started a major film collection in the early 1940s, as did the Library of C o n g r e s ~ . ~ ~

111. POST-WORLD WAR I1 TO THE PRESENT

The advent of World War I1 slowed the initial rapid growth of audiovisual services in primary and secondary education, but the postwar period saw

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Figure 7. The film library of the Pittsburgh public school system, c . 1930 (From Mckmn and Roberts, p. 330. Photo courtesy of Pittsburgh Public Schools, and Educational Screen.)

an increased awareness of the importance of such services and the need for specialized training programs and higher professional standards for audio- visual directors and educators. Specific recommendations for credential programs leading to professional certification were made as early as 1947, and the number of graduate programs in audiovisual education was increas- ing.29

During the 1950s the number of commercial suppliers of 35mm color slides grew as this format gained in popularity. In a 1959 article, Phyllis Reinhardt of Yale University emphasized the need for increased attention to the quality of images, giving guidelines for the selection and evaluation of purchased slides and prints. She also recommended the "proper establish- ment of art photograph and slide collections by professionals experienced in handling such materials," suggesting that training be at the level of a graduate library degree combined with a B.A. or M.A. in art history30 Just as the 1950s had brought increased educational opportunities for audio- visual personnel in public education, the 1960s were to see a growing awareness of the need for specialized training for art slide and photograph

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curators. Library schools did increase their nonprint course offerings during this time period, with several studies being undertaken in the 1950s and 60s to analyze their scope and content.31 However, these "audiovisual" or "me- dia" courses were generally oriented toward the cataloging of materials in sets and thus were of little use in the organization of collections consisting of thousands of slides needing individual and highly subject-specific classi- fication. Beginning in the late 1960s, art slide and photograph curators began to develop their own courses and workshops to provide the spe- cialized skills needed to manage the collections proliferating in art schools, colleges, and universities.

Several national library organizations formed sections to provide more support for their members working with visual materials. As mentioned earlier, the American Library Association was a leader in this regard, having formed a Visual Methods Committee in the early 1920s. In 1952 the Special Libraries Association established its Picture Division, which initiated its own journal, Picturescope, a year later. This publication dealt with picture collections in all disciplines. In addition, SLA devoted three issues (Septem- ber 1954, December 1956, and January 1965) of its journal Special Libraries entirely to the problems of picture libraries. The 1965 issue included articles about the training of picture librarians and about copyright issues. The Art Libraries Society of North America, established in 1972, organized a Visual Resources Special Interest Group in 1974.

The College Art Association of America took a strong interest in the quality of visual resources for the teaching of art history. In 1966, CAA published a study entitled The Visual Arts in Higher Education, prepared under a grant from the Ford Foundation. Included were statistics on the slide holdings and budgets of thirty institutions with art history programs, and a chapter called "The Inadequacy of Visual Aids" began: "Our inquiries revealed that the acquisition of good slides and photographs at a reasonable cost is or should be a major concern of all art department^."^^ The study went on to recommend the establishment of a non-profit center for the production and distribution of art history slides. Three years later, slide and photograph curators met with CAA on a nationwide basis for the first time, forming a liaison which was to be of major importance to the visual re- sources profession.

In public education, the emphasis on "audiovisual instruction" which had continued through the 1950s began to shift in the 60s toward the concept of "media centers," which integrated traditional school library materials with a variety of audiovisual resources and services. Media librarianship was taken more seriously as a specialization in the 1960s and 70s with the publication of Standards for School Media Programs in 1969, Guidelines for

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Audiovisual Materials and Services for Public Libraries in 1970, and enhanced cataloging support for non-profit materials in the 2nd edition of the Anglo- American Cataloging Rules published in 1978.

For art slide and photograph curators, the 1970s and 1980s brought major professional advances. These have been well documented in the literature of visual resources and art librarianship; the bibliography at the end of this issue provides numerous references which discuss these developments in detail, so they need only be summarized here. Some highlights have in- cluded the development of continuing education workshops and credit- bearing courses, the publication of professional journals and guides, the development of staffing standards and a "Statement on Professional Sta- tus," experimentation with networking projects, and the exploration of electronic media for rapid image access. Many collections grew to impres- sive proportions during this time period. By the 1980s, for example, there were 10,000 films in the Museum of Modern Art's Film Study Center, 600,000 photographic prints in the library of the International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House, 1.2 million slides and photographs in the Fine Arts Library at Harvard University, and 10 million items in the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. With visual collec- tions as vast as these, it comes as no surprise that the development of computer databases for information retrieval became a subject for serious research. In 1982 the Visual Resources Association was formed, giving direction to activity in all of these areas and encouraging communication among those working with visual collections of all kinds.

