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II

PREFACE___________________

As the world moves toward a single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have adopted the syllabi and regulations of the "Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing" (JAR-FCl), the licensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). Though training and licensing requirements of individual national aviation authorities are similar in conten t and scope to the JAA curriculum, individuals who wish to train for JAA licences need access to study materials which have been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the JAA licensing system. The volumes in this series aim to cover the subject matter tested in the JAA ATPl ground examinations as set forth in the ATPl training syllabus, contained in the JAA publication, "JAR-FCl 1 {Aeroplanes)". The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPl must study with a flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPl training . While the formal responsibility to prepare you for both the skill tests and the ground examinations lies with the FTO , these Jeppesen manuals will provide a comprehensive and necessary background for your formal training. Jeppesen is acknowledged as the world's leading supplier of flight information services , and provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data, computerised flight planning , aviation software products , aviation weather services, maintenance information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base all US airlines and the majority of international airlines worldwide. It also serves the large general and business aviation markets. These manuals enable you to draw on Jeppesen 's vast experience as an acknowledged expert in the development and publication of pilot training materials. We at Jeppesen wish you success in your flying and training , and we are confident that your study of these manuals will be of great value in preparing for the JAA ATPL ground examinations. The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.

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Table o/Contents

CHAPTER 1Introduction to Structures

Introduction .............. ................... .... ..............................................................................................1-1 Stresses and Strains Th at Affect Aircraft Structures ...................... ........................................................... 1-2 Tension.. ............................................ ............. ................... .......... .... ............................................ 1-2 Compression ....................................................................................................................................... .. 1-3 Torsion ................................................................................................................................................... ....1-3 Shear ............ ... .......................................................................................................................................1-3 Combination Stress .......................... ......................... .................................. ......... ... .......................... 1-4 Hoop Stress ................ ...................................... .... ................. ... ................ 1-4 Axial Stress ................................................................................................................................................. 1-4 Elasticity of Material ..................................................................................................................................1-4 Strain Ratio .............................................................................................................................................1-5 ............... ........ .................... ..... 1-5 Shock Loads. ... . ..... ... ......... .............. ............................... Fatigue in Materials ..... ............... ............................ ............................................. 1-5 Fatigue Cracking ............... ........................................................... ............................................. 1-6 Forces that Act on Structures and Materials .......................... ......... ................ ............................................ 1-7 In Flight.. ..... .......... .................. 1-7 Uft .................................................. .................. ........... .. ... ...................... 1~ Drag .......................................................... ..... ... ........................................................ ................... ... 1-7 Mass....... .......................................... ........................... ...................................................................... 1-7 Weigh!... ...... ............................................................................................ ............. .................................... 1-7 Acceleration .. ............................. .... ................................................ ............. ...... .................... ... 1-8 Inertia..................................... ........................ ...................................... .................. ...... 1-8 Other Factors for Consideration .... ...... ... .. .......................................................... 1-8 Airspeed ...................................... ... .... ... .. ...... ............................ .............. ........ 1-8 Temperature ................... ......... ........... ........................................................................................ 1-8 Altitude ....... .. ... ............. ................... .............. .. .................. ........................................................................ 1-8 On the Ground ................... ..... ............ . ......... ..... .................. .......................... 1-8 During Landing.. ......................................................... 1-8 Friction ............... ....................... ............ ...................................................................... 1-8 Pressurization ........... ................................................................. ........................ .............................. 1-8 Thrust Reversa l ................. ................. ............................ ................................ .............. ..1-9 Braking .... ............................ .................................. ....................... ............................. ........ 1-9 Stationary.. ................ ............... ................................................................ .................. ............... 1-9 Taxiing ........ ................ ........ ................................ ........................................ ..... 1-9 On Take-Off .. .......................................... ........ ................................... ...................... ... ............ .. .. .1-9 Design Phil osophy .... ............ ..................................................................................................... .............. 1-9 Parts .... ....................................... ...................................... ........... ............ .... ..... ................. 1-9 Design Umit Load or DLL ................. ... ............................................................................................ 1-1 0 Design Ultimate Load or DUL ................................................................................................................. 1-10 Catastrophic Failure ..... ..................... ............................... ................. ............ ................. ....... 1-11 Safe Ufe ..................................... .. .. ...... ... ............................. .. ............................................................... 1-11 Fail Safe Structure ........ ................ .............................................................................. ...... 1-11 Damage Tolerant Structure....................... .................................................................. .................... 1-12 Servici ng Cycle ................................. ..... .... .... .. ................. .......................................... ..1-12 Aircraft Construction Materials ........... .............. ..... .......... .......... .. .......... .............................. 1-12 Meta!. .. ........................... ................................................................................................................ 1-12 Composite Materials ............ .... ..... ................... ........................................ .......................................... 1-13 Advantages of Composite Materials ........................................................................................................1-14 Disadvantages of Composite Materials. ............................................... ............................. ... ........ 1-14 Electrical Bonding ................................ .............. .................................... ............. ...... .................... 1-15 Ughtning Strikes..... ................ .................. ..................................................................................... 1-1 5

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CHAPTER 2Fuselage Structures

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 2-1Frame Construction ...................... .............................................. . ............................. _ ........................ 2-2

