visualizin g prepared by: ralph hofmann, durham college

V I S U A L I Z I N G

P r e p a r e d B y :R a l p h H o f m a n n , D u r h a m C o l l e g e

2

C h a p t e r 1 :I n t r o d u c t i o n a n d

R e s e a r c h M a t e r i a l s

Media Enhanced PowerPoint Presentation

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd

L e c t u r e O v e r v i e w

• Introducing Psychology• The Origins of Psychology• The Science of Psychology• Research Methods• Getting the Most from Your Study of

Psychology

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 3

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o P s y c h o l o g y


1. Descr ibe seven key guidel ines for crit ical thinking .

2. Descr ibe how sc ient ifi c psychology d iff ers f rom pseudopsychologies.

3. Out l ine psychology’s four main goals .4. Ident i fy some of the d iverse

profess ional ro les that psychologists fi l l .

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S :

W h a t i s P s y c h o l o g y ?

• Psychology– Scientific study of behaviour and mental

process– Places high value on empirical evidence and

critical thinking• Pseudo Psychologies

– Claim to be scientific – No scientific support, empirical evidence or

scrutiny


C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g

• The ability to accurately analyze information and be able to draw rational, fact-based conclusions based on the empirical evidence provided

• Randolf A Smith (2002)– Outlined seven essential guidelines for critical

thinking


C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g G u i d e l i n e s

• Flexible and tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty– Scientific discovery is neither linear nor quick– Resist urge to neatly compartmentalize

• Can identify inherent biases and assumptions– Especially within ourselves

• Sceptical– Caution and suspicion when investigating claims – “how do you know”


C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g G u i d e l i n e s

• Separate fact from opinion– Empirical evidence – Avoid the argument by anecdote

• Do not oversimplify– Simple explanations may appealing but are

often too simple to be correct • Make logical inferences• Examine the available evidence


G o a l s o f P s y c h o l o g y

• Description– Tells what occurred

• Explanation– Tells why a behaviour or mental process occurred

• Prediction – Identify conditions under which future behaviours or

mental processes will occur

• Change – Apply knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour or to

bring about desired goals


S p e c i a l i z a t i o n

• Biopsychology or neuroscience• Clinical psychology• Cognitive psychology• Counselling psychology• Development psychology• Educational and school psychology


S p e c i a l i z a t i o n

• Experimental Psychology• Forensic psychology• Gender and/or cultural psychology• Health psychology• Industrial/organizational psychology• Social psychology


T h e O r i g i n s o f P s y c h o l o g y


1. Describe the diff erent perspectives represented by the early psychologists.

2. Identify a fundamental diff erence between the psychoanalytic and behaviourist perspectives .

3. Explain the central idea underlying the biopsychosocial model .


I n t e l l e c t u a l R o o t s

• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)– Acknowledged as the “father of psychology”– Introspection

• Monitoring and reporting our inner world or conscious experience

• Edward Titchener– Student of Wundt– Structuralism

• Sought to identify the basic building blocks of the mind or structures of the mind through introspection



• William James (1842-1910)– Strongly influenced by Darwin– Broadened the definition of psychology

• Functionalism– Study of how the mind functions to help humans

and other animals adapt to their environment– Expanded the scope of psychology to include

research on emotions and observable behaviours and psychological testing



• Sigmund Freud– Believed that behaviour was the result of

unconscious processes and unresolved past conflicts

• Psychoanalytic school– Based on belief that many psychological

problems are caused by conflict between acceptable and unacceptable motives

– Provided basis for psychoanalysis system of therapy



• John Watson (founder)– Rejected introspection and the notion that

unconscious forces influence behaviour• Ivan Pavlov

– Conditioning explains behaviour in terms of observable environment and observable response

• Behaviourist perspective– Emphasizes objective, observable environmental

influences on overt behaviour



• BF Skinner (1904-1990)– Convinced that

behaviourist approaches could be used to shape human and animal behaviour

– Used basic learning principles to shape human behaviour



• Humanist perspective (1950’s)– Stressed free will and self actualization– Influential theory of personality and form of

psychotherapy• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

– All individuals naturally strive to develop and move towards self actualization



