vol. xli: no. 2 2014 vol. 41: no. 2 2014 table 2. estimated number of olive ridley sea turtles...

Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP), BANGKOKFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Vol. XLI: No. 2 2014

Featuring

Vol. XXVIII: No. 2

REGIONAL OFFICEFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

TIGERPAPER is a quarterly news bulletindedicated to the exchange of informationrelating to wildlife and protected areamanagement for the Asia-Pacific Region.

ISSN 1014 - 2789

Address.

TIGERPAPERFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

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Tel: (662) 697-4000E-mail: [email protected]

Website: http://www.fao.org/asiapacific/rap/nre/links/tiger-paper/en/

Editor: Janice NaewboonnienAdvisor: P. Durst

Contents

TIGERPAPER is dependent upon your free and voluntarycontributions in the form of articles, news items, and announcements inthe field of wildlife and nature conservation in the region. In order tobetter serve the n eeds of our readers please write to us and send in theinformation you have or let us know if there is any information that youneed. We appreciate receiving your letters and make all efforts torespond.Front cover: A pair of Olive Ridleys mating under water, photographed offthe Odisha coast (Photo: Sumer Verma)Back cover: An Olive Ridley arribada at Rushikulya rookery showing femalesarriving at and leaving the nesting beach (Photo: Kartik Shanker )

The opinions expressed by thecontributing authors are notnecessarily those of FAO. Thedesignations employed and thepresentation of the material in theTIGERPAPER do not imply theexpression of any opinion on the partof FAO concerning the legal orconstitutional status of any country,territority or sea area, or thedelimitation of frontiers.

Forty years of Olive Ridley sea turtle conservation in Odisha, India - an outstanding conservation success story.............................................................................. 1A study of bird abundance and diversity in Udawattekele Forest Reserve, Kandy, Sri Lanka.................................... 7Critically endangered wildlife species in ex-situ conditions - management practices in Bangladesh................................ 12Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban: an insight into blood honey.............................. 19Recent confirmed record of existence of smooth-coated otter in Rajaji National Park, north-west India................... 25No special ingrediants in tiger bone wine: implications for wild tiger conservation and public education...................... 30

PNG tackles the ‘3R Challenge’ of logging code implementation............................................................... 1Training senior forest policymakers in Asia and the Pacific... 7When facing apocalypse...plant a tree................................. 8International Conference on “Insects to feed the World”...... 10Forests Asia Summit.......................................................... 11Forestry strategic planning in the Asia-Pacific region............ 13Vietnam is newest partner country of Forest and Farm Facility (FFF) in Asia...................................................... 14Strengthening the environment, forestry and climate change capacities....................................................................... 15Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips..................................16FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar................................... 16

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FORTY YEARS OF OLIVE RIDLEY SEA TURTLECONSERVATON IN ODISHA, INDIA - AN OUTSTANDINGCONSERVATION SUCCESS STORY

by H. Robert Bustard

In 1974, during the course of an FAO consultancyto the Government of India, I visited the stateadjoining the Bay of Bengal then known as Orissa(in 2012 the name of the State was changed toOdisha). To avoid confusion hereafter I haveadopted the new name throughout). In my report(FAO, 1974) I noted the very large sea turtlerookeries contiguous to the coastal estuarinecrocodile habitat. I identified the turtle species asLepidochelys olivacea - the Olive Ridley. Myadvice was sought by the Odisha authoritiesconcerning their management.

At that time these turtles, nesting on a beach knownas Gahirmatha, were being commercially exploited

for their eggs. In 1973, fifteen boatloads of eggswith each boat estimated to hold up to 1 lakh(100,000) of eggs making a total of 15 lakh (1.5million) eggs were taken for sale mostly in Calcutta.The State Royalty was Rs 15/- per boatload, whichwas then £1 or approx US $2.00. The local villagersgot nothing except food in season from this resource.Furthermore, there was no control on the actuallevel of egg take, which might have been over-exploiting the resource. This latter point is important,as once permission to take eggs was granted, therewas no check on the actual numbers of eggscollected. Furthermore, the authorities were of theopinion that most likely the total egg take was atleast twice the recorded take.

First arrivals of an Olive Ridley arribada at Gahirmatha rookery. (Photo: Wildlife Wing, Odisha ForestDepartment)

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The Government of India, having accepted myreport, invited me to return to implement a projecton conservation of the gharial and India’s othercrocodile species and I returned in early 1975.Concerning the Olive Ridley rookery, I advisedthe Forest Department, Government of Odisha(wildlife in India comes under forestry) that:

1. They should stop the sale of eggs.2. They should protect this huge rookery.3. A mark-recapture programme should be

initiated on this population using the standardmodel metal tags applied to the trailing edgeof a front flipper in order to start scientificstudy of this population.

The Forest Department accepted all threeproposals.

Two years previously, the Government of Indiahad enacted the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972. Nothing was known about the status ofsea turtles in India at that time so they were notincluded under the Act. This meant that peoplecould and did exploit olive ridley and other seaturtles and large numbers were taken annuallyboth on the high seas and on the beaches for food.Mostly these were to supply the Kolkatta marketwhere turtle meat was highly prized.

“The recommendations of the Indian Board forWildlife in 1969 (as a result of the discovery ofthe Gahirmatha olive ridley rookery) and Bustard(1976) culminated in the 1976 inclusion of all fivespecies of sea turtles that occur in India inSchedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife (Protection )Act,1972.” (Sharma, 2006)

Legislation then had to be framed by the StateGovernment to bring the Act, as modified, intoforce in Odisha. It then took - as always - sometime to bring in adequate enforcement and givepeople time to learn about the changed status ofsea turtles. So, the harvest of wild turtles, at leaston the high seas, continued to varying degreesuntil the early 1980s. Since then there has beenno commercial utilisation of sea turtles in India.

I had reported on this Pacific Ridley rookery -very significant on a world basis due to itsenormous size - in Tigerpaper (1976).

Now, 40 years after my initial involvement withthis very important sea turtle project I would liketo briefly report on what has happened. Theachievements have far exceeded my greatestexpectations. In a world where we areaccustomed to reading about huge conservationproblems, it gives me great pleasure to report onan important ongoing success story.

These successes have been achieved by theOdisha Forest Department despite manydifficulties in implementing a project of this sizeand scope, particularly when the turtles spend mostof the year on the high seas where adequatemonitoring and protection is problematic. That thesuccess described below has been achieved in theface of these difficulties is a great tribute to theOdisha Forest Department, which has had the fullco-operation of the Fisheries Department as setout later in this paper.

In 1976, a Research Scholar (CS Kar) wasappointed to study this sea turtle population undermy guidance, and a tagging programme wasstarted. This indicated a re-nesting at Gahirmathathe following year by approximately 24% of themarked population (Bustard & Kar, 1981).

Concurrently with this, protection staff wereposted to guard the Gahirmatha nesting sitesduring the extended nesting season which runsfrom December to April. A much more complexsituation was to protect these turtles when theywere at sea for the bulk of the year. Here one hasto bear in mind that the Forest Department is aland-based department.

Over the years there has been an enormous build-up in mechanised trawlers. Whereas 40 years agomost fishing was done by traditional means whichdid not impinge on the turtles, modern trawlerswith their long trawls and extensive nets have hada major impact on sea turtles worldwide. Offshorethe nesting rookeries in Odisha many are capturedand drowned in the nets or clubbed to death tosave the nets. This has resulted in large numbers- some thousands each year - being washed upon the beaches and has caused wide criticism inthe Indian media. Non-government organizations(NGO’s) have also taken up the cause. In somecases this has raised welcome awareness and

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some have become actively involved in turtleconservation. However, NGO’s do not haveimplementary responsibility, which rests with theForest Department, and as I frequently say inOdisha and elsewhere “when you do anything,you are open to criticism.”

The problem of ‘bycatch’ of washed up deadturtles has been a result of the enormous size ofthe Odisha ridley rookeries. “The Olive Ridley seaturtle population of Orissa represents about fiftypercent of the world population (of this species)of Ridleys.” (Sharma, 2011) An important point isthat it is not the actual number of turtles killed

that is important but the percentage of the totalfemale breeding population (about two-thirds ofthe turtles drowned in nets are females). While itis certainly true in terms of the turtles’ populationecology, it is difficult to get this across to the mediaand people naturally deplore the numbers of deadturtles. Turtles are killed by two kinds of nets -trawls and gill nets. A turtle excluder, modified forIndian conditions, where a mixed catch of shrimpsand fish is usual, has been developed and its useis mandatory. However, many trawler crews thinkit reduces their catch and so are unwilling to useit. Furthermore, the majority of turtle deaths arecaused by gill nets.


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Table 1 : Annual number of deaths of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles due to fishing activities along the Odisha coast from 2001-02 to 2012-13. Odisha Forest Department, ( 2011), updated with unpublished data for subsequent years courtesy of the Odisha Forest Department). ___________________________________________________________________________ Year Number of deaths ___________________________________________________________________________ 2001-02 12,977 2002-03 10,086 2003-04 4,981 2004-05 3,227 2005-06 3,242 2006-07 4,046 2007-08 5,763 2008-09 5,680 2009-10 5,003 20010-11 3,373 2011-12 2,382 2012-13 2,712 ___________________________________________________________________________

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Table 2. Estimated number of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles nesting at the two main rookeries on the Odisha coast during the October-May arribada nesting seasons from 2001-02 to 2012-13. Odisha Forest Department (2011), updated with unpublished data for subsequent years courtesy of the Odisha Forest Department. _________________________________________________________________________ Year Gahirmatha rookery Rushikulya rookery Total (Dhamara river mouth) (Rushikulya river mouth) __________________________________________________________________________ 2001-02 no arribada 35,000 35,000 2002-03 73,000 208,000 281,000 2003-04 243,000 201,000 440,000 2004-05 234,000 89,000 323,000 2005-06 267,000 198,000 465,000 2006-07 146,000 no arribada 146,000 2007-08 no arribada 180,000 180,000 2008-09 167,000 261,000 428,000 2009-10 357,000 156,000 513,000 2010-11 472,000 252,000 724,000 2011-12 168.000 406,000 574,000 2012-13 401,000 288,000 689,000 __________________________________________________________________________ It is important to point out that the number of turtlesbeing drowned has decreased by over 60% overrecent years. The mean number reported deadalong the entire Odisha coastline for the years2001-02 and 2002-03 was 11,542/year. Thiscompares with a mean of 4451/year for the eightyears from 2003-04 to 2010-11 . These numbershave to be viewed against the mean number ofnesting females for the same eight-year period of417,500. Hence, the death percentage averaged1.0 % of the breeding female population. This lowlevel of loss is well within the recruitment level ofthe population. Indeed, as the impressive growthin the size of the population over the same periodshows (see below), this low level of loss of breedingfemales is not significant in terms of the viabilityof this population and has not prevented thepopulation from increasing steadily - and

spectacularly - up to the latest data for the year2012/13 (Table 2) The deaths recorded abovedecreased again in the years 2011-12 and 2012-13 to an annual average of 2,587 - a markedreduction from a decade before (see above andTable 1).

A number of very positive actions have been takenby the State Forest Department, with the fullestco-operation of the State Fisheries Department.Gahirmatha had been included in the BhitarkanikaWildlife Sanctuary, which was set up in 1975following my recommendations, to protect one ofonly two remaining estuarine crocodile populationson mainland India, together with the associatedmangrove ecosystem. In 1997, Gahirmatha wasnotified as Gahirmatha Wildlife Sanctuary by theForest & Environment Department, encompassing

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1,435 km2, of which 1,408 km2 was sea and 27km2 was land (nesting) area encompassing thenesting islands in the mouth of the Dhamara river.The Fisheries Department prohibited fishing withina seaward radius of 20 km from the Gahirmathaarea of the Sanctuary and this ban has beenrenewed annually. In 2004, the FisheriesDepartment notified a further ban further southfor a similar distance from the shore to protect alarge rookery at the mouth of the Rushikulya riverto come into force from 2005 for five months fromJanuary to May, which was also renewed annually.

In 2005, this initial ban was amended to cover theperiod from l November to 31 May by allowingpeople engaged in fishing using traditional non-motorised fishing crafts such as catamarans,country crafts and canoes to fish in the protectedzone since these do not constitute a serious threatto the turtles. Importantly, the same notificationprohibited ‘the use of fishing gear made byseine nets (ring nets) along the entire coastthroughout the year.’ The same year someForest Officers were appointed as ‘AuthorisedOfficers’ to check fishing activities which havebeen prohibited within the seaward radius of 20km from Gahirmatha Beach in the Sanctuary. Thisbrief summary shows that the FisheriesDepartment was also fully engaged in bothprotective legislation and also in practicalenforcement, and where they had no peopleavailable they deputed Forest Department officersto act on their behalf.

The problem remained one of implementation onthe high seas. At various times the Indian Navyand the Coastguard service have also participated.A Turtle Excluder Device (TED) has also beendeveloped (see Kar, 2011, plates 21 and 22 andtext for details and also this publication for moredetailed accounts of ongoing conservation work).

Furthermore, a High Level Committee has beenconstituted by the State Government under theChairmanship of the Chief Secretary Odisha forreviewing all sea turtle protection and conservationas well as other related activities for coordinatingbetween various Departments and the IndianCoastguard.

The nesting grounds are subject to great changesas a result of cyclonic activity in the Bay of Bengaland the arribadas move between two main areas.Accordingly the data are presented separately foreach nesting area and then grouped to give thetotals for each nesting season. The detailedmethodology used for estimating the totals is givenin Kar (2011).

We can now assess these achievements in thelight of long-term census figures covering the 12years from the 2001-2002 nesting season throughto 2012-13 (the 2013-14 nesting season is inprogress as I write this in March 2014). The twelveyears showing a marked reduction in - but stillsubstantial numbers of - dead turtles is given inTable 1. In view of the difficulties set out aboveand the enormous numbers of turtles congregatingoff the nesting beaches, these results have to beseen as very positive.

The results for the size of the nesting turtlespopulation over the same twelve-year period showa strongly rising trend, indicating that theconservation activities are succeeding. Thetwelve-year mean is 410,000 nesting femaleturtles. It should be noted that the highest numbersof nesting turtles have all been recorded in thelast four years. The mean for the last four yearsis 625,000 nesting turtles, which is 215,000 greaterthan the mean for the previous eight years.Although variations between years is a normalfeature of such nesting activity this huge increasein numbers demonstrates beyond any doubt thesuccess of the conservation work of the State ofOdisha supported by the Government of India andled by the Odisha Forest Department.

A second huge plus resulting from this work hasbeen a massive upsurge in research efforts on allIndian sea turtles over this 40-year period,culminating in an excellent book co-edited byanother of my former Research Scholars BCChoudhury (Shanker & Choudhury, 2006), whichincludes some 30 papers on sea turtle biology andconservation, including many in which he is anauthor.

Finally, it is also gratifying that work carried outby FAO in 1974 which highlighted this - theworld’s largest Pacific Ridley rookery and which


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has had FAO/UNDP support over many years -has had such a successful long-term conservationoutcome. This too, at a time when sea turtles areunder ever increasing threats in virtually all areasof the world, and most reports are of drasticallyreduced breeding aggregations.

The future

Future threats will result from the rapidindustrialisation of Odisha with many portsrecently constructed or planned along the state’s480 km coastline fronting onto the Bay of Bengal.Dhamara port, for instance, is within 10 km of theGahirmatha rookery. How these ports impact onthese rookeries of world importance remains tobe seen and hopefully their effects can bemigitated as far as possible.

Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure to acknowledge theconservation activities over 40 years by boththe State Government of Odisha and theGovernment of India dedicated to these turtlerookeries. Without the dedication of manyOdisha Forest Officers over many years thisproject could never have been undertaken andpursued over the last forty years. I would alsolike to acknowledge my former Ph.D. scholarsDrs Sudhakar Kar and L.A.K. Singh and B.C.Choudhury for their assistance and my wifeGwen for reading the Ms. Finally I would liketo thank FAO/UNDP for their veryconsiderable help in the early years of theimplementation of this project when I lived inIndia as their Chief Technical Adviser.

References

Bustard, H.R. 1976. World’s largest sea turtlerookery? Tigerpaper 3(3):25.

Bustard, H.R. & C.S. Kar. 1981. Annual nestingof the Pacific Ridley sea turtle(Lepidochelys olivacea) in Orissa, India.British J. Herpetology 6L:139.

FAO. 1974. A preliminary survey of theprospects for crocodile farming (based onthe work of H.R. Bustard). Rome. FAO.50pp.

Kar, C.S. 2011. Sea Turtle Conservation inOrissa during the third millennium. ForestDepartment. Government of Orissa. 2011

Shanker, K. & B.C. Choudhury 2006. Eds. Marineturtles of the IndianSubcontinent.Universities Press (India)Private Ltd. Hyderabad.

Sharma, J.D. 2011. In: Sea Turtle Conservationin Orissa during the third millennium.Forest Department. Government of Orissa.2011. p. iii.

Sharma, S.C. 2006. Background and Scope ofthe GOI-UNDP Sea Turtle Project. In:Marine Turtles of the Indian Subcontinent.3: 22. Eds K. Shanker & B.C. Choudhury.Universities Press (India) Private Ltd.Hyderabad.

Dr. H. Robert Bustard resided in India for eightyears as Chief Technical Adviser from FAO/UNDP to the Government of India and wasdeputed to the Forest Departments of thosestates of the Indian Union which requested histechnical assistance. A key factor of his inputwas to guide selected Masters students throughconservation-relevant Ph.Ds in order to leavea sound level of scientific expertise behindafter he departed. He took on a total of 7Research Scholars, all of whom were paid astipend from their respective Forest Depart-ments and - most importantly - were guaran-teed a post within their Department on comple-tion of their doctorates. His address is: AirlieBrae, ALYTH Perthshire PH11 8AX ScotlandU.K.; E-mail: [email protected]

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A STUDY OF BIRD ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY INUDAWATTEKELE FOREST RESERVE, KANDY, SRI LANKA

by Gajaba Ellepola

Introduction

The uniqueness of Udawattakele is that, unlikemost other natural forests, it is man-made. Up tothe 19th century this was a virgin forest. Udawatta-kele Forest Reserve is a tract of rainforest inKandy town, rich in bird species, including fewendemics such as Layard’s Parakeet, Sri LankaHanging Parrot, Yellow-fronted and Crimson-fronted Barbets, Brown-capped Babbler, GreaterFlameback, Brown Fish Owl and White-rumpedShama. Between October and April, manymigrants visit the isle from as far away as Siberia.Another noteworthy feature is the presence ofmixed-species flocks, which makes birding botheasy and interesting, since one can carefully studythe interactions between different species(Caldera 2002).

Many types of habitats associated with the foreststructure can be identified in this forest. The lossof structural components of old growth forests,such as large canopy trees, logs and snags, isaffecting the populations of many species thatdepend on these habitat elements (Raphael andWhite, 1984; Patton, 1992; Newton, 1994; Berget al., 1994). Therefore, identification of criticalstructural elements and their relationships to birdspecies richness and abundance is clearlyimportant for conservation and forest management(Walters, 1991; Patton, 1992; Miller and Marion,1995; Franklin et al., 1997).

Objectives of the study:1. To observe the bird diversity in Udawattakele.2. To observe the feeding guilds of birds inUdawattakele.

Materials and methods

Observations were done using a pair of 8 x 42Nikon - Monarch - ATB Binoculars. Data were

recorded on data recording sheets andidentification of birds was based on Harrison(1999) and Kotagama and Fernando (1994).

The study site at Udawattakele is situated atlatitude 27° 30' 0" N, longitude 83° 27' 0" E in thecentral hill capital of Sri lanka. The study wasconducted on 26/03/2011 from 6.30a.m to10.30a.m. It was a bit humid and misty in themorning when the study started, and it was sunnyand hot towards the latter part of study.Udawattakele forest reserve is comprised of allthe strata in a wet forest with few exceptions.Only a few emergents were seen; canopy andthe sub-canopy were prominent; the understorywas disturbed by an alien invasive plant speciesand shrub layer, understorey, and undergrowthwere comprised of only a few plants. The forestfloor contained many fallen leaves, logs, litter andthe soil contained a small amount of moisture.

A line transect integrated with the point countmethod was used for the study. While walkingalong a circular path, birds were observed on bothsides of the road. At some places the point countmethod was used. The birds were identified usingthe bird guides, and their abundance, habitats andbehaviours were noted.

Results

Twenty-three species belonging to 20 genera wereidentified and among them 5 endemic species werefound. Most were canopy and sub-canopy species.Most were associated around the aquatic habitatwhere food was abundant. The majority werefrugivorous and insectivorous but some generalistswere also present.

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Table 1: Birds found in different strata of the forest, their food habits, abundance and behavioural characteristics Species Stratum Food habit Abundance Behavioural

characteristics Brown fish owl Bubo celonensis

Canopy Carnivorous 2 Nocturnal

Layard’s parakeet* Psittacula calthropae

Canopy Frugivorous / Seed eater

14 Noisy

Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri

Canopy Subcanopy Understorey

Frugivorous / Seed eater

5 Noisy

Sri Lankan lorikeet* Loriculus berylinus

Canopy Frugivorous / Seed eater

6 Noisy, seen hanging on trees

Black bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephalus

Canopy Subcanopy

Omnivorous 6 Mixed species flocks, nuclear species, noisy, mimic

Yellow-browed bulbul Iole indica

Subcanopy Understorey

Omnivorous 9 Mixed species flocks, noisy

Oriental White eye Zosterops palpebrosus


Omnivorous 4 Foliage gleaner

Dark-fronted babbler Rhopocichla atriceps

Forest floor Undergrowth Shrub layer

Insectivorous 4

White-breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis

Subcanopy Understrey Undergrowth

Carnivorous 2

Crimson-backed woodpecker Chrysocolaptes lucidus


Insectivorous 3 Bark gleaner, drilling

White-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster

Canopy Carnivorous 2 Loud call in flight, soaring and gliding

Asian paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi


Insectivorous 3 Arboreal insectivorous, streamer, migrant

Scarlet minivet Pericrocotus flammeus


Insectivorous 4 Foliage gleaner

Layard’s flycatcher Muscicapa muttui

Undergrowth Insectivorous 2 Arboreal insectivore(fly-catcher stance)

Black-naped monarch Hypothymis azurea


Insectivorous 3 Flycatcher stance

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* Endemic species

Species Stratum Food habit Abundance Behavioural characteristics

Brown-headed barbet Megalaima zeylanica


Frugivorous 20

Yellow-fronted barbet* Megalaima flavifrons


Frugivorous 10

Sri Lanka small barbet* Megalaima rubricapillus

Canopy Subcanopy

Frugivorous 6

White-rumped shama Copsychus malabaricus

Undergrowth Insectivorous 2 Song bird

Common grackle Grackula religiosa

Emergents Canopy

Frugivorous 11 Noisy bird, mimic

Emerald dove/Bronze winged pigeon Chalcophaps indica


Frugivorous 5

Loten’s sun bird Cinnyris lotenius

Subcanopy Undergrowth

Nectarivorous 3 Hovering

Brown-capped babbler* Pellorneum fuscocapillus

Understorey Forest floor Undergrowth

Insectivorous 4

Table 2: Distribution of species in each stratum Stratum No. of

individuals Emergents 11 Canopy 59 Sub-canopy 83 Understorey 72 Shrub layer 04 Under growth 17 Forest floor 8

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Figure 2: Percent of individuals of with respect to their food habit

Figure 1: Distribution of species in each stratum

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Discussion

The study was focused on the abundance of birdspecies and their feeding habits in relation to theirhabitat. The species composition in differentstations appears to be governed by the vegetationstructure. Terrestrial ecologists have accumulateddata relating bird species diversity to foliage heightdiversity (MacArthur and MacArthur, 1961;MacArthur, 1964; Recher, 1969). Complexity offoliage pattern seems to be a better predictor ofbird species diversity than tree species diversity.It was clearly evident that certain regions of theforest were dominated by certain birds. Forexample Layard’s parakeet was observed only inthe center of the forest and they were found onlyon tall trees where their nests were built andwhere fruits were abundant. They occupied onlythe remaining untouched part of the forest. Thereis only a small number occupying shorter trees.This may be due to the presence of the alieninvasive plant in the understorey in large numbersdominating the other plants, which in turn reducesthe amount of food. The forest floor is quite richin insects, worms, etc., giving insectivorous birdsan ample amount of food.

This study was carried out in the morning sessionwhen most birds were active finding food. Mostappear at this hour because insects are frequentlyfound at this time of the day. Many birds werefound near the water body. It seems like there issome alteration in the life styles of some birds.That may be due to the influence by man to theenvironment. For example, the Brown fish owl isa nocturnal bird, but it was seen hunting duringdaytime near the pond. This may be to reduce thecompetition for food. In addition, many migrantbirds were found because this study was doneduring their migration period.

When you compare the two forests, i.e., untouchedand disturbed forest, a higher bird diversity wasobserved in the disturbed part. The untouched partof the forest is quite close to human habitationscompared to the rest of the forest. This may bethe reason why there are fewer numbers in thatregion; also, tropical birds are generally lessresilient to habitat disturbance due to their highhabitat specificity.It is quite evident that Udawattakele is relativelyrich in bird diversity and further conservationprogrammes should be carried out to protect andsafeguard the biodiversity in this forest.

Conclusion

The bird species diversity in Udawattakele isrelatively high and there is a tendency towardsdeclining numbers, mainly due to anthropogenicreasons.

References

Baiten, A.L. 1972. Breeding bird speciesdiversity in relation to increasingurbanization. Bird Study 19:157-166

Sieving, Kathryn E. and Mary F. Wilson. 1981.Linking forest structure andcomposition: avian diversity insuccessional forests of Chiloe´ Island,Chile. Iva´n A.

http://www.responsiblevacation.com/vacation/4182/sri-lanka-birding-and-cultural-tourhttp://seesrilanka.itgo.com/subUk/uk001.htm

Author’s address: Department of Zoology,Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya,Sri Lanka; E-mail: [email protected]


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Table 3: Number of individuals with respect to their food habit

Food habit No of individuals Carnivorous 06 Omnivorous 19 Frugivorous 77 Seed eaters 25 Nectarivorous 03 Insectivorous 25

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CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) WILDLIFE SPECIES IN EX-SITU CONDITIONS -- MANAGEMENT PRACTICES INBANGLADESH

by M.K. Islam, S.M. Mainuddin, M.M. Rahmanand, M.A. Rahman

Introduction

The forests of Bangladesh were once very rich inwildlife diversity. But rapid loss of forest areasand fragmentation of the remaining forest hasbrought about alarming rate of depletion in thewildlife resources of the country. Bangladeshpossesses 113 species of mammals, 628 speciesof birds, 126 species of reptiles and 22 species ofamphibians (Islam, 2003; IUCN, 2000). Manyspecies of the existing wildlife have either becomeextinct or can only be found in some localizedareas at very low population densities. Like in otherregions around the globe, the biodiversity ofBangladesh is also entering a critical period.Already, respectively 13 (IUCN, 2000), 22 (Asmot,2001) and 12 (Rahman, 2010) wildlife specieshave reportedly become extinct from the country.In addition, IUCN (2000) listed a total of 52wildlife species including 21 inland mammalspecies, 19 bird species and 12 reptile species as

critically endangered (CR) in the country. Despitedebate among the wildlife biologists about CRwildlife statistics, an alarming number of wildlifespecies are under various categories of threat inthe country and the number of CR wildlife specieshas been increasing due to population decline, smalldistribution and restricted numbers of reproductivepopulations caused by habitat loss and bioticpressure.

Where habitat is under severe pressure and a largenumber of wild species have become endangeredand are at the brink of extinction, ex-situconservation has a vital role in the conservationof endangered wildlife species. Management ofCR wildlife species in ex-situ conditions is a greatway to ensure the survival of endangered speciesand sustainable conservation by captive breedingoutside their natural habitat. The present study wascarried out to record the CR wildlife species,existing management practices and captive

Adult male Common langur group (Photo: Md. Kamrul Islam)

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breeding facilities in ex-situ condition inBangladesh.

Zoo management and conservation ofendangered wildlife species

Zoos have played a unique role in the successfulbreeding of rare animals, which in the wild wouldhave no chance of survival. Some examples arePere David’s deer, Przewalski’s horse, Europeanand American bison, Arabian oryx and Nenegoose. Zoos of the world are taking a responsibilityin conserving species (Jarvis, 1965). The newconcept of zoological parks and zoo gardenmanagement includes imparting education to raiseconservation awareness among people;conducting research to discover unknown factsabout wild animals for better understanding theirphysical and psychological needs; and breedingrare and vanishing species for re-introduction intodepleted areas to create new reservoirs of wildlife.

Study areas

There are seven government and semi-government organizations that run famous zoos, aprivate zoo and a safari park in Bangladesh thatplay a big role in outdoor recreation, educationand research on wildlife species.

Dhaka Zoo, Bangladesh’s largest zoo, wasestablished in 1961 and opened to visitors in 1974.It is located in the Mirpur Thana, Mirpur sectionof Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. The zoocontains many native and non-native wildlifespecies and the two lakes at the zoo host migratorywaterfowls each winter. It is managed by theMinistry of Fisheries and Livestock. The zooattracts around 10,000 visitors a day with thenumber increasing during the weekends.

Chittagong Zoo was established in 1989 at Foy’sLake, Pahartali, Chittagong, with an area of about5 acres. The zoo contains many native and a fewnon-native wildlife. Most of the native wildlife werecaught and donated by local people andorganizations.

Rajshahi Zoo is one of the main attractions ofRajshahi city. It was established by the banks ofthe Padma River in 1981 and is managed by the

district administration. A wide area with lush greentrees and grasses houses different wildlife.

Rangpur Zoo is located in Rangpur city nearRangpur Police Line, with a large park in thecenter of town. A district administration-managedzoo was opened in 1991.

Bonobilash Zoo, Khulna, was set up andmaintained by army authority from 1986 atJahanabad cantonment. It is the only zoo in thesouthwest region of Bangladesh. Hundreds ofvisitors visit this zoo every day.

Comilla Zoo was established in 1986, at ComillaBotanical Garden in Comilla town and is managedby the district administration.

Banderban Zoo was established in 1995 nearBanderban district town and is managed by thedistrict administration. Most of the wildlife in thiszoo were caught by people from the hill tractsforest and sent to the zoo for display.

Shitesh Babu’s Zoo, Srimongal. Shitesh Babu,a wildlife lover, established a wildlife rescue centerand opened it for viewer’s recreation. At timesthe zoo releases rescued wildlife species intoLawachara National Park. Hundreds of visitorsvisit this private zoo everyday situated atRamkrisnna Mission Road at Srimongal town.