Monocoque Structures ................................. .................................... .................................................. 2-3 Semi-Monocoque Structures ...................................................................................................................... 2-3 Reinforced Shell Structure ....... ................................................. ................ ................. ............ 2-4 .. ................................................................... 2-5 Riveting, Bonding , Milling , and Etching ....... Pressure Bulkhead ............................................. ..................... ........ ...... ................. .. .. 2-5 Cabin Floors .............................................................................................................................................. 2-6 Blow Out Bungs ............. ...................................... .......................................... .. ........................ 2-6 Windows ............ ....... ...... ..... .................. .. ........... .............................. 2-7 Flight Deck Windows ..................... .............. .................. 2-7 Direct Vision Window .............................. ........................................................................................ 2-8 Passenger Cabin Windows.............................. ...................... ....... ............. .. .......... 2-9 .. ........ 2-10 Doors for Aircraft Certified Under JAR 23 and 25 ........................................................ ............. Sealing... ............................ .............................. ................ ........................... .. ............. 2-11 Seat Mounting Support Structure ............................................................................................................. 2-12 Spar Attachment ...... .................................................. .. .................................................................... 2- 12 Fuselage Shape ............. . ............................................................................................................. 2-13 The Jet Engine ........................................................ ...... .................................................................. 2-14 Fuselage Profile and Tricycle Underca rriage ....... .. ............................................................................. 2-14 Tail Bumper............ .................. ............... .................... ............................................................... .. 2-15 Fuselage Mounted Engine ......... ............. ............. .......................... ................................ .. ...... 2-15

CHAPTER 3Wing Structures

Introduction ...... ............ ......................................................................... ..................................................... 3-1 Biplane.. .. ......................... ...... .................................................................. 3-2 Braced Monoplanes .............. ...... ..................... ......................... ..................................... .. ....... 3-3 Cantileve r Monoplanes .............................................................................................................................. 3-4 Components of Wing Structure .................................................................................................................. 3-4 Stringers .............................. .............................. ......................................... ........................ ....... ....... 3-5 Ribs ... ..................................................... .............................................................. .................... ....... 3-6~ffi... .......................

.....................................................

. ............ ~

Torsion Box .......... .. ............................. ............. .. ...................................................... ............... 3-7 Modern Wing Design...................................... ........................................................... ........... 3-8 Wing Loading ............................................................................................................................................ 3-8 Wing Mounted Landing Gear ................. ...................................... ............... .. ........ 3-10 Monoplane Centre Wing Section I Fu selage Section ................................. .. .......... ........ 3-1 0 Wing Location ........ .............................................................................. .................................................. 3-11 Low-Wing.. ...................................... .. .......... ...... ......................... . 3-11 High-Wing . ........................................... ............................... .. ....... 3-12 .. .............. 3-1 2 Mid-Wing ..... .............. ...... .......... .................... ..................................... ................. Hip-Wing ...................................................................................................................................... 3-13 Fairing Panels........ ................................................................ ........................ ............................ 3-1 3 Dihedral Angle ....................................................................................................................................... 3-14 Anhedral Angle ...................... ............... .............................................. .. ............................................ 3-14 Sweep Back Angle .... ................. ........................................... ................................. .. ........................ 3-14 Wash Out.. ............... ................... .................................. ............ .................. .... .................. .. .... 3- 15 Wing Tips and Winglets ............................................................................................................................ 3-1 5 Wi ng Tip Vortex....................................................................................................................................... 3-15 High Aspect Ratio and Elliptical Wings ................ ............ ........................................................................ 3-1 6 Modified Tip Caps. .......................................................................... ..................... .. ............... 3-16 .. ............................................................................... .... 3-17 Tip Tanks ................................................. Wing lets ........... ........................................................ ......................................................... ............... 3-18 Wing Mounted Engines .......................................................................................................................... 3-20 . ....................................... 3-21 Engine Chine I Strake . ........................................................................

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CHAPTER 4Empennage or Tailplane