• Cognitive perspective– Emphasizes thoughts, perception and

information processing– Study how we gather, encode and store

information• Neuroscientific or biopsychological

perspective– Examines behaviour through the lens of

genetics and biological processes



• Evolutionary perspective– Emphasizes natural selection, adaptation and

evolution of behaviour and mental processes• Sociocultural perspective

– Emphasizes social interactions and cultural determinants of behaviour and mental processes


B i o p s y c h o s o c i a l M o d e l

• Integrative, unifying theme• Views biological processes, psychological

factors and social forces as interrelated inseparable influences

• Complex behaviours and mental processes require complex explanations

• Most psychologists do not adhere to one single perspective


B i o p s y c h o s o c i a l M o d e l


T h e S c i e n c e o f P s y c h o l o g y


1. Compare the fundamenta l goa l s o f bas i c and appl ied research

2. Desc r ibe the sc ient ifi c method3. Iden t i fy how psycho log i s t s p ro tec t the r i gh ts

o f human and non -human research pa r t i c ipan ts and psycho the rapy c l i en ts

4. Exp la in why research w i th non -humans i s va luab le

5. Exp la in why plag iar ism i n unaccep tab le and e th i ca l l y w rong

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

R e s e a r c h

• Basic research– Conducted to advance scientific knowledge

rather than for practical application– Meets the first three goals of psychology

• Applied research– Research designed to solve real-world

problems– Meets the fourth goal of psychology


T h e S c i e n t i fi c M e t h o d

• Systematic orderly procedure for understanding and learning about the world

• Seven steps– Literature review– Operationally defined hypothesis– Research design– Statistical analysis– Peer-reviewed scientific journal– Theory


E t h i c a l G u i d e l i n e s

• Canadian Psychological Association– Largest professional organization of

psychologists in Canada• Four ethical principles

– Respect the dignity of all people– Provide responsible caring– Demonstrate integrity in relationships– Be responsible to society


R i g h t s o f H u m a n P a r t i c i p a n t s

• Informed consent– Participants prior agreement to take part in a

study after being told what to expect • Debriefing

• Informing participants after a study about the purpose of the study, the nature of the anticipated results and any deception used

• Research ethics board review– Required for any research conducted at a college,

university or other reputable institution


R i g h t s o f N o n - H u m a n P a r t i c i p a n t s

• Non-human research has made significant contributions to almost every area of psychology

• Canadian Council for Animal Care– Provides clear guidelines for the use of animals in

research, testing and teaching– Requires testing research against the three R’s

• Reduce the number of animals used• Replace animals with other types of research models• Refine experiments to reduce suffering and discomfort


R i g h t s o f P s y c h o t h e r a p y C l i e n t s

• Therapists must also maintain the highest of ethical standards and uphold their client’s trust

• All personal information confidential, released only to authorized persons with the client’s permission

• Balanced against the needs of society


P l a g i a r i s m

• In most academic and artistic arenas, published work is part of the individual’s intellectual property

• Must be credited or acknowledged• Plagiarism

– A form of academic dishonesty in which a person takes credit for the work or ideas of others


H e l p v e r s u s H a r m

• Psychology as a discipline has done a great deal to improve the quality of life

• It has also inadvertently harmed people– IQ tests have served many valid purposes– Also misused to legitimize racial and cultural

bigotry• Psychology is a discipline that is self-critical

and does attempt to undo harm


R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s


1. E x p l a i n w h y o n l y e x p e r i m e n t s c a n i d e n t i f y t h e c a u s e a n d e ff e c t u n d e r l y i n g p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o u r a n d m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s .

2. D i ff e r e n t i a t e t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e f r o m t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .

3. D e s c r i b e t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h .4. E x p l a i n h o w c o r r e l a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i d e n t i fi e s

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n v a r i a b l e s .5. E x p l a i n w h a t i s m e a n t b y t h e s t a t e m e n t “ c o r r e l a t i o n

i s n o t c a u s a t i o n . ”

6. I d e n t i f y s o m e i m p o r t a n t r e s e a r c h m e t h o d s u s e d i n

b i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s .