Bangabandhu Safari Park, Chokoria, Cox’sBazar, was developed on an undulating landscapeof around 2,224 acres some 107 km from the portcity Chittagong. The objective was to createfacilities for eco-tourism, research work andentertainment, aside from conserving wild animalsin a natural environment. Since the park openedto the public, it has been drawing huge crowds allyear round – with 6,000 visitors daily during thepeak season (November to March) and 2,000visitors daily during the off season (April toOctober). The park also protects a large numberof native wildlife species within its boundaries.

Zoos and safari parks in Bangladesh have bothnative and non native wildlife on display for visitors’recreation. The wildlife stock held in zoos andsafari parks in 2010 is shown in Fig. 1.

| Critically endangered w

ildlife species in ex-situ condition and its managem

ent practices in Bangladesh |

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Vol. 41: No. 2 2014 Fig. 1: Wildlife stock in zoos and Safari park in 2010 Dh=Dhaka zoo; B S park=Bangaba zoo; Rang=Rangpur zoo; Cht=Chittagong zoo; Raj=Rajshahi zoo; Setes =Setes Babu's zoo; Khu=Bonobilash zoo, Khulna; Band=Banderban zoo; Com= Comilla zoo

Wildlife stock in zoos & Safari park in 2010

126 99 38 35 30 25 15 9 8

1663

505

220382

170 81 56 31 210

200400600800

10001200140016001800

Dh B SPark

Rang Cht. Raj Setes Khu Band Comi

Zoos & Safari park

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"Species number"

Total populatiopn

Methodology

The study was carried out through directobservation and identification of indigenous CRwildlife species, their management and breedingfacilities from 2008-2010. The list of CR specieswas made according to IUCN (2000) and Rahman(2010). Authorities, veterinary surgeons, otherstaff, and caretakers of zoos and safari parkswere interviewed to collect information on themanagement of captive CR wildlife. The breedingfacilities of CR species provided by zoos and parkauthorities were observed. The cage size, fooditems and quantity, living conditions and the existingmanagement system of endangered species werenoted. Previous records, literature and relevantinformation, both published and unpublished, werereviewed and assessed. Data collected from theex-situ conservation areas were compiled andanalyzed.

Results and discussion

CR wildlife species in ex-situ condition inBangladesh

A total of 21critically endangered (CR) wildlifespecies were recorded in ex-situ conditions atdifferent zoos and parks of Bangladesh. Among

these there were 12 mammal species, 6 avesspecies and 3 reptile species. The CR wildlife andtheir populations in ex-situ conditions are shownin Table 1.

Management of CR wildlife species in ex-situconditions in Bangladesh

Nutritious food, clean water and hygienic shelterare prerequisites for a long life span and breedingpotential of confined wildlife. In captivity, suppliedfood is the sole source to fulfill the nutritional needsof the wildlife. In this regard, only Dhaka Zoo hasa nutrition department to ensure quality food forits animals. Other zoos and safari parks make aneffort to follow the food supply chart of DhakaZoo. In addition, only Dhaka Zoo and B SafariPark have their own veterinary medical facilitiesto monitor the health conditions of captive animals.Supplied food for CR wildlife species in ex- situconditions in Bangladesh is shown in Table 2.

The recorded terrestrial CR wild animals in alldifferent zoos and safari park of Bangladesh arehoused in cages or enclosed by fences and aquaticwild animals are kept in the ponds. The cages areconstructed of brick and iron rods, the floor is madeof concrete and the roof is built with tin shed orconcrete. Enclosures are fabricated with iron rods

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Table 1: CR wildlife stock in ex-situ conditions in Bangladesh in 2010

Sl. No.

M A M M A L S

Species Name Zoos/safari park Number Total

01. Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) Dhaka Zoo 3 6

B Safari Park 2

Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 1

02. Common Langur (Semnopithecus entellus) Dhaka Zoo 4 8 B Safari Park 2 Khulna Zoo 2

03. Pig-tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) Dhaka Zoo, 3 7 B Safari Park 1 Chittagong Zoo 3

04. Phary’s Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei)

Comilla Zoo 2 2

05. Slow Loris ( Nycticebus coucang)

B Safari Park 1 2 Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 1

06.

Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Dhaka zoo 11 18 Chittagong Zoo 1

Rangpur Zoo 2

Khulna Zoo 2 B Safari Park 2

07.

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

Khulna Zoo 1 5 Rangpur Zoo 2 Dhaka Zoo 2

08. Bear Cat (Arctictis binturong)

Dhaka Zoo 2 5 Comilla Zoo 1

09.

Sambar (Cervus unicolor) Dhaka Zoo, 8 29

B Safari Park 18 Chittagong Zoo 2

Khulna Zoo 1

10. Hog deer (Axis porcinus) B Safari Park 4 5

Chittagong Zoo 1 11.

Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Dhaka Zoo, 2 8

B Safari Park 6 12. Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 1 2

B Safari Park 1

13. B I R D S

Painted Stork (Mycteria lucocephala) Khulna Zoo 2 2 14. Large Indian Parakeet (Psittacula eupatria) Chittagong Zoo 10 10 15. Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) Chittagong Zoo 2 3

Rangpur Zoo 1 16. Green Pigeon (Treron apicaudata) Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 3 3 17. Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

(Haliaeetus leucoryphus) Dhaka Zoo 2 2

18. Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilus dubius) Dhaka Zoo, 6 7 Rangpur Zoo 1




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(continued on p.17)

Table 1: CR wildlife stock in ex-situ condition in Bangladesh in 2010

Sl. No.

Species Name Zoos/safari park Number Total

19. R E P T I L E S

Salt Water Crocodile (Crocodylus prosus) Dhaka Zoo 3 18 Khulna Zoo 2 B Safari Park 13

20. Gangetic Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) Dhaka Zoo 4 9 Rangpur Zoo 3 Rajshahi Zoo 2

21. Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) Dhaka Zoo 1 13 Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 2 Safari Park 2 Rangpur Zoo 1 Chittagong Zoo 7

Table 2: Supplied food for CR wildlife species in ex- situ conditions in Bangladesh in 2010 Sl. No.

Species name Supplied food/individual/day

1. Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock)

Bread- 50 g.m; Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables (Pumpkin ,Green Cucumber )-250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, Malta, Amra and Apple)- 250g.m; Ground nut-20 g.m and Egg-1

2. Common Langur (Semnopithecus entellus)

Bread- 100 g.m, Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables (Pumpkin, Green Cucumber ) -250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, Malta, Amra and Apple)- 125g.m; Ground nut-20 g.m; Gram-20 g.m and Egg-1

3. Phary’s Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei)

Bread- 100 g.m Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables (Pumpkin, Green Cucumber )-250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, Malta, Amra and Apple)-125g.m; Ground nut-20 g.m ; Gram-20 g.m and Egg-1

4. Pig-tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina)

Bread- 100 g.m Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables (Pumpkin ,Green Cucumber )-250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, Malta, Amra and Apple)- 125g.m;Ground nut-20 g.m; Gram-20 g.m and Egg-1

5. Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang)

Bread- 50 g.m; Ripe Banana-100g.m,; Vegetables (Pumpkin , Green Cucumber )-200g.m ;Fruits (Sofeda, Malta, Amra & Apple)- 100g.m;Ground nut-20 g.m and Egg-1

6. Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Fresh Beef, 10 k.g/day/tiger is supplied 5 days in a week. A rabbit 1(one) day in a week and one day meat free in a week

7. Leopard (Panthera pardus)

Fresh Beef, 3 k.g/day is supplied 5 days in a week and two days meat free in a week.

8. Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)

Fresh Beef, 2 k.g/day/tiger or a live hen / day is supplied 5 days in a week and two days meat free in a week.

9. Bear Cat (Arctictis binturong)

Boiled rice-1 k.g, milk-1litter, Bread- 250 g.m, Egg-2 pieces & Honey-200 g.m

10. Sambar (Cervus unicolor) Green grasses ,Wheat/rice husk, Ripe Banana ,Gram &Vegetables

11. Hog deer (Axis porcinus) Green grasses , Wheat/rice husk, Ripe Banana and Gram, Vegetables

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(continued from p.16)

The recorded terrestrial CR wild animals in thedifferent zoos and safari parks of Bangladesh arehoused in cages or kept in fenced enclosures.Aquatic wild animals are kept in the ponds. Thecages are constructed of brick and iron rods; thefloor is made of concrete and the roof is built withtin shed or concrete. Enclosures are fabricatedwith iron rods with brick constructed basementsand ponds are excavated with sand beds and brickstairs. Non-human CR primate species were keptfor display only in cages of comparatively smallsize and low height and supplied poor climbing andhiding convenience. The Royal Bengal Tigers(Panthera tigris) Dhaka Zoo and the safari parkwere kept in a large enclosure in addition to displaycages. Leopards (Panthera pardus) andClouded Leopards (Neofelis nebulosa) were keptin smaller cages unsuitable for the fast movementof the agile species. Deer enclosures are larger inall zoos and in the safari park it is large enoughand suitable to forage in. In the safari park SaltWater Crocodiles (Crocodylus prosus) are keptin a bigger lake with facilities for easy swimming,basking and catching fish than Dhaka and KhulanaZoo’s small ponds.

Captive breeding

Captive breeding success of CR wildlife specieswas observed in several zoos of Bangladeshincluding Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock),Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris ) and Sambar(Cervus unicolor ) in Dhaka Zoo; Large IndianParakeet (Psittacula eupatria) at ChittagongZoo; and Samber (Cervus unicolor ), Hog deer(Axis porcinus) and Salt Water Crocodile(Crocodylus prosus) at Bangabandhu Safari Park(BSP). Only 28% of captive CR wildlife speciesare breeding in captivity, mainly in Dhaka Zoo andBangabandhu Safari Park. This rate could increaseby taking special efforts with healthy stock of CRwildlife close to being extirpated in the wild, suchas pig-tailed macaque, leopard, greater adjutantand Gangetic gharial.

Conclusion

CR wildlife stock in ex-situ conditions in differentzoos and parks of Bangladesh could present agreat opportunity to save species from extinctionand be a great source of gene conservation. The

Sl. No.

Species name Supplied food/individual/day

12. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Banana plant – 300 k.g , Green grasses-5 k.g, Ripe Banana, Gram mixed boiled rice-2.5 k.g

13. Painted Stork (Mycteria lucocephala)

Fresh small fishes as taki (Channa punctata), puti (Puntius spp.) .

14. Pallas’s Fishing Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus)

Fresh small fishes-taki (Channa punctata), puti (Puntius spp.),Carp fry etc.

15. Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilus dubius)

Fresh small fishes-Taki (Channa punctata)-2.5 k.g/day, Puti (Puntius spp.)-600 g.m, Carp fry-600 g.m.

16. Large Indian Parakeet (Psittacula eupatria)

Fresh small fishes-Taki (Channa punctata), Puti (Puntius spp.),Carp fry, green cucumber, ripe banana

17 Green Pigeon (Treron apicaudata) Poultry feed, wheat, maize 18. Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) Pumpkin , green cucumber, ripe banana

19. Salt Water Crocodile (Crocodylus prosus)

Beef /Hen, 2.5 kg is supplied twice in a week.

20. Gangetic Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)

Alive/ fresh fishes- small carps, taki (Channa punctata) -10 k.g/day/Ghorial

21. Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata)

Pumpkin , ripe banana, green cucumber, carrot, cabbage




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bred population and their distribution in other zooswill attract more visitors and will save foreigncurrency by decreasing wildlife imports for zoos.Translocation of bred CR wildlife populations totheir natural habitats will preserve the species inthe wild and ensure a balanced environment forhuman beings across the world.

Recommendations It is necessary to upgrade the national zoo

policy with proper direction of the managementof CR wildlife through co-operation amongthe zoos and safari parks. This includesbreeding in the zoo and subsequent releaseinto the natural habitat.

It is essential to set up a Specialist committeefor the breeding and conservation of wildlifespecies in ex-situ conditions.

Special care is needed in the breeding seasonto support breeding facilities such as:transferring male and female animals into newcages with enough area that gives the specieseasy movement; an artificial forestenvironment could be simulated by decoratingthe cage with pictures of the species’ realhabitat; ensure a sufficient nutritious foodsupply, and enough light and shelter. Regularobservation is also necessary.

Wildlife biologists need to be posted in the zoosto supervise the management and breedingbiology and monitor the impediments to

reproduction of CR species in the zoos andsafari parks.

References

Asmot, G. 2001. Bangladesher BluptoBonnoprani in Bangla (Extinct Wildlife ofBangladesh). Bangla Academy 25-26 pp

Islam, S.S. 2003. State of forest geneticresources conservation and managementin Bangladesh. Forest Genetic ResourcesWorking Paper, Working Paper FGR/68E.Forest Resources Devlopment Service, ForestResources Division.FAO, Rome, 31pp.

IUCN Bangladesh. 2000. Red list of threatenedanimals of Bangladesh. The WorldConservation Union (IUCN), Dhaka,Bangladesh. 54pp.

Jarvis, C. 1965. Zoos ConservationSymposium. Int. Zoo year .V: 97-100.

Lekagul, B. 1977. Captive breeding and wildlifeconservation. Tigerpaper IV(2):20.

Rahman, M.M. 2010. Status of Wildlife ofBangladesh. Bangladesh Forest ResearchInstitute, Chittagong, Bangladesh.1-44pp.

Rahman, et al. 1998. Zoological gardens ofBangladesh. Bangladesh Forest ResearchInstitute, Chittagong.1-48pp.

Authors’ address: Wildlife Section, BangladeshForest Research Institute, Chittagong, India,E-mail: [email protected]

Common langur group (Photo: Md. Kamrul Islam)

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an-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban |

HUMAN-TIGER CONFLICTS DURING HONEY COLLECTIONIN THE INDIAN SUNDARBAN: AN INSIGHT INTO BLOODHONEY

by Pradeep Vyas, K. Sengupta and Vinod B. Mathur

Introduction

The Sundarban lies across a part of the delta ofthe rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna insouthern Bangladesh and the state of West Bengalin India, spanning a width of about 350 km. It isone of the largest contiguous blocks of mangrovesin the world. There are 34 true mangrove speciesand some 62 mangrove associate species in theIndian Sundarban (Mitra, 2000). This coastalwetland is within the Central Asian Flyway and isthe only mangrove wetland tiger habitat in theworld.

The Sundarban is home to over 4.2 million people(Vyas, 2012). The region is characterized bydevelopmental constraints in terms of a rapidlygrowing population, coupled with a lack ofappropriate transportation and modern energyservices, inadequate health care delivery andeducation facilities. The mainstay of the localeconomy is agriculture, primarily monsoon-fedpaddy cultivation made possible by raisingembankments along the periphery of inhabitedislands to keep saltwater out. Fishing and fishery-related enterprises, particularly shrimp farming, arethe other major economic activities. People in theSundarban struggle constantly for survival andclimate change is making matters worse for themand for the wildlife of the Sundarban (Vyas, 2012).

Non-timber forest product (NTFP) collection inthe Indian Sundarban is the next major occupationafter agriculture. NTFP collection in the IndianSundarban includes collection of honey, wax,firewood, tannin bark, lime, fish, crabs and prawns(Singh et al, 2010). Traditionally the ForestDepartment issues permits for honey collection,which is a seasonal activity starting in April andcontinuing up to June each year; this periodcoincides with the flowering of the mangroves.