This brief historical survey makes it clear that the visual resources field has come a long way in the last century. However, the articles which follow will make it equally clear that a great deal of work remains to be done in the coming years. If our professional accomplishments are to be rewarded with the appropriate status and compensation, we need to work together to educate those administrators responsible for establishing visual resources positions and salaries. We must also continue current efforts to analyze our own progress as a profession, developing and maintaining high standards and providing opportunities for research, publication, and continuing edu- cation.

NOTES

1. Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," in Illuminations: Essays and Reflections (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), p. 218.

2. Foster Wygant, Art in American Schools in the Nineteenth Century (Cincinnati: Interwood Press, 1983), p. 5.

3. Encyclopedia Americana Vol. 20 (New York: Grolier, Inc., 1985), p. 166.

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4. Paul Saettler, A History of Instructional Technology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), pp. 91-92. 5. Thomas Craddock Hepworth, The Bwk of the Lantern (London: Hazell, Watson and Viney, 1899,

reprinted by Arno Press, New York, 1978), p. 97. 6. Charles Coleman Sellers, Charles Willson Peak (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969), p. 407. 7. "To Vivify the Past: Division of Instructional Materials at the State Archives," For The Record 2, No.

2 (Summer 1984) pp. 13-14. 8. Howard B. Leighton, "The Lantern Slide and Art History," History of Photography 8, No. 2 (April-

June 1984), pp. 107-118. 9. bid., p. 107. 10. Ibid., p. 108. 11. Wolfgang M. Freitag and Betty Jo Irvine, "Slides," in Nonprint Media in Academic Libraries, Pearce

Grove, ed. (Chicago: American Library Association, 1975), p. 102. 12. Leighton, op. cit., p. 108. 13. Ibid. 14. L. J. Marcy, The Scioptica Manual, Explaining Lantern Projections in General, and the Sciopticon

Apparatus in Particular, including Magic Lantern Attachments, Experiments, Novelties, Colored and Photo- Transparencies, Mechanical Movements, etc., 6th edition (Philadelphia: James A. Moore, 1877).

15. Leighton, op. at., p. 114. 16. NewarkPublic Library, ThePictureCollection Subject Headings (New York: H . W. Wilson Co., 1910.) 17. Mary Lethbridge and James McClung, "Library of Congress," in Encyclopedia of Library and

Information Science Vol. 15. (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1980), p. 80. 18. Saettler, op. cit., p. 100. 19. Ibid., pp. 119-124. 20. Ibid., p. 154. 21. Helen Gardner, "The Lending Collection of Slides of the Ryerson Library, Art Institute of

Chicago," Public Libraries 24 (1919), pp. 312-314. 22. J. R. Patterson, 'Lantern Slides and St-graphs in the Library," ALA Bulletin 23 (1929), pp. 366-67. 23. Leighton, op. cit., p. 115. 24. Betty Jo Irvine, Slide Libraries (Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1979), p. 25. 25. E. Louise Lucas, "The Classification and Care of Pictures and Slides," ALA Bulletin 24 (1930), pp.

382-85. 26. Elizabeth M. Fisher, "The Fine Arts Picture Collection," Library Journal, October 15, 1939, pp.

784-87. 27. Eleanor Mitchell, "The Photograph Collection and its Problems," College and Research Libraries

(March 1942), pp. 176-82. 28. Lethbridge and McClung, op. cit., p. 82. 29. Saettler, op. cit., p. 186. 30. Phyllis Reinhardt, "Photograph and Slide Collections in Art Libraries," Special Libraries 50

(March 1959), pp. 97-103. 31. Herman L. Totten and Martin L. Mitchell, "Scoue and Content of Non-Print Media Courses

Taught in Graduate Library Schools," in Expanding ~ e d i i Deidre Boyle, ed. (Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, i 9 m . D. 286.

32: .~ndrew Ritchie et al., The Visual Arts in Higher Education (New York: College Art Association, 1966), p. 42.

33. These statistics were taken from the Directory of Special Libraries and Information Centers, 9th edition, Brigitte T. Darney, ed. (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1985).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Irvine, Betty Jo. Slide Libraries. Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1979. Leighton, Howard 8. "The Lantern Slide and Art History." History of Photography 8, No. 2 (April-June

1984), pp. 107-118. Loucks-DiMatteo, Amy R. "The History of Media Librarianship: A Chronology," pp. 72-89 in Media

Librarianship, ed. by John W. Ellison. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers, 1985. Wygant, Foster. Art in American Schools in the Nineteenth Century. Cincinnati: Interwood Ress, 1983.

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