Introduction. .... .... .. .................. ... ................ ........................... ............................ .. ................. .4-1 Positive Static Stability............. ........ ................. .. .......................................... ........ .......... ......... 4-1 Stability Function of th e Fin .......... ................. ........................ ........................ ...................... .. .......... 4-2 Fin Structure .... ................... ................................................... ....... .. ......... ................... .. .. .4-3 Fin - Fuselage Relationship................. .................... ............ ... ........................... .. ..................... 4-3 .. ................................................. .4-4 Nacelles/Swept Wings Effect on Stability.......... ......................... Lift...... .... .............. ... ...... ..... ......................................................... .4-4 Stalling Ang le ................. ........................ .............................................4-4 Fin Surface Area .............. ...... ............................ ................................. ......... ........... ........ ....... .......... .4-4 Lever Arm ........... .. ...........................................................................................................................4-5 .. ...................... .4-5 Motive Power .............................. .... ........ ........... Ai rspeeds .......... ..... .... .. ............ .. ................................................................................... .4-5 Ventral Fin and Strakes ........ ...... .... .......... ............ .......... .................. .. ...........................................4-6 .......... ............... ........ ...................... .................. .. .... 4-6 High Mach Numbers ... .......... ....................... Wing Plan Form ............... ............................. ............................ .. .......................... 4-6 Location of Tailplane.... ....... ....................... ....................................................................................4-7 Propeller Effects........ ........ ................................................................................................................... .4-8 Multi-Fin Design ........... .................... .. ................................................. ............................. ..... .4-9 Dorsal Fin ............ ............ ......... .......... ........... .......................... ........ .................... .... .............. .. ...... ...... 4-10 Couple Formed by Lift and Mass ............. ............................. ....................... ................ .. ........ .... 4-10 Couple Formed by Thru st and Drag.. ...................... ........................................................... .. ...... 4-11 Tailplane Introduction ........................ ......................................................................... ............................. .4-11 .. .. 4-11 Static Stability Function................ ................... ................... ........................... ............................. Size of Tailplane ......... ........ ....................... ............................................. ...... .4-12 Forces on the Tailplan e in Flight. ........ ........ ........... .......................... ........... .................. .4-12 Construction.. ................. ........... ......... ....... .. .......... ..................... .............................. .4-1 3 H-Tail . ...................... .............. ... ..................... .. ............................... .4-13 Location .......................................... ........................... ........................ ........................ .................... ......... .4-13 T-Tail ....................................................................... ............................................................................... .4-14 Propeller Wash and Oownwas h ......................................................................... .................................... .4-14 Angle of Incidence ........................................ .. .... ............ ..... ........................... ............ ........................... 4-1 6 Delta-Wing Aircraft..... ....................... ............................................... ...................................... ....... .4-16 V-Ta il .... ............ .......... . .............. .. .. .................................................................................. ........... 4-17 .. .......... .4-17 Canard s ........... ............................. .......... ......... ....................... ............ .............. ...... .........

CHAPTER 5Primary and Secondary Flight Controts Introduction .......... .......... .......... .... .............................. ...............................................................................5-1 The Reference Axes .............. ................................ ...... .. ..................................................... 5-1 Primary Controls Surfaces - Conventiona l Aeroplanes ............. ......................... ........ ................... .. ..... 5-3 Function of the Primary Control Surfaces .......... ............ .......... ........................ ............ ......... ......... ...5-3 Range of Movement. .......... .. ............................... ...................... ........................... ............ ........ .. ............ ..... 5-4 Structure .................... ......................... .............................................................................................. ........ .5-4 Flight Deck Controls ......... ....................................... ................................ .............. ............. .. ........ 5-6 Control Column .... .. ..................................................................................................................................5-6 Rudder Control .................. ...... ..................... ......................... ................. .............................. 5-7 Push - Pull Type Yoke ........ .................... ....... ................ ..... .. .... .... ...... 5-7 Control Wheel and Column . .. ........ ............................... 5-8 Side-Stick..... ............. .... ............ ........ ........ .. .............................................................5-8 Control System Linkage ............................................ .................................................................................5-8 Cable Tension and Turnbuckles ........ ........................... ....... .......... .. ...... .. .......................... .. .......... 5-9 Control Cables ................................ ........................................................................................................5-10 Control Rods ...... .................... .............................................. ........................ .. .... ..... 5-11 Control Stops ........ .. ............ .................... .......... ............ . .................... .......... ................ .. .. ........ ....... 5-11 Hydraulic Control Syste ms ................................................................................................. .......... .. .. ..... 5-12

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CHAPTER 5 (Continued)Power Assist or Boost ....... ...... .... .................... .......... ............ ... .. ............... 5-1 3 .. .......................................................... 5-1 3 Power Control Units ........................... ....................... PCU Schematic....... ................... ... .. .. .. .. .. .......... ................. ..................... ............ ......... .. .......... 5- 14 ......................................................... .. ........................ 5-14 PCU Release Unit.. .... .... PCU with Intern al Interco nnecting Va lves .............................................................................................. 5- 15 Primary Control Surface Design and Development..... .............................. ................................... ...5-16 Flutter ....................... ............................................................... ................ .. ...... .. ... ..... ............. .......... 5-16 Mass Balance............ ...... .. .. ................................................ ............. .. .... .. .. .. .. ............ ...... 5-17 Ae rodynamic Balancing ..................................................................... .... .. .. ...... ..... ....... ..................... ...... . 5-17 Inset Hinges .............. ................. ........................ ......... ............... .. ............... .......... ................... 5-1 8 .. .......... .......................................................... ..... .. ....... .. .... 5-18 Horn Balance . Inte rn al Balance Panel .... ....................................................... .............. .. ............................... 5-19 Hinge Moment ....... ... ..................................... ....................................................... ........... .. .... 5-20 Stick Gearing - Mechanical Advantage. ................................ ...... .......... .. ...................................... 5-20 Adve rse Yawing Effect In Plain Ailerons .......... ...................................... . ...... .. .. ... ...... .. ............... ...... .. 5-21 Differential Ailerons ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ........................... .. . 5-21 Rudder Ai leron Interlink.. ...... .... .................. .. .............................. .. .......................... .. .. 5-22 Frise Ailerons ............................................................................................................................. ............. 5-22 Fixed Tabs ....................................................................................... .. .. ...... .................. .. .............. .. ..... .... 5-22 Balance Tab .................................................................................................................. .............. ............ 5-23~m ~~....................... ..... .... . .....................................................