• Experimental research– Manipulation and control of variables

• Descriptive research– Naturalistic observation, surveys, case studies and

laboratory observation

• Correlational research– Statistical analyses of relationships between variables

• Biological research– Studies of the brain and other parts of the nervous

system


E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s e a r c h

• Determines cause and effect• Attempts to isolate and examine a single

factor’s effect on a particular behaviour• Independent variable (IV)

– Variable that is manipulated by the researcher to determine its effect on the dependent variable

• Dependent variable (DV)– A variable that is measured, it is affected by

manipulation of the independent variable


V a r i a b l e s


• Does TV increase aggression?

• Experimental group– Receives experimental

manipulation– Watch violent TV shows

• Control group – Treated same way but do not

receive the manipulation– Watch same amount of TV

but non-violent shows


S o u r c e s o f E r r o r

• Extraneous variables (time of day, lighting, age, sex, etc) must be held constant between groups

• Confounding variables– Nuisance variables that can affect the outcome

of the study and lead to erroneous conclusions– May be an unintentional response from the

experimenter


C o n t r o l l i n g f o r B i a s

• Bias– When the experimenter allows their beliefs and

expectations to influence participant responses• Controlling for bias

– Objective data collection methods– Blinding– Randomization – Participant anonymity


B l i n d i n g


R a n d o m i z a t i o n

• Sample bias– Sample of participants does not accurately

reflect the composition of the larger population• Random selection

– Everyone in the population of interest has an equal chance of being in the sample

• Random assignment – Everyone selected to be in the study has an

equal chance of being in either group


D e s c r i p t i v e R e s e a r c h

• Systematic and scientific observation of behaviour– Does not produce causal explanations– Most of the problems and safeguards associated

with experimental research still apply• Key types

– Naturalistic observation– Laboratory observation– Surveys– Case studies


N a t u r a l i s t i c O b s e r v a t i o n

• Researchers systematically measure and record subject’s behaviour

• No attempt to manipulate the environment


N a t u r a l i s t i c O b s e r v a t i o n

• Advantages– Researchers can obtain data about natural

behaviour as opposed to artificial reactions in an experimental setting

• Disadvantages– Difficult and time-consuming– Lack of controls


L a b o r a t o r y O b s e r v a t i o n

• Observation of behaviour in a controlled setting– Behaviour is

generally observed while hidden from view

– Much more controlled


S u r v e y s

• Measure a variety of behaviours• Advantages

– Can gather data from a large number of people• Disadvantages

– Most rely on self-reported data– Volunteer effect

• People who volunteer for a survey may not be representative of the greater population


C a s e S t u d i e s

• In-depth studies of a single research participant

• Done when it is difficult to find a population group to study

• Rare disorders or phenomena

• Limitations– Lack of generalizability– Inadvertent bias


C o r r e l a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h

• Determines what the degree of relationship is between two variables

• Measure participant responses on variables of interest

• Utilize statistical formula to determine the correlation coefficient– Strength of the relationship– Direction of the relationship


Ty p e s o f C o r r e l a t i o n

• Positive correlation– Two variables move or vary in the same

direction, either up or down• Negative correlation

– Two variables move or vary in the opposite direction, either up or down

• Zero correlation– No relationship between the two variables


Ty p e s o f C o r r e l a t i o n


C o r r e l a t i o n d o e s n o t m e a n C a u s a t i o n

• Correlational research– Helps us to make predictions about relative

risks and fosters more informed decisions– Allows people to live safer more productive lies

• Correlation does not mean that one variable causes another– Sometimes point to possible causes– Require more controlled research


B i o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h

• Studies the brain and other parts of the nervous system

• Development– Early dissections of the brains of cadavers and study on

other animals using lesioning techniques– By the mid nineteenth century, research had produced

a rudimentary map of the nervous system– Recent advances have led to a variety of brain imaging