The Sundarban is known for its tigers. It is theonly mangrove forest in the world to have a largetiger population. Due to its inhospitable conditions,the flora and fauna of this delta have developedspecialized adaptations. The Sundarban tiger is anexcellent swimmer, and in one recorded instancea tiger swam a distance of about 8 miles (Malley,1914). It is perfectly adapted to surviving entirelyon saline water, and its diet includes spotted deer,wild boar and water monitor lizards as well asfish, crabs, snakes and almost all any life formthat can provide a mouthful of food. TheSundarban tiger exhibits extreme behaviour andhas attacked without provocation human beingswho enter the mangrove forest for their livelihood.This results in many human deaths and injuries tofishermen and honey collectors. Surprisingly, thesame tigers do not harm human beings when theystray into villages at the fringe of the forest,primarily in search of food (Vyas, 2012).

Methodology

To determine the extent of the human-tiger conflictduring the honey collection period in the IndianSundarban, data relating to a period of 25 yearsbetween 1985 and 2010 were collected from theForest Department, Government of West Bengal.These data were analysed statistically to drawconclusions and make recommendations in lightof the available literature on the subject.

Study area

The Indian Sundarban is located at the apex ofthe Bay of Bengal (between 21°13’ and 22°40’ Nand between 88°03’ and 89°07’ E) at the southernboundary of West Bengal (a maritime state in thenorth-eastern part of India’s coast). The area ofthe Indian Sundarban is 9,630 km2, of which theforested area is about 4,238 km2. The region is

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| bordered by Bangladesh in the east, the Hooghlyriver (a distributary of the Ganges river) in thewest, the Dampier - Hodges line in the north andthe Bay of Bengal in the south. Most of theecosystem of the deltaic Sundarban exhibitsmarine characteristics to a considerable extent.The important morphotypes are beaches, mudflats,coastal dunes, sand flats, estuaries, creeks, inletsand mangrove swamps (Chaudhuri et al, 1994).The rivers are the live matrix of the deltaic complex,and its unique biological diversity is embedded inthis matrix.

The Indian Sundarban region holds reservedforests, with one national park, i.e., SundarbanNational Park, and four wildlife sanctuaries,namely: Saznekhali, Lothian Island, WestSundarban and Haliday Island. An area of 2,585km2 consisting of Sundarban National Park,Saznekhali Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjoiningreserved forest was declared as the SundarbanTiger Reserve in 1973. The entire SundarbanNational Park was also inscribed as a WorldHeritage Site by UNESCO on 11th December,1987. The Sundarban was also designated as theSundarban Biosphere Reserve in 1989 (SBR,2003).

Honey collection in the Indian Sundarban

Rock bees (Apis dorsata) from the Himalayasvisit the Sundarban forest each year and build bee-hives in the mangrove plants, which flower fromthe end of March to June. All the mangrove plantsare intensely nectar-bearing, which attracts therock bee. Flowering starts with the blooming ofkalashi (Aegiceras corniculatum) at the end ofMarch, followed by harguja (Acanthus ilicifolius),baen (Avicennia spp.), keora (Sonneratiaapetala), garjan (Rhizophora spp.), etc. Thedensity of the honey depends on the number ofsalt-excretory glands of the trees. Kalashi, with19 glands per mm2, gives the best honey. It hasbeen found that the gnewa bears about 39% ofthe honeycombs, baen 16%, garan 11%, garjan10% and others 24%. The ideal site forconstruction of hives is a forest with the hental-gnewa combination (Tiger Conservation Plan,2012).

Honey collection is officially permitted by theForest Department and is regulated by issuingpermits to registered fringe dwellers. They aregiven permits because collecting honey is atraditional practice of theirs. They are set a limitin terms of kilograms of honey that may becollected from the buffer zone of the Sundarban.Honey collection is not permitted in the nationalpark and sanctuaries situated within theSundarban. According to the prescriptions of themanagement plan (Table 1), honey collection isallowed in only 2,132 km2 of the total area of 4,238km2 of mangrove forest. Each year, 160 permitsare issued, and with an average of about sevenpersons per team, an estimated 1,120 people enterthe Sundarban forest for honey collection. Duringthe honey collection period, the Forest Departmentstops fishing activity (Tiger Conservation Plan,2012).

Honey collectors enter the forest and look forhoneybees. Once they find a bee, they follow itstrail and enter the forest in search of itshoneycomb. Honey collectors are locally calledMoulis. There are two types of Moulis - the‘Kande’ moulis are the experienced ones, andthe ‘hata’ moulis are the inexperienced ones.Interestingly, there are no traditional tribalpopulations in the Indian Sundarban as the areawas colonized late in the 18th century by the Britishrulers for harvesting natural produce. So, all thecurrent settlers are migrants from other areas. Theheight of the honeycombs from the ground is from5 to 30 feet. Once the Moulis find a honeycomb,they make four ‘bolen’- (bunches of leaves) fromhental (Phoenix peludosa) shrubs by cutting theleaves. These bolen are burnt to make smoke anddrive the honeybees away from the hive. Oncethe honeybees move away, the comb is cut intopieces and the collectors move to their boat, wherethey squeeze the honey into earthen pots. The waxis kept separately. The honey collectors move tothe same comb after 15 days and cut it again.The second yield is normally 60% of the first. Theyield per honey comb varies from 10 to 12 kg(Vyas, 2010). Depending upon the mangroveflowering, the total honey collection per year variesbetween 25 and 60 tons (Table 2).

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Table 1- Area in which honey collection is permitted in the Indian Sundarban

Administrative unit

Management unit Total area (km2)

Area where honey collection is permitted (km2)

Sundarban Tiger Reserve

Core area or critical tiger habitat

1699.62 0.0

Buffer area (Saznekhali Wildlife Sanctuary and other reserve forest)

885.27 522.85

24 Parganas (South) Division

Area including Haliday and Lothian Wildlife Sanctuary

1653.78 1609.78

Total area 4238.67 2132.63

Table 2- Crude honey collection in Indian Sundarban YEAR

CRUDE HONEY COLLECTED (tons per year)

TOTAL

SUNDARBAN TIGER RESERVE

24 PARGANAS (SOUTH) DIVISION

2000-2001 33.83 15.40 49.23 2001-2002 15.40 17.10 32.50 2002-2003 16.41 14.45 30.86 2003-2004 20.79 17.53 38.33 2004-2005 22.11 8.92 31.04 2005-2006 30.55 30.56 61.12 2006-2007 25.17 13.03 38.20 2007-2008 21.36 13.83 35.20 2008-2009 12.55 12.01 24.56 2009-2010 13.80 11.95 25.75

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The origin of blood honey – human - tigerconflict during honey collection

Due to the aggressive behaviour of the Sundarbantigers, which do not hesitate to attack humansinside the forest, everyone involved in the honeycollection process is subjected to a great risk ofattack. During the 25-year period from 1985 to2010, a total of 409 people became victims to tigerattacks when they ventured into the Sundarbanforest to meet their livelihood requirements (Vyas,2012). Out of these, 71 persons were honeycollectors (Table 3). These numbers are basedon official records of persons entering the forestwith permits (Boat License Certificate or BLC)from the Forest Department and do not includethe number of people entering the forest withoutpermission from the Forest Department. In additionto this, a total of 19 persons were injured duringhoney collection during this period (Vyas, 2012).Though no information is available anywhere onthe number of people without BLCs killed by tigers,it is generally believed that this number isanywhere between two and three times thenumber of human deaths reported officially. Thus,honey collection in the Indian Sundarban involvesthe loss of human blood every year. The honeycollected can therefore be termed ‘blood honey’.Blood honey collection is unique to the Sundarbanand exists nowhere else in the world except theBangladesh Sundarban.

Discussion

Honey collection in the Sundarban is the activitythat results in the maximum human-tiger conflicts.Human-tiger conflicts inside the forest areasprimarily occur when tigers get disturbed andirritated due to human intrusions in their habitat.Honey collectors penetrate deep into forest areasin search of beehives. The intrusion of largenumbers of people in the forest, which otherwisedoes not have many intruders, causes a massivedisturbance to the fragile ecosystem. Vyas et al.,(2010) have analyzed the socio-economic aspectsof honey collection in the Indian Sundarban (Vyaset al, 2010). It was observed that in 2009-2010, atotal of 154 honey collections permits were issuedby the Forest Department and about 1,078 honeycollectors entered in the Sundarban forest withlegal permits. On average, each honey collector

earned about Rs. 5,800 per month from honeycollection during April and May, as compared withabout Rs. 3,000 per month from fishing. Theseamounts represent the income after expenses arededucted. In a sample survey conducted as partof this study, it was observed that 80% of thehoney collectors were traditional honey collectors,whereas 20% were non-traditional and were newto the profession. All the honey collectors (100%)were fishermen. Fishing is closed during this period.The correlation between the level of the human-tiger conflict and the honey collection activity canbe seen from the responses of the honey collectorsabout the threats they face during honeycollection. All honey collectors feared the tiger asa danger (100%), 70% feared snakes, and naturalcalamities, piracy and sickness were perceivedas danger by 30%, 10% and 20% of therespondents respectively. Honey collection is animportant activity for the people of the Sundarban.This activity may not constitute a major share oftheir annual income, but is an additional annualincome that is important due to the vulnerabilityof livelihoods in the Sundarban (Singh et al, 2010).

Honey collection is the activity that is responsiblefor the greatest number of direct confrontationsbetween the tiger and man in the mangrove forest,with the greatest potential of human-tiger conflicts.Honey collectors represent the highest percentageof human casualties during the short period ofhoney collection. Honey collection also createspossibilities of attacks on the tiger by honeycollectors in self-defence, and such attacks remainunnoticed under the conditions prevailing in theSundarban.

Vyas, 2012 has analysed data relating to humandeaths caused by tigers during the period from1985-1986 to 2009-2010 in the Indian Sundarban(Vyas, 2012). It was found that four categories ofpeople became the victims of tiger attacks:fishermen (75%), honey collectors (17%), woodcutters (6%) and staff members and labours ofthe Forest Department (2%). The victims’ profilesmatch their professions. The fishermen are in theSundarban almost 10 months in a year, but spendmost of their time in their boats. The honeycollectors’ visits to the forest are during a 2 monthperiod, but they have to penetrate deep into themangrove forest in search of beehives, which leads

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Table 3- Number of persons killed by tigers in Indian Sundarban- all professions and honey collectors.

*1 person was killed in village.

Year Total number of persons killed by tigers in the Indian Sundarban

Honey collectors killed by tigers in the Indian Sundarban

1985-1986 8 5 1986-1987 25 8 1987-1988 32 7 1988-1989 27 7 1989-1990 12 1 1990-1991 46 2 1991-1992 48 4 1992-1993 42 6 1993-1994 47 5 1994-1995 7 0 1995-1996 4 2 1996-1997 3 0 1997-1998 5 0 1998-1999 3 0 1999-2000 15 3 2000-2001 17 8 2001-2002 15 2 2002-2003 15 3 2003-2004* 11 6 2004-2005 4 1 2005-2006 1 0 2006-2007 0 0 2007-2008 9 1 2008-2009 6 0 2009-2010 8 0 Total 410 71

to conflicts with tigers. The percentage ofwoodcutters is low due to the fact that woodcuttinghas been discontinued since 2000. The staffmembers and labourers work with all precautions,and so their percentage is also low.

Chakraborti (1992) analyzed human casualties onthe basis of studies carried out in the IndianSundarban from 1964 to 1989 (Chakraborti, 1992).Fishermen casualties represented 57.78%, honeycollectors 23.28% and others, including timbertraders, 18.93%. In studies carried out in theBangladesh Sundarban during the period from 1984to 2000, it was recorded that out of eight categories

of professionals, fishermen (44%), woodcutters(36%) and honey collectors (18%), are the mostaffected by tigers (Reza et al., 2002; IUCN, 2004).

Vyas, (2012) analysed data from the SundarbanTiger Reserve relating to a period of 12 years(1998-1999 to 2009-2010) to study the seasonalvariation in killing of humans by tigers (Vyas, 2012).The Sundarban has three distinct seasons; the pre-monsoon (March - June), monsoon (July -October) and post-monsoon (November -February). The number of humans killed was 38during the pre-monsoon season, 25 during themonsoon and 23 during the post-monsoon.

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ANOVA indicates significant seasonal variationin the human deaths, with F

obs = 31.6831 >F

cri t =

7.7086. The large number of humans killed duringthe pre-monsoon period can be directly correlatedwith the honey collection period, during whichhoney collectors come face to face with tigersinside the forest when they collect honey. Themonthly data relating to humans killed during theperiod 1998-2010 also shows a peak in April,which can be attributed to the honey collection(Vyas, 2012).

Recommendations

Honey collection in the Indian Sundarban is anage old practice and is historically linked to human-tiger conflicts resulting in loss of human lives andoccasionally leading to harm to tigers also. In the21st century, when honey is available from manyother alternate sources without any conflict, thispractice of honey collection in the Sundarbancannot be justified on any account and needsreview. The following measures are suggested tominimize/eliminate the loss of blood during honeycollection in the Sundarban:a. Honey collection in the forested areas of the

Sundarban should be discouraged with theobjective of gradually stopping it as nocivilized society can allow this practice.Alternate livelihood options should be providedto the people engaged in it. This will weanthem off the collection of blood honey. Thiswill save many human lives and will preservethe Sundarban from the extreme bioticdisturbances caused during the collectionprocess.

b. In recent times beekeeping has increasedconsiderably in the fringes of Sundarbanduring the mangrove flowering season.Migratory beekeepers visit the area and setup beekeeping boxes in the villages aftermaking payment to land holders. This hasprovided good employment to local people andallows Sundarban honey to be tapped withoutpeople going to the forest. Hence, beekeepingshould be encouraged.

c. Honeybees flying from beekeeping boxes keptin the villages to the mangrove forest can flyonly short distances into the forests, and as aresult most of the mangrove forest remainsuntapped. It is suggested that the beekeeping

boxes be placed on a flotilla of country boats,which should be parked inside the mangroveforest at specified locations, preferably nearprotection camps. This will result in tappingof more of the mangrove forest by honeybeesand will provide employment to many people,especially from the honey collector groups.This will eliminate human - tiger conflictsduring the honey collection process.

d. Education, awareness generation and trainingin alternate livelihood options, duly supportedby micro-finance credit, may help honeycollectors opt for livelihoods other thancollection of blood honey.

Honey collection in the Sundarban is a practicethat results in severe human-tiger conflicts,resulting in harm to both people and tigers. Hence,in the overall interest of conservation of Sundarbanand its people, this activity needs to be stopped.Sundarban honey, a precious natural wealth, shouldbe collected, but without loss of human blood, bygradually reducing the collection of honey by thetraditional means. The traditional practice is anoutcome of livelihood compulsions for the majorityof unwilling honey collectors (88%) in the IndianSundarban and can be minimized by providingalternate and improved livelihood opportunities asindicated in the foregoing.

Authors: Pradeep Vyas, West Bengal ForestDepartment; K. Sengupta, IUCN Project Staff,West Bengal and Dr V B Mathur, Director,Wildlife Institute of India. Email:[email protected]

Chakraborti, K. 1992. Man-Eating Tigers.Darbari Prakashan, Calcutta, India. pp. 142.

Chaudhuri, A.B. and A. Choudhury. 1994.Vertebrate fauna. Mangroves of theSundarban, Vol. 1: India. IUCN, Bangkok,Thailand. pp. 135.

IUCN. 2004. Bengal Tiger in the BangladeshSundarban. IUCN, Bangladesh, Dhaka.

Malley, L.S.S.O. 1914. Bengal DistrictGazetteers: 24-Parganas. The BengalSecretariat Book Depot, Calcutta. pp. 408.

Mitra, A. 2000. The north-west coast of theBay of Bengal and deltaic Sundarban. Seasat the Millennium: An Environmental

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ark |Evaluation. Vol. II (ed. Sheppard, C.). UK.pp.160.