. .................................................... ~3

Trim Function for PCU Operated Controls ............................................................................... .. .. ............. 5-25 Electri c Trim Actuators .......................................... ..................................... ........................... ........... 5-25 Secondary Control Position Indicators . ... ..................................................... ................ ... .......................... 5-25 Primary Contro l Surfaces Operated By Servo Tabs ............ ................................ .. .. .. .. .. .... ......... 5-26 ........................... .. ... .. ....... ....... .. .... .. .................... 5-26 Spring Servo Tab ............ .... .... Hori zontal Stabil ator ........................................ ..... ...... ..... ........ .. .......................................................... .. .. 5-27 Anti-Balance Tab..... .. ..... ............................................ ........................................................... ............... 5-27 Anti-Balance Trim Tab .............. .. ................................ .... .... ..................................................................... 5-27 Slab or All Flying Tailplane ...................................................... .. .. .............................................. ...... ......... 5-27 Elevons .......................................................................................................... ...... ........... ............... .......... 5-28 Va riable Incidence Tailplane - Trimming Tailplane ....... .... .. ................................ ............ . .. .... .. 5-28 Butterfl y or V Tail Aircraft .. .......................................... ........................................ .............. .. ........... 5-29 Control Locks .. .. .. ...... ...... .. ..... .. ....... ......... ........ .. ........ .................... .............................. 5-30 Stick Position Stability..... .. ....... . .. ..................... 5-30 Stick Force Gradient .... .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. ... ........ ... .. ............................................ 5-30 Stick Cen tring Springs........... ...................... .. .. ................................................................................. 5-31 Down Sprin gs ................................... ... ... .. ................................................................................................ 5-31 Bob Weight ....................................................................................... ............................... .......... .............. 5-32 Artifi cial Feel ............... ... .......................................................................................................................... 5-32 Spring Feel Unit ....... ... .......................... ...... ................................................. ..................... . ......... 5-33 Basic Q Feel System ............... .. ......... .. ... .. ........................ ............................ 5-33 Hyd raulic Q Feel ........ ............ ................... .................... ..................... .............. ......................... 5-34 Ro ll Control for Ai r Transport Aircraft ......................................................................................................... 5-35 Wing Mounted Speed Brakes I Lift Dumpers ...... ....... ... ...................................... .......... . .. .. 5-35 Flight Operation .................... .. .. ............... ..................... ........ . .. .................... ...... 5-36 Load Alleviation Function ............................................................................................ .................. ... .. ....... 5-36 Airbrakes and High Speed Flight at High Altitude .......................................................................... ......... 5-37 Ground Operation... .. ........ .......... ................................... .. .......................................... .. ....... ... ............ 5-37 Fuselage Mounted Airb rakes ............................................... ........... ...... .. ... ...... .. .......... ............................. 5-37 Droop Ailerons. . .. ....... ..... .... ............... ............ .. ........ .............. .. .. .. .. ............ 5-38 Fly By Wire (FBW) ... ....................................... ... .. .. ....................................................... .. ..... .... ............... 5-38 Weig ht Reduction .... .......... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . ................................. .... .................................................. 5-40 Reduced Mainte nance .. ....................... ..... ....... .... ........................................ .................... ....... .................. 5-40 ... ... 5-40 Control Response .......................................................................................................Built in Control Pa ra meters .............. . . .... .... ....................................... .. ....................... ........... 5-40

Gust Load Al leviation ..... ............ . ...................

.. ............ . ....................................... ...................... 5-40

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CHAPTER 6Flight Controls - High Lift Devices Lift Augmentation - High Lift Devices ... .. ... ........ ........................... ................ ........................... 6-1 Tra iling Edge Flaps.. ........................ ............................................................................... ......... 6-2 Plain Flap ........................ .... ........................ ............ ........ ....... ..... ... ...... .... ...... 6-2 Split Fl ap..... ................. .... .. ....... .... .. . . .......................................................... 6-2 Slotted Flap ..... ..... ..... ........ .. ............. .... ..... ........................................ ................ ... 6-3 Double Slotted Flap ...... ... ........................................................................................................ 6-3 Zap Fl aps ................................................................................................................................................. 6-4 Fowl er Flaps ....... .......... .... ............. . ....... .. ............... ............................................... ........ 6-4 Double Slotted Fowler Flaps ... ................... ................................................................................... 6-5 Blown Flaps ........ ........... ....... .......... .. .. ....... ...............................................................................6-5 Leading Edge Devices ........................................ ........ ............................................ ................................. 6-6 Slots ....... ............. ...... ................ ..... .................. ........ .................... ........................................... ...... ........ 6-6 Fixed Slats ......... .......... ... .......... .... ............ ..... ................. .... ............................................. .......................... 6-7 Moveable Slats - Controlled Slats...... ...................................... .. ... ... ...... ....... ........................... 6-7 Moveable Slats - Automatic Slats ...... ............. .......... ........... ........... .......... ............. .............. .... .......... 6-8 Leading Edge Flap. ................... ... .. .. ............. ...... ......... ...... . ........................ 6-8 Kruger Flaps .............................................. .... . ......... ........ . .. .................................................................... 6-9 Boundary Layer Control ......... ............................................. ......................................... . ............... ...... 6-10 Effectiveness of Fl aps and Slats ............. ........ ........................ ........... ........................... ............. .... . .. ..... 6-10 Flap Operation and Indicati on ....... ............................... ................ ........... ........... ....... . ........... .. 6-11 Basic Fl ap System for a Light Aircraft . ........... ...... ............................................................................ 6-11 Flap Controls for other than Basic Light Aircraft ........................................................................................ 6-12 Adva nced Light Aircraft ........................................................................................................................... 6-1 2 Air Transport Aircraft ... ................ .. .........................................................................................................6-13 Flaps Operated by Independent Hyd raulic Linear Actuator ..... ............. . .......... ........... .... 6-14 Flaps Operated by Power Drive Unit... . ................... ..................... ......... .... 6-15 Fly by Wire Flap and Slat System ....... ............. . ................... ......................... .. ......... ..... ........... 6-16 Flap and Slat Position Indicati ons..... ............... ........ ............................... ........ .......... . ... .. . ....... 6-18