techniques


To o l s f o r S t u d y i n g t h e B r a i n

• Brain dissection• Ablation or lesions• Observation and case

studies• Electrical recordings• Electrical stimulation of

the brain• CT scan

– Computed tomography

• PET scan– Positron emission

tomography

• MRI scan– Magnetic resonance

imaging

• fMRI– Functional MRI

• TMS– Transcranial magnetic

stimulationCopyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 55

To o l s f o r

S t u d y i ng t h e B r a i n


G e t t i n g t h e M o s t f r o m Y o u r S t u d y

o f P s y c h o l o g y


1. Desc r ibe the s teps you can take to read more accu ra te ly

2. Exp la in how v i sua l f ea tu res can enhance l ea rn ing

3. Examine you r cu rren t t ime management hab i t s and iden t i fy how you m igh t improve them

4. Exp la in the benefi ts o f d i s t r i bu ted s tudy and ove r lea rn ing

5. Summar i ze the g rade improvement and tes t -tak ing s t ra teg ies tha t you can use to ensu re success i n you r cou rses

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Te c h n i q u e s t o W o r k S m a r t e r

• Familiarization• Active reading• Visual learning• Time

management• Distributed study• Overlearning


F a m i l i a r i z a t i o n

• Step one is to familiarize yourself with the general text

• Look at the Preface, Table of Contents, Glossary and Subject Index

• Scan the book• Take note of the tables, figures,

photographs and special feature boxes


A c t i v e R e a d i n g

• SQ4R method of active reading– Survey– Question– Read– Recite– Review– Write


V i s u a l L e a r n i n g

• Our brains are highly tuned to visual as well as verbal cues

• Take advantage of the text’s visual features


T i m e M a n a g e m e n t

• Establish a baseline– Record your day-to-day activities before you

start for one to two weeks• Set up a realistic schedule

– Make a daily and weekly to-do list– Include all required tasks– Then create a daily schedule


T i m e M a n a g e m e n t

• Reward yourself– Give yourself immediate rewards for sticking

with your daily schedule• Maximize your time

– Minimize the time you spend “fretting and prepping”

– Focus on the actual study time– Take advantage of hidden opportunities


D i s t r i b u t e d S t u d y

• Spaced practice is a much more efficient way to study and learn

• Learn more from distributing your study over time

• As opposed to “cramming”


O v e r l e a r n i n g

• Work to understand new material more deeply

• Learn how key terms and concepts relate to each other

• Review material by visualizing the phenomena

• Rehearse what you have learned


I m p r o v i n g G r a d e s

• Take good notes– Depends on active listening– Write down key ideas and supporting

details/examples• Understand your professor

– Amount of time spent on various topics is usually a good indication of what the professor deems important


I m p r o v i n g G r a d e s

• General test taking– Read each multiple choice question and all

alternate answers carefully before answering• Skills courses

– Take additional study skills courses– Keyboarding, writing, etc

• Additional resources– Instructors, roommates, family, friends, etc


70

M u l t i m e d i a

Canadian Psychological AssociationHomepageAmerican Psychological AssociationHomepageAssociation for Psychological ScienceHomepageThe Critical Thinking CommunityHomepageSkepticExamining Extraordinary Claims & Promoting ScienceAbout Carl RogersCarl Rogers, the creator of client-centered therapy and counseling, student-centered education, and person-centered approaches to human relations and community building, is arguably the most influential American psychologist of the 20th century.Abraham MaslowAbraham Harold Maslow was born April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York.

Skepticism FAQWritten For the sci-skeptic NewsgroupSteps of the Scientific MindThe Scientific Method in Psychology ResearchModern AttitudesTwenty Science AttitudesMirror NeuronsWhy do sports fans feel so emotionally invested in the game, reacting almost as if they were part of the game themselves? According to provocative discoveries in brain imaging, inside our heads we constantly "act out" and imitate whatever activity we're observing. As this video reveals, our so-called "mirror neurons" help us understand the actions of others and prime us to imitate what we see.Psychology Museum & Research CenterExperimental Apparatus Gallery


Web Links

http://www.cpa.ca/

http://www.apa.org/

http://www.psychologicalscience.org/

http://www.criticalthinking.org/

http://www.skeptic.com/about_us/

http://www.carlrogers.info/aboutCarlRogers.html

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.html

http://skepticx.myweb.uga.edu/skepticism.html

http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/a/steps-of-scientific-method.htm

http://www.ksu.edu/biology/pob/modern_attitudes.html

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/mirror-neurons.html

http://psychology.okstate.edu/museum/ratus/index.html

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M u l t i m e d i a

Brain Reader Part 1They still can't read your thoughts just by looking at you, but researchers can now see what your brain is doing just by shining beams of light into your head. This ScienCentral News video explains.How MRI WorksIntroduction to How MRI WorksBrain ImagingBrain imaging methods allow neuroscientists to see inside the living brain. These methods help neuroscientists.ExploratoriumPeering inside the body.Nobelprize.orgMRITime Management Developing time management skills is a journey.