Reza, A.H.M.A., Feeroz, M.M. and M.A. Islam.2002. Man–tiger interaction in theBangladesh Sundarban. Bangladesh J.Life Sci. 14, 75–82.

SBR, A. 2003. Handbook on SundarbanBiosphere Reserve. SBR Report. Publishedby Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve,Directorate of Forest, Government of WestBengal.

Singh, A., Bhattacharya, P., Vyas, P. and S. Roy.2010. Contribution of NTFPs in thelivelihood of mangrove forest dwellers ofSundarban. J. Hum. Ecol. 29, 191–200.

Forest Department, Government of West Bengal.2012. Tiger Conservation Plan. SundarbanTiger Reserve.

Vyas, P. 2012. Biodiversity Conservation inIndian Sundarban in the Context ofAnthropogenic Pressures and Strategiesfor Impact Mitigation. Ph.D. thesis.Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Vyas, P., Kundu, J. and S. Kundu. 2010. A socio-economic study on honey collectors inSundarban. Report of SundarbanBiosphere Reserve. Published by ForestDirectorate, Government of West Bengal,2010.

RECENT CONFIRMED RECORD OF EXISTENCE OFSMOOTH-COATED OTTER (Lutrogale perspicillata) IN RAJAJINATIONAL PARK, NORTH-WEST INDIA

by Ritesh Joshi

Introduction

Three species of otters occur in the Indian sub–continent, viz. the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra, thesmooth–coated otter Lutrogale perspicillata andthe oriental small-clawed otter Aonyx cinerea.Smooth–coated otter is distributed throughoutsouthern Asia from Indonesia, through SoutheastAsia and westwards through southern China, Indiaand Pakistan, with an isolated population in Iraq(Prater, 1971; Hussain and Choudhury, 1997).However, the other two species are restricted tothe Himalayas, north of the Ganges and to southernIndia (Conroy et al., 1998). The smooth-coatedotter, once common in the wetlands and low-lyingareas of South Asia, is now restricted to a fewprotected areas (Hussain et al., 2008).

In northern India, most of the work on this aquaticspecies has been carried out by S.A. Hussain andA. Nawab in parts of the lower Himalayas/Terailandscape (Corbett Tiger Reserve), DudhwaNational Park, Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuaryand National Chambal Sanctuary (Hussain,2002a&b; Hussain and Choudhury, 1997; Nawab,

2008; Nawab and Hussain, 2012; Hussain, 2013).Its protected breeding populations have also beenrecorded from Corbett and Dudhwa TigerReserves and Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary(WWF-India). In Uttarakhand state, it is knownto occur in Ramganga river basin (CorbettNational Park) and in Baanganga wetland(Conservation Reserve); various wildlife habitatswhich fall across the stretch of river Ganges fromByasi/Kaudiala to Haridwar are potential habitatsfor smooth–coated otters. Based on historicalrecords, Hussain (2002b) pointed out that all threespecies (Lutra, Lutrogale and Aonyx) weredistributed in the foothills of Himalayas during1823–1887.

No systematic field work has been carried out inRajaji National Park on smooth–coated otter sofar and therefore, we don’t have any authenticatedinformation on species survival and status in thepark. Historical archives (working/managementplans of the park) have recorded the otter’spresence in the Ganges flowing across the park.Further documentation of faunal species, carriedout by the Zoological Survey of India during 1981-

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87, noted that smooth-coated otter was present inthis protected habitat (Sinha, 1994). However,detailed notes on species abundance and statushave not been stated in the consolidated record.The status of otters from the Indian sub-continentis poorly documented and practical conservationmeasures have not been developed; however, theirpopulation is under severe threat (Hussain, 2013).

Rajaji National Park (RNP), located at 29º5'-30º31' N, 77º52'-78º22' E, was established in 1983to protect the Asian elephant’s habitat, whichcomes under ‘Shivalik Elephant Reserve No. 11’.This protected habitat falls under the Gangeticplains biogeographic zone and upper Gangeticplains province. The total geographical area ofthe park is 820 km2 across the north-westernShivalik landscape. RNP has been designated asa reserved area for “Project Elephant” by theMinistry of Environment and Forests, Governmentof India with the sole aim of maintaining a viablepopulation of Asian elephants.

The dominant vegetation of the area comprisesSal Shorea robusta, Rohini Mallotusphillipinensis, Khair Acacia catechu, HalduAdina cordifolia, Bahera Terminalia bellirica,Bar Ficus bengalensis and Shisham Dalbergiasissoo. The dominant fauna of the park consistsof tiger Panthera tigris, leopard Pantherapardus, sloth bear Melursus ursinus, HyaenaHyaena hyaena, barking deer Muntiacusmuntjak, goral Nemorhaedus goral, spotted deerAxis axis, sambar Cervous unicolor and wildboar Sus scrofa. Among the reptilian faunamugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris and kingcobra Ophiophagus hannah represent Rajaji’sfaunal diverseness.

On 6 June 2007 (07:40 h) two individuals ofsmooth-coated otter, of unknown sex, weresighted, playing on a sand bed of the Ganges inJhabargarh forest of RNP. Sensing our presence,they quickly moved inside a hollow space under abig rock and disappeared from sight. To confirmthe existence of the species in the Ganges flowingacross RNP, the author conducted 17 surveys inriparian corridors of Ganges (from Bhimgorabarrage to Dogadda rau) between October 2007to March 2008, but no signs were observed whichcould indicate the presence of species. Only fewsmall dens (c 5-8) were encountered during the

surveys but it was not confirmed whether thosedens belonged to otters or other animals.

Discussions held with some local people regardingthe presence of the species revealed that ottersightings were common ten years ago, but due tothe escalating rate of anthropogenic activitiesacross the Ganges, sightings became uncommon.People’s responses were difficult to authenticatebecause of the animal’s resemblance to thecommon mongoose, whose sightings are commonin this area. However, discussions held with someinhabitants who were involved in illegal fishing hadconfirmed animal’s presence in the area.

On 25 March 2012 (17:20 h), an adult smooth–coated otter, of unknown sex, was observed inChilla forest of the RNP. The individual wasspinning, grooming (digging up holes in the sandand rolling over to it) on a sandy patch of theGanges. Thereafter, the otter entered the Gangesand started swimming parallel to river’s bank.Hussain (2013) has recorded grooming as thesecond most important activity among otters, as itplays an important role in the otter’s physiology.To record its activities, I started moving silentlyalong the river. The animal was swimming underwater and would raise its head out of the water atshort intervals (±10 seconds), which helped me tolocate its presence and position. Remainingimpressions due to the animal’s movement alsohelped to track its exact location in the water. Theanimal did not fear my presence and occasionallytried to approach me by diverting its movement inthe water. After a while the animal moved towardsan island situated in the Ganges.

A study carried out by Hussain (2002a) in partsof Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Dudhwa TigerReserve, Corbett Tiger Reserve and Alaknandavalley revealed that Katerniaghat WildlifeSanctuary has the highest percentage of potentialsites from where the otter’s activities had beenrecorded, followed by Dudhwa and Corbett TigerReserve. During this study the presence of otterwas not recorded from Alaknanda valley (fromRishikesh to Joshimath), though the Alaknandariver appears to be good habitat for otters withfairly high prey biomass.

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Smooth-coated otter digging up hole on a sandy patch in Ganges flowing across Rajaji National Park (Photo: Ritesh Joshi)

Smooth-coated otter in river Ganges, Rajaji National Park (Photo: Ritesh Joshi)

Location map of the Rajaji National Park, showing sites from where smooth-coated otters have been

recorded

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Smooth-coated otter has been catagorized asvulnerable in IUCN’s Red List of ThreatenedMammals and in Appendix II of CITES (IUCN,2011). It is also considered as endangered andincluded in Schedule I of India’s Wildlife(Protection) Act, 1972. The populations of all threeotter species found in the Indian sub-continent aredeclining, mainly due to habitat loss and extensivetrapping of the species (Hussain, 2002a). Husainand Choudhury (1997) based on their study onthe distribution and status of smooth-coated otterin National Chambral Sanctuary, indicated thatanthropogenic activities, construction of roadbridges and mining activities have increaseddisturbances along the river and are puttingpressure on the existing populations.

Collection of fuelwood and fodder from the ripariancorridors was found to be a primary threat to thesurviving population of smooth-coated otters inRNP. Occasional illegal fishing in the Ganges wasfound to cause disturbance in aquatic habitats, andthus to the otter population, as fishermen wouldmove extensively in the water, sitting on rubbertubes. Mining was another threat observed inadjoining habitats (parts of Haridwar forestdivision); these activities might have restricted theotter’s frequent distribution and movement in theupper Gangetic plains falling under the domain ofRNP.

Haridwar city is a holy place and draws tremendouscrowds year round, especially on festival days likeSaawan Purnima, Navratri, Somvati Amavashyaand one of the world’s biggest fairs Maha-Kumbh.To accommodate the huge crowds smalltemporary camps are always constructed in thedry river bed, which might place pressure onaquatic ecosystem. Since the north-western partof the Shivalik landscape falls under the upperGangetic plains province, the healthy riverecosystem of the Ganges is sustaining the otter’spopulation in some pockets of RNP and adjoininghabitats. A study carried out on the water qualityof the Ganges in Haridwar exposed that massbathing influences the water quality of Ganges butonly for a short duration. The Biochemical OxygenDemand recorded during the bathing daysindicated that water of the Ganges at Haridwar isnon-polluted (Gangwar and Joshi, 2007).

The major threats to Asian populations of ottersare loss of wetland habitats because of constructionof large scale hydroelectric projects, constructionof dams & barrages, aquaculture activities,reclamation of wetlands for settlements andagriculture, reduction in prey biomass, poachingand contamination of waterways by pesticides(Hussain et al., 2008; Shenoy et al., 2003).Throughout South and Southeast Asia there is asevere conflict between otters and humans as aresult of the ever-increasing human population andexpansion of agricultural fields along theriverbanks and other otter habitats that also providewater for agriculture (Joshi, 2009).

Conclusion

The otters, at the apex of the freshwater foodweb, are good indicators of healthy riverineecosystems which they inhabit. Evidences of thesurvival of smooth-coated otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata) have been documented from theriver Ganges flowing across RNP, in northwestIndia. However, no archive/literature is availableso far which could highlights its status in RNP.This species is considered as endangered and islisted as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List and inAppendix II of CITES. Open sandy patches whichconsist of rocky bases, the availability of high preybiomass and a fresh river ecosystem offer an idealhabitat for otters in this protected habitat. Thisdocumentation confirms the existence andabundance of smooth-coated otter in RNP.However, to assemble records on habitatpreference and ecological requirements is ofconsiderable importance in developing effectiveconservation and management strategies. It isrecommended to undertake further surveys ofpotential habitats across the Gangetic plains, tocollect ground-based information on speciesabundance.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Mr. M.S. Negi, formerForest Range Officer, RNP for providing inputsduring field visits. Thanks are also due to Ms.Himani Joshi for providing help in preparationof this manuscript.

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References

Conroy, J., Melisch, R. and P. Chanin. 1998. Thedistribution and status of the Eurasianotter (Lutra lutra) in Asia–a preliminaryreview. IUCN Otter Spec. Group Bull.,15(1): 15-30.

Gangwar, K.K. and B.D. Joshi. 2007. Impact ofmass bathing on water quality of riverGanga during Magh Purnima at Haridwar.Proceedings of DAE-BRNS NationalSymposium on Limnology,February 19-21,2007 (Eds. Venkataramani, B., Sharma, L.L.,Puranik, V.D., Durve, V.S., Apte, S.K., Gupta,H.C.L., Gour, H.N., Verma, P.C., Sharma,S.K. and Sharma, B.K.), Department ofAquaculture, Maharana Pratap University ofAgriculture and Technology, Udaipur,Rajasthan, India, pp.358-363.

Hussain, S.A. and B.C. Choudhury. 1997.Distribution and status of the smooth–coated otter Lutra perspicillata in NationalChambal Sanctuary, India. BiologicalConservation, 80(2): 199-206.

Hussain, S.A. 2002a. Conservation status ofotters in the Terai and lower Himalayasof Uttar Pradesh, India. In: Proceedings ofVIIth International Otter Colloquium: Otterconservation–an example for a sustainable useof wetlands, March 14-19, 1998 (Eds. Dulfer,R., Conroy, J., Nel, J. and Gutleb, A.C.), IUCNOtter Specialist Group Bull., Trebon, CzechRepublic, pp.131-142.

Hussain, S.A. 2002b. A note on the historicalrecord of otter distribution in India, withspecial reference to lower Himalayas andTarai. In: Proceedings of VIIth InternationalOtter Colloquium: Otter conservation–anexample for a sustainable use of wetlands,March 14-19, 1998 (Eds. Dulfer, R., Conroy,J., Nel, J. and Gutleb, A.C.), IUCN OtterSpecialist Group Bull., Trebon, CzechRepublic, pp.143-147.

Hussain, S.A. 2013. Activity pattern,behavioural activity and interspecificinteraction of smooth-coated otter(Lutrogale perspicillata) in NationalChambal Sanctuary, India. IUCN OtterSpec. Group Bull., 30(1): 5-17.

Hussain, S.A., De Silva, P.K. and F.M. Mostafa.2008. Lutrogale perspicillata. In: IUCN,

2013, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.Version 2013.2. www.iucnredlist.org.Downloaded on 22nd November 2013.

IUCN, 2011. IUCN Red List of ThreatenedSpecies. Version 2011.2.www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 26March 2012.

Joshi, D. 2009. Status of smooth Indian otter(Lutra perspicillata) and conservation offresh water ecosystem outside protectedareas of Bardia National Park in Karnaliriver, Nepal. Report, www.rufford.org/files/06.09.07%20Detailed%20Final%20Report.doc.Downloaded on 22nd November 2013.

Nawab, A. 2008. Conservation of otter speciesin India. Interim field report: Narora (Ramsarsite), Uttar Pradesh. Freshwater andWetlands Programme, WWF–India, NewDelhi.

Nawab, A. and S.A. Hussain. 2012. Preyselection by smooth–coated otter(Lutrogale perspicillata) in response to thevariation in fish abundance in upperGangetic plains, India. Mammalia, 76(1):57-67.

Prater, S.H. 1971. The book of Indian animals.Bombay Natural History Society & OxfordUniversity Press, Mumbai, India.

Shenoy, K., Varma, S. and K.V. Devi Prasad.2003. Otters in Cauvery WildlifeSanctuary, Southern India, a study on thehabitat choice and diet composition of thesmooth-coated otter (Lutra perspicillata).Report, Nityata Foundation and Asian NatureConservation Foundation, Bangalore, India.

Sinha, N.K. 1994. Mammals (Mammalia) In:Fauna of Rajaji National Park, Fauna ofconservation area 5 (Ed. Director). ZoologicalSurvey of India, India, pp. 9-23.

WWF-India. Smooth-coated Otter,Ambassadors for wetland conservation.http://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/priority_species/smooth_coated_otter.Downloaded on 22nd November 2013.