CHAPTER 7Landing Gear - UndercarriagesIntroduction ....................................................................................... ......................... ................................. 7-1 Requ irements for a Modern Undercarriage ........ ........ ................. ....... .................... ........................ 7-2 Drag and Undercarriages .......... ........... ...................................................................................... ....... ........ 7-2 Landing .............. ............ .. ........... . ... ............ .. ..... .... ...................................... ...................... 7-3 Suspension I Shock Absorber Systems for Light Aircraft .......... .............. .......... ............... .............. ....... .... 7-3 Bungee Cords I Bungee Blocks ................................................................................................................. 7-4 Spri ng Steel Leg ....... ...................... .. .................. ................. ...................... ............... .................. 7-4 Torsion Bar ...... ... ... .. ..................... ................. ................. ..... ....... ............ .................. .7-5 Basic Prin ciple of an Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Absorber ...... ......... .... .............. ........ ...... 7-6 The Gas Charge. . .......... ..... .. .... .... ....... ............. .......... .............. ............ ........... ........ 7-6 The Oil Charge .................... .... .... .... ........................ ...... 7-7 Unseparated Oleo ...... ............ .......... . ......... ......... .......... .......... ..... . ..... ... .. ... .... . ........ 7-8 Torque Link ... ............................ ... .............. ......................... ....... ...... .............. ......... ............................ 7-9 Heavy Landings......... ..... .............. ..... ........ ......... ........ .... ...... ......... ....... ................................. 7-9 Oil Charge - Leaks or Losses ... .. ........ ............. ..... ......... .. ...... .............. ............................. 7-9 Prop Clearance Requirement. ........... ... . . ............ . ........... .. 7-10 Separated Oleo ............... ......... .... .............. .... ... ............. ...... ........................... 7-10 Unloaded. ......... .. .... ... . ........ ........... .......... .......... ............ .......... .............. ............................. 7-1 1 Landing Load ............ .............. .......................................................................................................7-11 Recoil ....................... .. ..... .......... .................. .. ........................................................................ .7-11 Static Load.. ...... .. ........ .. ..... ......... .... ...... ......... ......................... ....... ........... . ...................... 7-12 Tail Wheels .......... ............ .... ......................... ... ................................ ....................... ............... .. 7-12

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CHAPTER 7 (Continued)Fully Castoring Tail Whee ls ................................. .......... ...................................................................... 7-12 Tail Wheel- Ground Looping .............. ...... ............ . .... ............ ...................................... 7-13 Lockable Tail Wheel - Pilot Operated .......... .............................................. .... ......................................... 7-13 Lockable Tail Wheel - Load Operated .......... .............. ............................ .. .......................................... 7-14 .............. ... ............................. .. .......... 7-14 Tail Wheels and Nosing Over ...... .............. .... .. ....................................................................... 7-14 Nose wheels .......... ........... .. Fully Casto ring Nose Wheel ...................... .. ........ ...... ................ .............. .. ................................ 7-15 Steerable Nose Wheels - Light Aircraft with Fixed Undercarriages .......................................... ............... 7-15 Steerable Nose Wheels - Light Aircraft with Retractable Undercarriages ...... .. ................................ 7-15 Shimmy Dampers........... .................. .......... ....... .............. ................... ................ . .. ... 7-16 Hyd raulic Shimmy Damper .................................................................................................................... 7-16 Steerable Nose Wheels for Medium and Large Aircraft ............. ................... .. .............................. 7-17 Nose Wheel Rumble ......................................................................................................................... .... 7-18 .. ............................... 7-19 Body Gear Steering ............. .............. ............... .................... ............... Turning Circle........ ...................................................................................................... .. ........ ...... 7-19 Nose Wheel Steeri ng Disconnect..... ................ ................. ............. .............................................. ..... 7-20 Main Gear Bays - Low-Wing Aircraft ................ .. ................................................................................ 7-20 High-Wing Turboprops ..................................................................................................................... .... 7-20 High-Wi ng Turbine Aircraft.... ........................................................ .. ................. 7-20 Wheel Layouts ......................................................................................................................................... 7-21 Bogies ................ ..................... ................. ................ ................ ............. ................. .. .... 7-21 Bogie Trim , Bogie Trail....... ......................................... .. .... ............ .... .. ... .... ......... .................... 7-22 Hop Damper.... .... .... ........ .... ............... ............ .... .. ........ ...... ........ ..... ........................... 7-22 .............. .. ...................................... .. ....... 7-23 Retractable Main Underca rriage for Air Transport Ove r Centre or Geometric Locks.... ................. ........ .......... ................ .. ............................................ 7-24 Up Locks. ........................... ........................ .................. ............................................. .. .............. 7-24 Emergency Lowering ................ .... .. .. ..................................................................................... 7-25 Main Undercarriag e Doors ........... ... ...... ............ ...... ..................................................... ........................ 7-26 Large Aircraft Underca rriage Indications ................................................................................................. 7-26 Mechanica l Indication.................................. .................................................................... .... .... ..... 7-26 .. ...... ... 7-27 Large Aircraft Gear Selector ..... .......... .... ... ........... .... ................ .. .. . ............ .... .... .. .......... Air I Ground Logic ....... ................. .................... ................. ............... ................. .. .......... ...... ...... 7-27 Micro Switches ................................................................................................................................... 7-28 Proximity Switches. ........... ......... .......... ...... ......................... ... ............................................ 7-28 Pressure Switches ......................................................................... .............. .. .... ..................... 7-28 Undercarriage Down Safety Lock....... ................ ........ .......... ........ ........ ........ ...... .. ......... 7-28 Ground Locks... .. ..... ................ .. ........................................................... 7-29 Retractable Undercarriages for Light Aircraft .......... .. ........................................................ 7-30 Operation of the Power Pack .................................................................................................................... 7-30 Light Ai rcraft Undercarriage Selector and Indicator............. ........... ... .. ................................. 7-32 Skis and Bear Paws... .. ..... .......... ...... ............ ................................................. ........ .... 7-33 Fl oa ts ................................. ........................... ............................. .................. .. ............... ...... ...... 7-33