General Test PreparationTo do well on tests you must first learn the material,and then review it before the test.Effective Habits for Effective StudyYou can prepare yourself to succeed in your studies.American Classroom LearningCompared to classrooms in some countries, United States' classrooms tend to be informal.


Web Links

http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?language=english&type=&article_id=218392782

http://science.howstuffworks.com/mri.htm/printable

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/image.html

http://www.exploratorium.edu/exploring/bodies_mag/peering.html

http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/mri/index.html

http://www.studygs.net/timman.htm

http://www.studygs.net/tstprp1.htm

http://www.studygs.net/attmot4.htm

http://www.studygs.net/classrm.htm

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M u l t i m e d i a

Ancestry and Obesity (1:32)Why do African-American women have a higher risk of obesity, while European-American women have a higher risk of osteoporosis? As this ScienCentral News video reports, genetics researchers are attacking these questions through the touchy topic of race.Sex Cells (1:41)Reports of fertility researchers creating an embryo that was both male and female show the 25-year-old in vitro fertilization industry is still fertile ground for controversy. In this ScienCentral News video, the scientist behind the experiment explains why he did it.Pork on the Run (1:42)Are you a couch potato? If so, you might learn a lesson from some couch pigs.

Fool Your Stomach (1:31)As you sit down to turkey and everything else this Thanksgiving, you just might like to know there may soon be a way to fool your stomach into feeling like you just ate a big meal. As this ScienCentral News video reports, it's all thanks to a team of researchers and a natural hormone.Learning From Babies (1:48)Scientific researchers who use human subjects in their work rely on their ability to speak or write to find out what they want to know. But as this Sciencentral News video reports, researchers who learn from babies don’t have that luxury. Dog Personality (1:30)Do canines have character? As this ScienCentral News video reports, according to one psychologist, personality testing is going to the dogs.


Videos

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/ancestryandobesity.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/sexcells.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/porkontherun.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/foolstomach.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/learningbabies.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/dogpersonality.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/wiringbrain.html

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Student Drinking (1:13)There are new concerns about college students hitting the bottle instead of the books. As this ScienCentral News video reports, researchers say the problem could be bigger than previous studies indicated because the drinks are getting bigger. Watching Live Brains (1:33)For the first time, scientists can watch individual brain cells in living animals for long periods of time.Wiring the Brain (1:18)Interested in continuing education? Here's some good news. As this ScienCentral News video reports, brain researchers have uncovered one mechanism that controls how our brains make new connections.Imaging Antidepressant Accuracy (1:27)A simple one-hour brain scan could predict who will respond to an antidepressant and who will not.

Alzheimer’s Scans (1:28)A new 3-D time-lapse video technique is helping neuroscientists see the progression of Alzheimer’s disease in patients’ brains for the first time. As this ScienCentral News video reports, it will help in early diagnosis and intervention.


Videos

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/studentdrinking.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/studentdrinking.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/watchinglivebrains.html


http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/imagingantidepressant.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/alzheimerscans.html


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Enhancing MemoryImagine that you are going to an interview for an important position as a human relations psychologist.The Art of PredictionCraig: “I can’t believe I did so poorly on my midterm. How did you do?” Carrie: “Pretty well actually. I spent a lot of time studying in the past couple of months – I guess it helped.”Craig: “The prof said there was a correlation between hours students study and how we do on the exam… wish I’d paid more attention at the time. Hey, maybe I can get extra credit if I do a survey about studying. Will you help?”


Animations

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/cyberpsych/memory/memory.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/cyberpsych/correlation/correlation.html

75

C o p y r i g h t

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.


visualizin g prepared by: ralph hofmann, durham college

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