Author’s address: Conservation and SurveyDivision, Ministry of Environment and Forests,New Delhi, India,E-mail: [email protected]

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NO SPECIAL INGREDIENTS IN TIGER BONE WINE:IMPLICATIONS FOR WILD TIGER CONSERVATION ANDPUBLIC EDUCATION

by Wei-dong Bao, Guo-fa Cui, Ji-liang Xu, Nasendelger

Introduction

Traditional bone wines of tiger, leopard and otherlarge wild cats were used for many centuries infolk medicine among Asian people (Zhang &Zhang, 2009). It was believed that bone winerelieved rheumatic pains, removed dampness, andtreated lassitude of waist and knee due to coldand damp (Li et al., 1994). The tale of bone wine’smagic function makes it still in high demand evenwhen effective modern medicine is convenientlyaccessed. Although the CITES ban on trade intiger and other large cats body parts throughoutthe world has reduced the cat bones demand, theillegal trading for tiger bone has never disappearedand poaching for wild cat bones remains the chiefthreat to these rare wild cats (State ForestryAdministration, 2009). For the purpose of reducingtiger bone demand, Chinese researchers tried tofind replacement species using bone compositionanalysis (Yang et al., 1993; Liu et al., 1995; Songet al., 1995a). Several alternative animals weresuccessfully identified (Hai, 2000; Liu and Han,2006), including the steppe zokor Myospalaxbaileyi, for Sailong wine rheumatism (Hai, 2002).The medicinal functions of these bone materialsare similar to tiger bone (Li and Zhang, 1998).However, on the question of what specialcomponents in tiger bone wine gives its medicinalfunction remains unclear (Hu et al., 2009). Ourpurpose of this paper is to analyze whether specificingredients in Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaicabone wine exist; we also made a comparison withEurasian lynx Lynx lynx bone wine to look forclues on bone wine ingredients for wild cats ingeneral.

Material and methods

We collected 50 ml of tiger bone wine made froma poached Amur tiger in Jilin province in December2008 and 50 ml of Eurasian lynx bone wine made

from a poached lynx from Inner Mongolia inMarch 2010. The bone wines were made bysoaking the bones directly in spirits without herbaladditives.

The bone wines were concentrated from 5ml to0.2ml by bubbling nitrogen gas and the chemicalingredients were analyzed using GC/MS (GC:TRACE 2000 Series, ThermoQuest)/MS(VOYAGER, ThermoQuest, FINNIGAN)following general procedure described by theCenter of Biological Sciences of Beijing ForestryUniversity. The GC/MS analysis procedure is GCcolumn: fused silica capillary column DB-5 (30m×0.25 mm×0.25 μm); the oven temperature wasprogrammed from 50°C (isothermal for 4 min.),with an increase of 20°C/min. to 180°C, then10°C/min. to 290°C, ending with a 10 min.isothermal at 290°C. Helium (99.99%) was usedas a carrier gas at a constant flow of 1.5 ml/min.and injection temperature at 250°C. Mass spectrareadings were taken in electron impact mode at70 eV with an interface temperature of 250°C;Ion-source temperature at 190°C; scan intervalof 0.5 seconds of 29-540 amu. An injection volumeof 1.5μL was employed (no split). Interpretationof mass spectrum was conducted using thedatabase of the National Institute Standard andTechnology (NIST). The name, molecularstructure, and probability of the components in thebone wines were ascertained. The relativecontents were calculated using the areanormalization method of total ions chromatogramarea of the related component peaks.

Amino acid components were analyzed usingHitachi L-8900 Amino Acid Analyzer followingthe national test standard of GB/T1824-2000 bythe Feeds Testing Center of China AgriculturalUniversity. Bottled commercial spirits (52%alcohol) bought from supermarket was used asexperimental control.

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Results

According to the analysis of GC/MS there were6 main chemical ingredients in the tiger bone winewith phenethyl alcohol (C8H10O) (93.93%) thelargest part followed by a low amount of fattyacids. Ten main chemical ingredients in lynx bonewine were identified with oleic acid (C18H34O2)(61.82%) and Hexadecenoic acid (C16H32O2)(17.46%) being the larger parts. The ingredientsin commercial spirit were phenethyl alcohol(35.16%) as flavor fixative and esters frombrewing crops.

In tiger bone wine 16 amino acids were detectedwith Alanine (1.3mg/100ml), Glutamic acid(0.9mg/100ml), Lysine (0.7mg/100ml), and Valine(0.6mg/100ml) higher than others, whereas 15amino acids were detected in lynx bone wine withLysine (0.9mg/100ml), Leucine (0.8 mg/100ml),Alanine (0.8mg/100ml), Valine (0.6mg/100ml), andPhenylalanine (0.5mg/100ml) in higher content.The total amount of amino acid in tiger wine was5.9 mg/100ml and 6.5 mg/100ml in lynx wine.There was no amino acid detected in commercialspirits.

Discussion

Experiments showed that the extracts of aminoacids and bone gelatin obtained by boiling in waterwere taken as the functional ingredients in tigerbones (Yang et al., 1993; Song et al., 1995a).Bones from other species with similar organic andnon-organic matters could therefore be used inplace of tiger bone in medicinal wine making (Songet al., 1995b; Suo et al., 2004), and severalalternatives were found successfully to replacetiger bone in traditional Chinese medicine (Li andZhang, 1998; Fan and Li, 2001; Hai, 2002). In ourstudy we did not find any special ingredients exceptamino acids and normal fatty acids similar to otherstudies (New Medical College of Jiangsu, 1975).Based on these findings we think if the tiger bonewine had some positive effects on the human bodyit is the nutrient function played by amino acids,which is greatly different from a medicinal function.

Traditional wild cat bone wines also contain manyother herbs. The medicinal function varied withthese herbs and the function of wild cat bone wines

may rely mostly on these herbs instead of the catbones themselves. For example, an experimentcomparing a medication wine with and withoutleopard bone found that the function of the latteronly decreased a little in inhibiting a rat’s idiopathicinflammation and secondary inflammation. Thisexperiment showed that the leopard bone was notthe necessary ingredient for its medicinal effectsof the bone wine (An et al., 2009). Thus, beliefsof strengthening muscles and bones by drinkingcat bone wines is from a psychological placeboeffect; if it does show any effects, it may be aresult of herbs instead of cat bones.

Compared with modern medicines wild cat bonewines were much less effective in reducing painand inhibit inflammation. Studies proved that bonewines of lynx and leopard had the anti-inflammatory effects in mouse ears treated by p-xylene with a very high dose of 60 g/kg body weightcompared to 0.01 g/kg of Indomethacin (Li et al.,1989). Thus, we think the cat bone wines mixedwith herbs were the only choice for medicalpurposes in ancient times. At present there aremany efficient medicines for curing arthritis,relieving rheumatic pains, and inhibitinginflammation at very low prices.

Based on our analysis of tiger and lynx bone winecontents, there were no special ingredients ofmedicinal value. Although the Chinese Year ofTiger is past, we strongly propose that people livingin modern society abandon the ill-conceived andpseudo-scientific legends of magic functions oftiger bone wine and refuse to drink any wild catbone wines. Otherwise, poaching for tiger boneswill push the wild tiger to extinction by the nextYear of Tiger in 2022. Amino acids found in catbone wines are easy to get cheaply from manyhealth drinks and foods. Refusal of cat bone wineswill greatly help to save the endangered rare wildcats. Our results also remind people around theworld using wild animal products as folk medicineto rethink the true value of the endangered speciesand help nature maintain a diversified wildlifetreasure.

Acknowledgements

We thank Professor H.J. Chen from BeijingForestry University for conducting the GC/MS

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analysis and interpreting the chemicalingredients. We are grateful for the aminoacids analysis by the Feed Testing Center ofChina Agricultural University. We thank Dr U.Breitenmoser from the Cat Specialist Group ofIUCN/SSC for commenting the early draft ofthis manuscript. We are in debt to Dr M. R.Frisina from Montana State University forproofreading the manuscript. This study wasfunded by the Ministry of Science &Technology of China for the National KeyProject of Scientific and Technical SupportingProgram (No. 2008BADB0B01), and theNational Science Foundation of China (No.30570305).

References

An, X. M., Hou, M., Li, N. and H. Shi. 2009.Study on the influence of removing thePanther’ bone on rats adjuvant arthritis ofthe Hongmao medication wine. GuidingJournal of Traditional Chinese Medicine andPharmacy 15(10): 7-9.

Fan, Y. M. and R.F. Li. 2001. Effect of artificialtiger bone powder on retinoic acid inducedosteoporosis in rat. Pharmacology andClinics of Chinese Materia Medica 17(2): 13-14.

Hai, P. 2000. Experimental study on anti-inflammatory effect of Sailong bone.Liaoning Journal of Traditional ChineseMedicine 27: 524-526.

Hai, P. 2002. Study on Sailong bone in treatingosteoporotic rat. Shandong Journal ofTraditional Chinese Medicine 21: 231-233.

Hu, L. N., Li, N., Yu, M. and Z. Lin. 2009. Sortingresearch on series of zoo-pharmacy: tigerbone. Jilin Traditional Chinese Medicine 29:157-159.

Li, C. Y., Zhang, D. F. and L.Liu. 1994. Themateria medica and modern research oftiger bone. Journal of Changchun CollegeTraditional Chinese Medicine 10(5): 81-82.

Li, L. and J. Y. Zhang. 1998. Experiment of dogbone glue promoting the recovery offracture healing. Chinese Journal ofTraditional Medical Science and Technology5: 389.

Li, L. Z., Huang, Y., Luo, L. Y., Zhang, B. J. and Y.L. Xue. 1989. Comparison ofpharmacological function of leopard and

lynx bones. Journal of Chinese MedicinalMaterials 12(8): 31-33.

Liu, Q. F., Song, X. Q., Peng, C. E., Lu, H. Q. andW. Gao. 1995. Comparison of the infraredspectroscopy of the tiger bone and itsanalogues. Journal of Beijing University ofTraditional Chinese Medicine 18 (6): 67-68.

Liu, Z. and D. W. Han. 2006. Advances in clinicalresearch of tiger bone and artificial tigerbone. Chinese Journal of Traditional MedicalTraumatology and Orthopedics 14(2): 73-75.

New Medical College of Jiangsu. 1975. Dictionaryof Chinese Traditional Medicine. ShanghaiScience and Technology Press, Shanghai.

State Forestry Administration. 2009. NationalSurvey of China’s Key Terrestrial WildlifeSpecies. China Forestry Publishing House,Beijing.

Song, X. Q., Peng, C. E., Lu, H. Q. and W. Gao.1995a. Analysis of amino acids in tiger boneand its analogues. Journal of BeijingUniversity of Traditional Chinese Medicine18(2): 43-44.

Song, X. Q., Peng, C. E., Lu, H. Q. and W. Gao.1995b. Analysis of trace elements in tigerbone and its analogues. Journal of BeijingUniversity of Traditional Chinese Medicine18(4): 69.

Suo, Y. R., Zhang, B. C. and H.Q. Wang. 2004.Comparison on mineral elements in boneof Sailong and tiger. Chinese Traditional andHerbal Drugs 35: 445-448.

Yang, S. P., Teng, Y. M. and K. S. Xu. 1993. Studieson the physical and chemical characteristicsof tiger, sika deer, red deer, hog, goat anddog bone I. Comparative studies on theamino acid components of the Gelatine inthe four limbs and the vertebra of tiger andother animals. Chinese Journal ofPharmaceutical Analysis 13: 307-310.

Zhang, G. H. and G. Z. Zhang. 2009. Advances ofChinese medical wine research. Journal ofPractical Traditional Chinese Medicine 25: 776-777.

Authors’ addresses: Weidong Bao and Nasendelger,College of Biological Sciences and Technology,Beijing Forestry University, No. 35 Qinghua EastRoad, Haidian, Beijing 100083 China; Guofa Cuiand Jiliang Xu, College of Nature Conservation,Beijing Forestry University, No. 35 Qinghua EastRoad, Haidian, Beijing 100083 China.

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FOREST NEWSFOREST NEWS

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PNG TACKLES THE ‘3R CHALLENGE’ OF LOGGINGCODE IMPLEMENTATION

Prepared by Graham Wilkinson, Chief Technical Adviser, GCP/PNG/003/AUL

Introduction

Papua New Guinea (PNG) introduced itsLogging Code of Practice (LCOP) in 1996, andin doing so established itself as a front-runnerwithin the Asia-Pacific Region. Theimplementation of a LCOP is part of a longjourney towards sustainable forest management(SFM) and to use a sporting analogy, front-runners need to keep refreshing their tactics andenergy if they want to stay in front or even stay inthe race! Kanawi Pouru, the Managing Directorof the PNG Forest Authority (PNGFA), keenly

remembers the introduction of the LCOP, butafter 16 years he was concerned that PNGwas losing ground: trained, experienced staffwere retiring; new staff were not being trainedin the LCOP; and budget constraints meantthat the PNGFA increasingly did not have thecapacity to monitor and enforce the LCOP.As a result, Kanawi decided that it was timefor PNG to refresh its approach to the LCOPand in 2012 he initiated a review of the LCOPwith the support of the Australian Governmentand FAO, through the project GCP/PNG/003/AUL “Promoting sustainable forest

Children with firewood in Papua New Guinea

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management by developing effective systems offorest planning, monitoring and control in PapuaNew Guinea”.

The ‘3R Challenge’

After 16 years of code implementation, PNG wasready to take on the ‘3R Challenge’ – to Review,Revise and Revitalize the LCOP.

1. Review – Four technical workshops,several inspections of field operations andother consultations were undertaken tocapture the collective knowledge and

experience of the PNGFA, forestindustry, landowners, NGOs and otherstakeholders in implementing the LCOPin PNG. The developments andexperience from other countries within theregion were also reviewed, particularlywith respect to technical guidelines forstandards such as slope limits, streambuffers and the maintenance ofbiodiversity. The key findings of thereview process are documented inproject reports and are summarised inBox 1.

Box 1: Key findings of the review of

the technical content of the LCOP

1. The LCOP must be simple and practical; aimed primarily at field foresters

2. Provide a supplementary ‘field guide’ for forest operators and landowners

3. Clarify that the LCOP delivers Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)

4. Remove the ‘key standards’ from the LCOP, because experience indicates that they are used as a subset of the

full code

5. Upgrade the Planning, Monitoring and

Control Procedures that support the LCOP, to provide better planning guidelines for forest soils, water and

biodiversity

6. Prepare supplementary manuals on

specific topics to complement the LCOP and to allow for progressive updating of guidelines as information and

resources are available.

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The ‘good and the bad’. Application of the LCOP has resulted in good regeneration on a skid track one year afterlogging.

Excessive road clearing and earthworks. Failure to apply the road construction provisions of the LCOP hasresulted in adverse impacts on forest soils, streams and biodiversity

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Cloudy Bay 2012 logging damage from skidding

West New Britain Kimbe logging crew. The revised LCOP has an emphasis on avoiding damage to the residualstand and ensuring that forest operators are trained and equipped with safety gear.

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2. Revise - The review phase led to therevision of the technical content of theLCOP, resulting in a new, improved editionof the LCOP. However, moreimportantly, the review recognised that aLCOP is only as good as itsimplementation system and it was clearthat major changes were required toimprove the application of the LCOP. Itwas recognised that the PNGFA does nothave adequate resources to carry out its

current regulatory responsibilities. Manyforest management agencies throughoutthe region face a similar situation wherefunding is declining without anycommensurate decrease in work load. Anew approach was therefore needed toensure the effective implementation of theLCOP into the future. A revised codeimplementation system has now beendeveloped for consideration by the PNGNational Forest Board (see Box 2).

Box 2: Main features of the proposed revised code implementation system

1. Adopt a co‐regulatory approach to the implementation of the LCOP, to‐

‐ make the forest industry more

responsible and accountable by transferring the approval of

operational plans and compliance checks to trained and accredited

forest practices officers within the forest industry

‐ allow the PNGFA to focus its limited

resources on training, accreditation and independent monitoring

2. Develop improved training courses and accredited on‐the‐job training by workplace trainers and mentors

3. Conduct education programs for landowners to foster better

understanding of the role of the LCOP as part of SFM

4. Provide more effective and transparent

methods of monitoring and reporting on the standards being achieved.