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CHAPTER 8Landing Gear - Wheels, Tyres and Brakes Introduction to Bra kes ........... ....................................................................... ............................................ 8-1 Types of Wheel Brakes......... ...... .. ........................................ ...................... ..................................... ..... 8-1 Expand er Type Brakes ......................... ........................................... ........................................................ 8-2 ...................... ..................... 8-2 Basic Brake Master Cylinder ....................... Simple Hydraulic Braking System ............... ...................... ............................... ..8-3 Light Aircraft Fixed Disc ....................... .................. ............ ...... .. 8-4 Fixed Brake Housing Sliding Disc .................................................................................................. ............ 8-5 ............... .. . ... ................................... 8-6 Heavy Duty Brake Discs ...................... ................. Boosted Bra kes ...... ....................... ....................... ....................................................................................8-6 Power Brakes....... ........... ..... ............... .......... ..... ..... .... .. .. ................................. 8-6 Braking Redundancy................ ............. .................. ....................... .................................... 8-7 Anti-Skid Systems ................................................................................................................... .... .... . ........... 8-7 Mechanica l On/Off Anti-Skid System. .. ................................... 8-8 Modulating Va lves .. .. .... .................... ..... ................... .... ........ ..... .... ............. .......... 8-9 Electro nic Anti-Skid System ........... .. ........... ......... .. .............. ................ ...................................... 8- 10 Semi Modulating System............. .. ................... ... .........................................................................8-11 Fully Modulati ng System ................................................................................................ ......................... 8-1 1 ....................... ............. .......... .... .... . .... 8-1 1 Touchdown Protection and Braking Efficie ncy.. ..... 8-11 Auto Brake System ..................... ............................................................................... Rejected Take-Off .... .......................... .................. ... ...................... ............................... ... ....... ...... 8-1 3 Multi Pl ate Brake Disc .... .......................................................................................................... .... ......... 8-14 Retraction Pin / Automatic Wear Adjuster. ..............................................................................................8-15 Sticking and Dragging Brakes .................................................................................................................. 8-16 Brake Wear ..... ................................... .................. ........................... ............................ 8-16 Brake Chatter / Brake Fade ....... ................... ..................... ...... ..... ............................. 8-16 Brake Temperature .... ............. .. ... ..... ................ ............... .. ....... ........... 8-17 .... ....... .................................. 8-1 7 Recommended Taxi Speed............ .............................. Brake Cooling ...........................................................................................................................................8-1 8 Brake Overheat ............................................ ........................... .......... ....................... 8-1 8 Spongy Brake Operation....... ......................... ......................... ............................... ......................... .... 8-1 8 Wheels and Tyres ............................................... ................................................................................... .... 8-1 8 Types of Wheel Hub ................................................ ...................... ............................. .................. ......... ... 8-1 8 Well Base.................................... ..................... ................... .......... ................ .... ... ........... 8- 19 Detachable Flange ................. ......................................................................... ...................... ....... ....... 8-19 Split Hub ....................... ........................ .......................... ............................ ...................... ............... .8-20 Fusible Plug ......... .....................................................................................................................8-20 Reg ions of a Tyre ...... .................... ........... .. .......... ............... ................................ ... 8-21 Structure of a Tyre.. .. ...... ...... .. ......... .... .. ........... 8-22 Rad ial Belted Tyre ....................... .. .. ................... ... ................... ....... .................... .................................... 8-22 Footprint Area... ....... .................. .... ......... ....... .......... .... ................... ...................... 8-23 Tubed Tyres ...........................................................................................................................................8-24 Tubeless Tyres ....................... ...................... .... ..................... ........................ ............................ 8-24 Vent Holes - Tubeless Tyres .... ... .... ................. ......... ............................................................ ..... .8-25 Vent Holes - Tubed Tyres ....... ....... ............ ..... ......... .. ..................... ................................................ .... 8-25 Tyre Markings ...... ..... ........................................... .................................................. ....................... .. ......... 8-26 Balance Marker ................................................................................................................................. ...... 8-26 Tyre Pressure Classification ................................................................................................................8-27 Circumfe rentially Grooved Tread ..................................... ............... ............... .... ........... 8-27 Tyre Wea r .... ..... .... .. ................ . .. .............. ..... ................ . ........... .......... .... .................................. 8-27 Circumferential Grooved Tyres Wear Indication ............. .................. ......................... 8-27 Reinforced Trea d ....... ............. ................................................ .... ........................................................8-28 Block Tread.. ....... ............... .................... .. .......... .... ........ ... .................................................... 8-28 Marstrand Tyres ......................................................................................................................................8-28 ............... ........ 8-29 Chined Tyres............................ ............... .................. . ............... Tyre Inflation Medium ........... ........ .. ......................................... ..................... .................. ....... ........... 8-29

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CHAPTER 8 (Continued)Tyre Inflation for BEM Load ............................................... ...........................................8-29 Tyre Stretch .... .................................................. .................... .............................. ...... ................................ 8-30 Dissipation ..................................................................................................... ....................... ....... 8-30 Effects of Ambient Temperature.. . ............ ....................................... ................... .. ............... 8-30 Change on Tyre Pressure ..................................................................................................... .. .......... .. 8-30 Cold Tyre Pressure Checks ......................... ............................... .. ...................................................... 8-30 Hot Tyre Pressure Checks .............................. ................................................... .. ................... 8-31 Flight Deck Tyre Pressure Indication. .. ............ ................................. .......... ... 8-31 Aquaplaning ................ ............................ ................ .. ............................ ................ 8-32 Reverted Rubber Aquaplaning.. .............. ......... .... .......................................... ...... ..... .. ............ 8-32 ........................................................... 8-33 Dynamic Aquaplaning ...................................................... Cross Ply and Radial Ply Tyres.. ................ ... .... .. .................. ......................................... .. ......... 8-33 Aquaplaning Speed for Ribbed Tyres .......... .... ............................ .. .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. .... .................................. 8-34 Viscous Aquaplaning .................................................................................................... .. . .. .. .. ................. 8-34 Actions to Minimise Aquaplaning on Landing.................. .. ........................................................... 8-35 Tyre Damage ............................................................................................................................................. 8-35 Dry Braking Flat Spot ................................. .. .......... ...... .............................. ...... .. .. .. .. ................... ............. 8-35 Wet Braking Flat Spots. ....................................... ..... .... ........ .... .... .. .. .................... 8-36 Bulges and Delaminations .............................................................. .......................................................... 8-36 FOD ......................................................................................................................................................... 8-37 Burst Tyres ............................................................................................................................................. . 8-37 Cut Damage ................ ...... ............................. .. ....... ... ..................................................... .. ........................ 8-38 Tread Chunking ............... ................................. .. ..................................... 8-38 Chevron Cuts ................................. ............................................................................. ....................... 8-38 Heavy Cross Wind Landing... . ........... . ................ ........................ ...... ............ ................ 8-39 Crown Wear ........ .......................................... ..................................................................................... 8-39 Shoulder Wear ................ .......... ........................ ........................................ .......................................... 8-39 Sidewall Cracking.. ............................................................................. .. ... . .................... 8-39 Excessive Brake Heat .................................................................................................. ...... ..................... 8-40 Contamination of Tyres ............................. ................... .. ............... .. ........ 8-40 Flat Spots due to Nylon Set. ........ ........ ..... .. ........................................ 8-40

CHAPTER 9Hydraulics Introduction ......... ......... .... ........................... ............ .... ............................................... ................................. 9-1 Basic Physics of Hydrau lics . .................................. .. .......................................................................... 9-1 Fluids ............ ................................................................... .......................................................... 9-1 Energy ............................................................................................. ...................... ........ .. .... .......... ............. 9-2 Static Pressure .......... .... .................... .. ................................................. 9-2 Pa scal's Law ................................................................................. ... ........ ... ................................................ 9-3 Relationship between Force, Area, and Pressure ....................................................................................... 9-3 The SI System - System Internationa le ................................ .... ................................................................ 9-4 The Imperial System ................................................................ .................................... ...................... 9-4 Unit Conversion Factors - to 3 Places Decimal.............................. .. ............... ............................. ... 9-5 Transmission of Power....... ........ ...... ..................................................... 9-5 Multiplication of Force.. .............. ....... .. .................................................. ...................................... 9-5 Passive Hyd raulic Systems ................................................ .. ...... ................................. ................................ 9-7 Fluid Pressure into Mechanical Force and Movement........................................ ........ 9-7 Lin ear Actuators .... ................................................................. ................... ..... ......................... 9-7 Single-Acting Actuator ................................................................................................................................ 9-8 Double-Acting Unbalanced Actuator ......................................................................................................... 9-8 Double-Acting Balanced Actuato r ..................................................................................................... ......... 9-9 9-10 Ports ........................................................................................................................... .................. Selectors ...................................... .................................... .............................. .... ... ...................... . ... 9-11 Two-Port Rotary Selectors .............. ...................................... .. ............ .................................... 9-11 Four-Port Rotary Selectors ........................................................................................................... ........... 9-12 . ....... ....................................................................... 9- 12 Linear or Spool Va lve Selectors.. Hydraulic Lock.. ......................................................................................... 9-13XIV