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3. Revitalize - The following key factorsemerged as the best way of revitalizingthe implementation and effectiveness ofthe LCOP in PNG-- Introduce the proposed co-

regulatory approach (Box 2) tofoster greater sharing of resourcesand cooperation amongst thePNGFA, forest industry and keystakeholders

- Strengthen the curriculum fortraining in the LCOP at the forestrydegree and diploma levels andprovide train-the-trainer programsto enhance the capacity for ongoingworkplace training in the LCOP

- Improve the framework formonitoring and reporting on thestandards being achieved.

PNG is now moving ahead again with a reviewed,revised and revitalized LCOP. Time will tell howeffective the changes will be in keeping PNG in

the ‘race for SFM’ but the signs are promising.Within the industry the LCOP is no longer beingresisted as a threat to commercial timberharvesting; a practical and technically-sound codeis increasingly regarded as a normal and importantcomponent of any legitimate forestry business andas a key tool for meeting international certificationand market requirements. However, challengesremain, particularly with respect to balancing therights of landowners (to use their land forsubsistence and economic development) withbroader ‘public good’ obligations (to conserve thenatural and cultural diversity of PNG’s forests).These issues are determined by governmentallaws and policies but out in the forest we all havea collective challenge to strive for the bestoperational practices that can be practicallyachieved. PNG has risen to that challenge! Howis your code faring in the journey towards SFM?

Further information: Graham Wilkinson([email protected]) or Patrick Durst([email protected])

Staghorn ferns. PNG’s forests provide essential products and environmental services.

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TRAINING SENIOR FOREST POLICYMAKERS IN ASIA ANDTHE PACIFIC

In 2007, in response to the recommendation ofthe Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission to improvecapacity in forest policy analysis, development andimplementation, FAO initiated a programme ofexecutive forest policy courses for seniorpolicymakers in Asia and the Pacific. To date,seven such courses have been organized – inBhutan, China, Fiji (2), Thailand (2) and Viet Nam– involving more than 100 senior officials andforest managers from 25 countries.

Lasting 10–12 days, including a field visit, eachcourse involves a variety of learning tools andmethods. Courses are tailored to address the policyissues and emerging global, national and localchallenges most relevant to the particular sub-region. Key topics covered in the courses include:drivers of change affecting forests and forestry;climate change; payments for environmentalservices; socio-cultural aspects of forestry;governance; effective communication; and policyprocesses and evaluation.

The Executive Forest Policy Course programmetakes an innovative approach to training. Forexample, leading international experts and resourcepersons deliver modules interactively, therebyallowing maximum learning opportunities forparticipants. Participants are encouraged todevelop their own plans to tackle specific policyissues in their countries using the knowledge andunderstanding they gain in the course, includingfrom their peers. Coaching is provided throughoutthe process.

Evaluations of the courses are invariably verypositive, with participants expressing greatappreciation for the course content and outputs.There is strong interest and support from membergovernments and global and regional institutionsto enroll senior staff in future courses.

Designed to develop policy capacity in sustainableforest management, the Executive Forest Policy

Course programme contributes to FAO StrategicObjective 2.

Upon the request of the Secretariat of the PacificCommunity (SPC) and leading forestry officialsfrom Pacific countries, the 7th Executive ForestPolicy Course focused on the Pacific region.Twenty-two participants who attended the coursethat took place in Fiji represented 6 Pacific Islandcountries and China. They spent 12 days immersedin the theory and practice of forest policy:considering new issues; policy successes andfailures; emerging policy challenges and honingnew skills for addressing policy-related demands.The course was delivered in interactive ways byhigh-quality resource persons.

The course was designed to: Provide an understanding of the implications

of larger societal changes, includingglobalization and localization and theimperatives of current and emerginginternational agreements and conventions onland use in general and forestry in particular.

Enable sharing of experiences and bestpractices in integrated land use in the pursuitof sustainable forest management.

Explore ideas and tools for policy analysis anddevelopment and their application to thePacific countries.

Key issues that were addressed in the courseincluded: Overarching changes that are likely to impact

land use in general and forestry in particular; Implications of climate change on the Pacific

countries and what are the options availableto address the challenges;

Probable scenarios that are likely to unfold inthe region during the next few decades andhow policies and institutions in the countriesmay need to respond;

Options available to strengthen governance inthe forest sector, especially to ensure

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sustainable management of forest and treeresources, adopting a landscape approach.

Course modules

The 7th Forest Policy Course consisted of 10modules, as follows:Module 1: The unfolding future: Societal

changes, land use and forestry in thePacific

Module 2: The environmental dimension:Climate change, natural disasters andforest policies

Module 3: Production and trade of wood in thePacific: Legality, sustainability anduncertainties

Module 4: Social and cultural dimensions offorestry: Equity, poverty and socialinclusion

Module 5: Building responsive/proactiveinstitutions

Module 6: Governance, accountability andtransparency in the forest sector

Module 7: Changing international scene:Implications of internationalagreements on national land use/forest policies in the South Pacific

Module 8: The policy process

Module 9: Effective communication

Module 10: Analysis of national land use/forestpolicies

Feedback on the course by the participants wasoverall positive. To date, FAO has trained over100 current and future forestry leaders from 25countries in the Asia-Pacific region through itsExecutive Forest Policy Course series, initiated in2007.

WHEN FACING APOCALYPSE...PLANT A TREE

By Patrick B. Durst and Chris Brown

The ancient Roman emperor Nero gained eternalnotoriety for infamously “fiddling while Romeburned.” In our more modern times, faced withthe great impending natural disaster that is climatechange, Nero would be just one part of theorchestra.

Each year, while tens of thousands of individualsturn up at the Conferences of the Parties of theUnited Nations Framework Convention onCombating Climate Change to sing and listen tothe songs of doom, it’s a great deal more difficultto find anyone implementing tangible, on-the-ground actions to address and prepare for climatechange.

It is particularly difficult to find countries, localgovernments or even individuals that are initiating

bold measures to protect themselves from theextreme events that we are assured by a vastmajority of climate scientists will strike withincreasing frequency and severity as globaltemperatures increase. The Fifth (and latest)Assessment Report of the International Panel onClimate Change (IPCC) concludes that the majorclimatic disturbances, including the anticipatedincrease in severe weather events, will occursooner and likely be worse than previouslyprojected. Alarmingly, the report also notes asignificant across-the-board lack of preparationto deal with climate variability.

So, why aren’t we doing more to get ready forthe almost universally predicted negative impactsof climate change, or at least, to mitigate the worstblows? Why are we fiddling?

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For a start, it costs money – often big money –and that’s money that most countries either don’thave or feel they cannot afford. It’s money that’scurrently spent on health, education, welfare,national defense and the like.

Most countries also seem mired in a “wait andsee” mode – perhaps thinking the worst mightnot happen or that it might not happen to them, orsimply following a path of political expediency.As with various impending disasters, policymakers in many countries seemingly find it moreconvenient to deal with the consequences ofcleaning up from a natural disaster than spendinglarge sums of money on protective measures.There may also be an element of safety in numbers– no one else is doing much, so why should we?

Finally, there is undoubtedly a sense ofhopelessness and fatalism stemming from a lackof clear knowledge on what measures might beuseful to protect against climate change. Manypeople are frustrated, believing that there isnothing that can be done – or is there?

For Pacific Island countries, the good news is thata range of sensible, cost-effective, “no-regrets”measures is available to help reduce the severityof climate-related impacts and other naturaldisasters, through judicious planting of trees.Action is possible from individual householdsplanting a tree on their own property to provincialand national initiatives of large scale planting. Inother words, everyone can contribute towardbuilding resiliency against the negative impact ofclimate change.

Of critical importance for most Pacific Islandcountries with extensive coastlines is the fact thattrees can provide protection against storm surges,salt spray and coastal erosion – all of which areexpected to be a greater threat with impendingclimate change.

As witnessed during the 2011 Great East Japanearthquake and tsunami, trees can also play animportant role in reducing the energy of tsunamiwaves, trapping flotsam and reducing devastationwrought on inland areas.

Trees have a tenacious ability to bind soil together,which helps stabilize flood-prone river banks,protect against erosion, and reduce shallowlandslides on hillsides in times of heavy rainfall.Planting deep-rooted, wind- firm tree species inshelterbelts can help to protect agricultural crops,livestock and property from powerful cyclonicwinds.

Even downed trees can provide a ready sourceof wood for construction of emergency housing,as evidenced in the wake of Typhoon Haiyan inthe Philippines. And, as we all should know, whilewe await possible disaster to strike, all living treesare busily absorbing carbon from the atmosphereto hopefully help avoid the worst climate changescenarios.

Working together in a coordinated way, more canbe achieved but it will require a strong and enablingpolicy framework. This week, senior forestrypolicy makers from across the Pacific arewrapping up deliberations on appropriate policymeasures to address climate change andcorresponding natural disasters, and other pressingforestry challenges.

Policy makers have been attending a two-weekExecutive Forest Policy Course “People, Land Useand Forestry in the Pacific,” being conducted from12 to 23 May 2014, in Nadi, Fiji. The course isbeing coordinated by the United Nations Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO), the Asia-PacificForest Policy Think Tank and the Secretariat ofthe Pacific Community (SPC).

A key objective of the course is to help policymakers make well-formulated and better decisionson forestry and trees. That could lead to moretree-planting in vulnerable areas and a lot lesstuning of fiddles.

(Opinion piece issued to Pacific media at thetime of the Seventh Executive Forest PolicyCourse.)

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON “INSECTS TO FEED THE WORLD”

The international conference on “Insects to Feedthe World” brought together the largestassemblage to date of experts and professionalsfrom around the world dealing with edible insects.The conference, organized by FAO andWageningen University, attracted approximately450 participants, from more than 45 countries, toconsider all aspects of collection, production,processing, marketing and consumption related toedible insects. The event was convened 14-17May 2014, in Ede, Netherlands.

The overall objective of the conference was topromote the use of insects as human food and asanimal feed to enhance food security. Specificobjectives of the conference were to: provide an overview of the current status of

insects as food and feed;

identify constraints in the development of theinsect food/feed sector (e.g. legislation);

promote interactions among stakeholders inthe insect value chain;

formulate recommendations to increase theimpact of using insects as a food and feedsource;

contribute to standardizing methodologies foranalyzing the nutritional composition of insects;

promote the gathering of national andinternational data on the production and tradeof edible insects;

establish inter-disciplinary networks amongrelevant partners; and

create global awareness of this neglected foodand feed source.

The conference included thematic sessions on: Harvesting from nature;

Production of insects as food and feed;

Food safety, legislation and policy;

Insects as feed: specific production systems;

Nutrition, processing, consumer attitudes andgastronomy;

Environmental issues; and

Outreach and communication.

The conference pulled together a wide range ofspecialists and practitioners from throughout theworld, including biologists/ecologists,entomologists, researchers, private sectorentrepreneurs, development workers, governmentofficials and representatives of internationalorganizations. The meeting clearly reflected therapidly growing and dynamic nature of this sector,and revealed far more potential and ongoingactivities than previously recognized. The growingnumber of private sector initiatives andinvestments are particularly noteworthy.

FAO was readily recognized and appreciated forproviding leadership and support in this emergingsector (including prominent recognition of RAPpublications related to edible insects and supportof field projects and studies). Although it wasrecognized that skeptics and critics remain, theoverwhelming sense of the assemblage was thatinsects would become increasingly important incontributing to overall food security in the comingyears. The potential for insects to contributesignificantly in the animal feed sector appearsparticularly promising.

There remains a wide gap between activities beingconducted in developing countries (largely forfood) and the high-tech initiatives (primarily indeveloped countries) focused on producing feedfor livestock and aquaculture.

Contributed by Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP

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Major areas requiring attention are legislation andregulation to govern food safety, trade andmarketing of insects for food and feed; protocolsfor farming more insect species; protection of wildinsect populations; and improved communicationand messaging on the potential and acceptabilityof insects to contribute to food security.

Key recommendations from the conferenceincluded the following:

For academia: Address knowledge gaps related to

sustainability of harvesting insects from nature,indigenous knowledge, identification of species,standard methods for determining nutritionalvalues, developing mass rearing techniques, andtrade and value chains for existing markets.

Establish international research consortiums.

Conduct interdisciplinary and internationalresearch on using insects for food and feed.

Reposition the field of entomology to focusmore on edible insects.

Private sector: Create national and international associations

of food and feed enterprises.

Improve communication and sharing ofknowledge among companies, academia andpolicy makers.

Develop product quality standards (e.g., pro-active self-regulation, certification schemes).

Governments: Create enabling environments for the edible

insect sector, including legislation, policy andclear regulations.

Implement conservation strategies to protectinsect populations from overharvesting.

International organization and civil society: Provide technical support to stakeholders and

countries in using insects as food and feed.

Provide platforms for exchange of knowledgeamong stakeholders.

The conference saw the launching of the Journalof Insects as Food and Feed, with the firstvolume anticipated in early 2015.

FORESTS ASIA SUMMIT

The Forests Asia Summit: Sustainable landscapesfor green growth in Southeast Asia convened 5-6May in Jakarta, Indonesia. The Summit broughttogether representatives from government,research, civil society and the private sector in aregional multi-stakeholder dialogue. The aim wasto lay the foundations for continued dialogue,transitions toward sustainable investments, andfurther research to support evidence-basedpolicymaking, all directed toward achievingequitable green growth and more sustainablemanagement of landscapes across Southeast Asia.

The Summit positioned forests and landscapes atthe core of ongoing policy processes in the region

related to green growth, poverty eradication,sustainable land use, climate change mitigation andadaptation, food security and nutrition. Significantparticipation from the private sector reflected theincreasing urgency for its engagement inenvironmentally sustainable practices.

FAO’s discussion forum at the Summit

Eighteen high level discussion forums wereorganized during the Summit. FAO’s discussionforum sought to identify the ways in which Asia’sforests are progressing towards a green economy,as well as the opportunities and challenges thatthey might face in coming decades as it strives

Prepared by Yurdi Yasmi, Forest Policy Officer, FAO RAP

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for green growth. It specifically focused on theme5: Changing communities, sustainablelandscapes and equitable development. TheDiscussion Forum was attended by some 200participants and brought together scientists,development organizations, donors, civil societyand community organizations to discuss the newrole of forests and forestry in green growth andpoverty reduction.

Yurdi Yasmi, Forest Policy Officer, FAO RAP,opened the discussion forum by setting the sceneand summarizing the main achievements of theforest sector towards greener forestry andsustainable landscapes. “Sustainable forestmanagement practices have a lot to offer to greeneconomy and sustainable development goals,” hesaid. “Experiences from assisted naturalregeneration and leasehold forestry projects, forexample, demonstrate how these interventionscontribute to effectively achieving social, economicand environmental objectives. Yurdi furtherdescribed three key opportunities that can supportgreen economy objectives through forestry:promoting sustainable practices in forestry;expanding natural assets; and creating forestryjobs.

The role of ASEAN

Dr. Doris Capistano, Senior Advisor of theASEAN-Swiss Partnership on Social Forestry andClimate Change and Senior Fellow at theSoutheast Asian Regional Center for GraduateStudy and Research in Agriculture, remarked that“ASEAN countries individually and collectivelyhave a unique opportunity to move towards a greeneconomy based on sustainable, multiple-uselandscapes. This requires transformative policiesat all levels, cross-sectoral and multi-stakeholdercollaboration, the re-imagining of the face of theprivate sector to more centrally include small andmedium-sized businesses, and achieving greaterequity in the distribution of benefits across the valuechains.” Processes and mechanisms already existwithin ASEAN that can facilitate thistransformation. ASEAN’s MultisectoralFramework for Climate Change: Agriculture andForestry Towards Food Security is a cross-sectoralmechanism, which although still in the early stages

of development can potentially play an importantrole.

Conclusion and way forward

The discussion forum concluded that forestry hasenormous potential to contribute to green growthand green economy goals and targets in Asia.Forestry alone won’t be able to tackle theeconomic, social and environmental challenges thatneed to be overcome to achieve these goals, butneither can such challenges be addressed withoutforestry as an integral part. Overcomingfundamental challenges such as land tenureinsecurity, conflicts, misaligned incentive structures,uneven playing fields for business enterprises, thelow capacity of stakeholders, and inadequate policyframeworks will need to be prioritized to createan enabling environment for green growth. Forestmanagement, in particular, needs to becontextualized and reoriented in a manner thatmore effectively and simultaneously supports greengrowth and poverty reduction.

The vast store of knowledge and experience thathas accumulated as a result of decades of researchand experimentation with integrated ruraldevelopment and the sustainable management ofwatersheds and forests provides a solid startingpoint for action. However, the realization of thevision of inclusive green growth can only bepossible with strong and sustained action andcommitment from all stakeholders, and committedleadership, especially from governments.

Discussion forum participants called for futureefforts to identify viable approaches and practices,including through research, in the following areas: Applying landscape approaches in diverse

stakeholder contexts; Managing risks in investments with

smallholders and increasing the scale ofproduction and the quality of products;

Identifying adequate models of cooperation forsmallholders, such as through cooperatives,federations and other arrangements, andsupporting small and medium-sized enterprisesand entrepreneurship; and

Creating enabling conditions that support greeninvestment and at the same time enhanceopportunities for poverty reduction.

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FORESTRY STRATEGIC PLANNING IN THE ASIA-PACIFICREGION

Introduction

Forestry strategic plans are important in sustainableforest management (SFM). They reflect not onlythe forestry development related to the socio-economic situation of an economy, but also layout long-term directions in achieving the goal ofgreen growth. In facing the global challenges, suchas climate change, ecological degradation, naturalresources depletion, food security, etc., economiesin the Asia-Pacific region have begun reviewingand adjusting their Forestry Strategic Plans to adaptto and address those challenges.

APFNet, in collaboration with FAO, co-organizedthe “Workshop on Forestry Strategic Planning inthe Asia-Pacific Region” in New Zealand on 3November 2013, as a pre-session event of the 25thSession of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission(APFC).

A Regional Dialogue on Forestry StrategicPlanning as a Platform was proposed by APFNet.The aims of the Platform are to promoteexperience exchange and information sharing,raise the capacity of forestry officials and expertsin developing and implementing forestry strategicplans, and to contribute to the Asia-PacificEconomic Cooperation (APEC) inspirational goalof increasing forest cover in the Asia-Pacific regionby at least 20 million hectares of all types of forestsby 2020.

The Platform will collaborate with other partnersto contribute the specific objectives as follows: To mainstream the key policies and

programmes of forestry strategic plans intothe development plan of the economy;

To identify the existing issues, key challengesand priorities to be focused on during thecourse of developing and implementingforestry strategic plans;

To strengthen information sharing on forestrypolicies, legislations and strategic plans as wellas the theories and methodologies in relation

to forestry strategic plans; To raise the capacity for developing

economies in development and implementationof forestry strategic plans; and

To explore innovative approaches in forestrystrategic planning to provide multiple benefitswith healthy forest ecosystems and improvinglivelihoods for local people.

The platform is open to all APEC economies,relevant organizations, businesses and individualsin the Asia-Pacific region who are interested inforestry strategic planning. APFNet will provideseed funds to support the specific activities of thePlatform in the region.

Findings and suggestions

All participants emphasized the importance ofbuilding regional collaboration to supporteconomies in improving the strategic planningprocess. Not only do the plans need to be reviewedperiodically, but also global changes andemergency issues will impact on forestrydevelopment in each economy.

Most of the APEC economies are facingchallenges in the development and implementationof strategic plans. These include conflicts amongtoo many policies and regulations in the forestrysector and with other sectors; land use planningstill needs to identify the land to remain solely forforests or to use for agriculture; adjusted policiesand changing markets; insufficient propagandaabout the importance of forests to other sectorsand the public; lack of political support; not enoughresources (financial and staff) to implement theplans, etc.

Some countries such as the Philippines, PNG, andLao PDR are reviewing their forestry strategicplans. The Platform can provide opportunities tocommunicate experiences and share informationwith these countries and others in the future.

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The FFF is pleased to share the news that Vietnamhas been selected as the next partner country fromAsia, where the FFF will work to help strengthenforest and farm producers to improve livelihoodsand sustainable management. Vietnam joinsBolivia, Kenya and Zambia as the most recentcountries to be chosen by a selection panel basedon expressions of interest submitted by forest andfarm producer organizations and governmentagencies. This brings the total number of partnercountries to ten with ongoing programmes inGuatemala, Nicaragua, the Gambia, Liberia, Nepaland Myanmar.

The FFF is a partnership between the FAO, IIEDand IUCN. The facility is guided by amultidisciplinary Steering Committee, whichconsists of knowledgeable experts from a diverserange of backgrounds.

The vision of the FFF is “to improve smallholders,women, communities and indigenous peoples’livelihoods and power in decision-makingprocesses in forest and farm landscapes.” Throughsustainable forest and farm management, thesegroups will have improved income and foodsecurity.

In order to achieve this goal, the FFF seeks topromote multi-sectoral coordination betweenforest and farm producer organizations, localgovernment and partner organizations, on local,regional, and national scales. The FFF facilitatesthese activities through various fundingagreements, and aims to build on existing initiativesand catalysing promising processes at each level.The activities that the FFF carries out are organizedinto 3 pillars:

VIETNAM IS NEWEST PARTNER COUNTRY OF FOREST ANDFARM FACILITY (FFF) IN ASIA

Strengthen smallholder, women, communityand Indigenous Peoples’ producerorganizations for business/livelihoods andpolicy engagement.

Catalyse multi-sectoral stakeholder policyplatforms with governments at local andcountry levels.

Link local voices and learning to globalprocesses through communication andinformation dissemination.

The FFF partnership will be working with theVietnam and Asia-Pacific Regional offices ofFAO, government and forest and farm producerorganizations, including the Farmers’ UnionNetwork, to organize a multi-stakeholder launchingand planning meeting to develop a three-year planof work in Vietnam.

In addition to the four new countries joining theFFF, five partnership agreements were also givenby the organization to support collaborative effortsmade by forest and farm producer organizationsat regional and international levels. Two planningpartnership agreements were made with theInternational Alliance of Indigenous and Tribalpeoples of the Tropical Forest (IAITPTF) and theGlobal Alliance of Community Forestry (GACF);both of which work in the Asia-Pacific region.The three other partnership agreements were givento the Alianza Mesoamericana de Pueblos yBosques (AMPB), the Asian Farmers Associationfor Sustainable Rural Development (AFA) and theInternational Family Forestry Alliance (IFFA). Thesupport from the FFF will enable forest and farmproducers to strengthen their organizations and todevelop and implement strategic plans forengagement at regional and global decision makingfora.

Contributed by Jeffrey Y Campbell, Manager, Forest and Farm Facility (FFF)

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STRENGTHENING THE ENVIRONMENT, FORESTRY ANDCLIMATE CHANGE CAPACITIES

The project “Strengthening the environment,forestry and climate change capacities of theMinistry of Environment and Forests and itsAgencies” in Bangladesh was officially signed inOctober 2013. The main goal of this 3-year projectis to strengthen human and organizational capacityin the country to deliver more effective,coordinated, sustainable and country-driveninvestment programs in environmental protection,sustainable forest management and climate changeadaptation and mitigation. It envisions threeoutputs:1. Environment, Forestry and Climate Change

Sectors Country Investment Plan (CIP)developed, adopted, implemented andmonitored.

2. Improved functional and organizational capacityin the MoEF to efficiently address emergingnational and global environmental, forestry andclimate change issues.

3. Enhanced technical capacities and know-howin the MoEF and its agencies.

The Inception Workshop was held 8 June 2014 inDhaka, Bangladesh. About 60 participantsattended the workshop representing keygovernment agencies and partner organizations.

The implementation arrangement is as follows.FAO will execute the project in collaboration withthe Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).The project will follow a multi-stakeholderapproach and collaborative management principleswhere government, private sector, civil societiesand academia active in the environment sectorswould work together to develop, implement andmonitor a realistic Environment, Forestry and

Climate Change Sectors Country Investment Plan(CIP).

A Project Steering Committee chaired by theSecretary of the MoEF and co-chaired by the FAORepresentative in Bangladesh will be establishedto provide overall guidance, coordination andfacilitation to project implementation.

Key activities planned for 2014: Establish a fully functional project office; Appointment of National Project Director; Recruitment of support staff, national and

international consultants Formation of Project Steering Committee

(PSC), Ministerial Working Group (MWG) andTechnical Advisory Groups (TAG) anddesignation of Departmental Focal Points;

Preparation of communication materials suchas brochures, webpage, etc.;

Hold PSC meeting and meetings of MWG andTAGs;

Organize project orientation workshop formanagement committee and working/taskgroups members;

Initiate baseline study Initiate Environment, Forestry and Climate

Change sectors policies review study Complete gender strategy Carry out stakeholders’ analysis workshop Prepare procedure for the support of training

and capacity enhancement activities (nationalas well as international);

Preparation of CIP guiding principles andgovernance structure;

Provide support to upgrade MoEF’s computercell with necessary hardware and software;

Conduct training and research needsassessments; and

Start training and research activities.

Prepared by Yurdi Yasmi, Forest Policy Officer, FAO RAP

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FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

CHINA’S NATIONAL FORESTCERTIFICATION SYSTEM ACHIEVESPEFC ENDORSEMENT

The China Forest Certification Scheme (CFCS)achieved endorsement by the Programme for theEndorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), theworld’s leading forest certification system.

National forest certification systems that havedeveloped standards in line with PEFCrequirements can apply for endorsement byPEFC. To achieve endorsement, they need to meetPEFC’s Sustainability Benchmarks, which arebased on broad societal consensus expressed ininternational, intergovernmental, multi-stakeholderprocesses and guidelines. Compliance is confirmedthrough third-party assessment of nationalrequirements with the international benchmarks,with a global public consultation seeking input fromstakeholders worldwide.

The endorsement of the national Chinese forestcertification standard represents a significantmilestone for safeguarding global forests given theimportance of the country in the forest productsvalue chain and its substantial forest area. Chinais not only the world’s largest manufacturer offorest products, but also among the five countrieswith the largest forest area in the world.

China is the second Asian country after Malaysiato successfully achieve PEFC endorsement for anational certification system, and the IndonesianForestry Certification Cooperation (IFCC)submitted its scheme for PEFC assessment inNovember 2013.

PEFC is an independent, not-for-profit organizationpromoting sustainable forest management bycertifying forests and the products that come fromthem.– PEFC International –

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER. This issue ofFOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

8-16 September 2014. Forest Tenure Training Workshop. Bangkok, Thailand. Contact: Yurdi Yasmi, FAO RegionalOffice for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

20-22 October 2014. 5th UN-REDD Regional Lessons Learned Workshop: Forest monitoring systems and referencelevels for REDD+. Venue to be confirmed. Contact: Ben Vickers, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

27-29 October 2014. Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Executive Committee Meeting. Thailand. Contact: PatrickDurst, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail:[email protected]

November 2014. Regional Workshop on Drivers of Change Affecting forests in Mekong. Hanoi, Vietnam. Contact:Yurdi Yasmi, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail:[email protected]

12-19 November 2014. IUCN World Parks Congress 2014. Sydney, Australia. Contact: Congress Secretariat,Australasia, GPO Box 3270, Sydney NSW 2001, Australia; E-mail: [email protected]

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONALOFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

For copies please write to: Senior Forestry Officer for Asia and the Pacific,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

Or visit the FAO website for an electronic version: http://www.fao.or.th/publications/publications.htm

East Asian forests and forestry to 2020 (RAPPublication 2010/15)

Forests beneath the grass: Proceedings of theregional workshop on advancing the application ofassisted natural regeneration for effective low-costforest restoration (RAP Publication 2010/11)

Forest policies, legislation and institutions in Asiaand the Pacific: Trends and emerging needs for2020 (RAP Publication 2010/10)

Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry CommissionTwenty-third session (RAP Publication 2010/09)

Asia-Pacific forests and forestry to 2020. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II (RAPPublication 2010/06)

Forest law enforcement and governance: Progressin Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2010/05)

Forest insects as food: humans bite back.Proceedings of a workshop on Asia-Pacificresosurces and their potential for development(RAP Publication 2010/02)

Strategies and financial mechanisms forsustainable use and conservation of forests:experiences from Latin America and Asia (RAPPublication 2009/21)

Asia-Pacific Forestry Week: Forestry in achanging world (RAP Publication 2009/04)

The future of forests: Proceedings of aninternational conference on the outlook for Asia-Pacific forests to 2020 (RAP Publication 2009/03)

Re-inventing forestry agencies. Experiences ofinstitutional restructuring in Asia and the Pacific(RAP Publication 2008/05)

Forest faces. Hopes and regrets in Philippineforestry (RAP Publication 2008/04

Reaching consensus. Multi-stakeholderprocesses in forestry: experiences from the Asia-Pacific region (RAP Publication 2007/31)

Trees and shrubs of Maldives: An illustrated fieldguide (RAP Publication 2007/12)

A cut for the poor: Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Managing Forests forPoverty Reduction Capturing Opportunities inForest Harvesting and Wood Processing for theBenefit of the Poor (RAP Publication 2007/09)

Trees and shrubs of the Maldives (RAPPublication 2007/12)

Developing an Asia-Pacific strategy for forestinvasive species: The coconut beetle problem –bridging agriculture and forestry (RAP Publication2007/02

The role of coastal forests in the mitigation oftsunami impacts (RAP Publication 2007/01)

Taking stock: Assessing progress in developing andimplementing codes of practice for forestharvesting in ASEAN member countries (RAPPublication 2006/10)

Helping forests take cover (RAP Publication 2005/13)

Elephant care manual for mahouts and campmanagers (RAP Publication 2005/10)

Forest certification in China: latest developmentsand future strategies (RAP Publication 2005/08)

Forests and floods – drowning in fiction or thrivingon facts? (RAP Publication 2005/03)

In search of excellence: exemplary forestmanagement in Asia and the Pacific (RAPPublication 2005/02)

What does it take? The role of incentives in forestplantation development in Asia and the Pacific(RAP Publication 2004/27)

Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR) inAsia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2003/19) -2nd edition

Practical guidelines for the assessment,monitoring and reporting on national level criteriaand indicators for sustainable forest managementin dry forests in Asia (RAP Publication: 2003/05)

Applying reduced impact logging to advancesustainable forest management (RAP Publication:2002/14)

Trash or treasure? Logging and mill residues inAsia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/16)

Regional training strategy: supporting theimplementation of the Code of Practice for forestharvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/15)

Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectivenessof logging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific:executive summary (RAP Publication: 2001/10)

Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: anillustrated field guide - 2nd edition (RAPPublication: 1999/13)

vol. xli: no. 2 2014 vol. 41: no. 2 2014 table 2. estimated number of olive ridley sea turtles...

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