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CHAPTER 9 (Continued)Non-Return Va lves - NRV ............................................................................ ...... ............................... 9-14 Hand Pumps .............................................................................................................................................9-14 Active Hyd raulic Systems .........................................................................................................................9-15 Pressure Generation ................................................................................................................................ 9-15 Electrically Operated Pumps ......................................... .................. ..................... ......... 9-16 Low Pressure System Pumps ......................................... .......................... ...................... ............. 9-16 Spur Gear Pumps ................ .......... ............................................. ................................ ................ 9-16 Vane Type Pumps ............... ...................................... ........ 9-17 Engine as the Power Source.................... ........... .................................................. ...................... 9-18 Open-Centred System Using Open-Centred Selectors.................................................. ............ 9-19 Pressure Relief Va lves - PRV ....................................................................... ...... .................................... 9-20 Open-Centred System Using an Off-Loading Valve or Unloading Valve ................................................... 9-21 Closed-Centred System ...................... . .................................................................... 9-22 Pressure Generation and Fluid Supply .................................................................................................... .9-22 Closed Systems .................................................................................................................................. ...... 9-23 High Pressure Engine Driven Pumps .................. ................................ .................................. .... 9-23 Fixed Vol ume or Constant Displacement Pump..... .............................................................................. 9-23 Filtration ...................................................... ................................................................................. ..9-24 High Pressure Filter ................................................................................................................................ 9-25 .................................................... 9-26 Pressure Regulation ............... ...................... Accumu lators ... ..... .............. ....................... ........................................... 9-27 ......................... .......................... .9-29 Principle of Operation ............. .............. . .............................. Pre-Charge Incorrect ..... .. ....................... ........................ 9-29 . .........................................................9-30 Pre-Charging.. Constant Pressure Pump.. .......................... .............................. .................................. 9-30 Depressurisation I Isolation ........................ ............ .... ..... ....................................... 9-31 Supply Off .................. ............................................................................. .9-31 Depressurising.. . .............................................. ...... ...... .............. 9-31 Normal ............. ...................................... ................ .................. ................................ 9-33 Blocking Va lve ........................................................................................................................................9-33 Compensating Va lve ...............................................................................................................................9-33 Condition on Start ............................................................ ............................................................. . .. 9-33 ........................................................................................... .................. 9-34 Fluids .. ..................... Vegetable Based Fluids.. ........................................................... .......................................... .......... 9-35 Mineral Based Fluid .......................................................... ............................................................... .... 9-35 Synthetic Based Fluid - SKYDROL" ........................................................................................................9-35 Fluid Temperature ............................................................... .................................................................... 9-35 ................................. 9-36 Heat Exchangers .................................................................................... Seals and Sealing ...................... ......................... .............. ...................... ............................ 9-37 Static Sealing ............................................ .............................. ........................................... 9-37 Dynamic Sealing .....................................................................................................................................9-38 Wi per or Saper Rings ................. ........................... ......................................... 9-38 Internal Leakage ....... ........... ... ................ ..................... .. ........................................................... .... 9-38 Exte rnal Leakage .......... ...... .............................. ............................................................................. 9-39 Leak Rate.. . ............................................ 9-39 ...........................................................................................................9-39 System Reservoirs ....... De-Aerator ......... ..... ............ ... .............. ......................................................... ............ 9-41 Fluid Contamination ......................................... .................................. .. .. .. .... .... .. .. .. .................. ........ 9-42 Boosted or Boot-Strapped Reservoir ........................................................................................................9-42 Hydraulic Systems ...................................................................................................................................9-43 Priority Services ................................................................................................................... ................... 9-43 Pressure Maintaining Valve or Priority Valve ................................................................................ ...... 9-45 Hydraulic Motors .................................................................................... .. .................. ...................... .... 9-45 Flow Control Valves .......................................................... ............................................................. 9-46 Power Transfer Unit .................. .......... ..... ............................................................................ .......... 9-47 Ram Air Turbine ....... ... ... .......................................................................................................................... 9-48 Restrictors .................................................................................................................................................9-49 Two-Way Restrictors... ..................................................... . .......... ............................. .9-49 One-Way Restrictors. . ................................................................................. ..... 9-49

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CHAPTER 9 (Continued)Va lves . . ........................................................ ........ .... ... ..... ... .................... 9-51 Throttling Va lve .. ................................................ .... ........ .... ........... ............... .. .. .... ........ 9-51 Sequence Va lves .. .............. .................................................. ...... ........... ... ... .. ...... 9-51 Shuttle Va lve.. ............ ..................................... ...... ....... ....................... ........ ...... ...... .. 9-54 Fluid Jettison Valve.... .............. .. .... .... .... ... ........ .. .. . 9-55 Pressure Reducing Va lve.. .............. .... ........ . .. .... .... ....... ............. ...... 9-56 Th ermal Relief Va lve ...... ................ ... .. .............. ........ ...... ... ............................ ... ... 9-56 Direct Reading Gauges....... ........................ ................................... ............................ .. ..... ... .. .. .. .... 9-57 Pressure Relays ........ ........................... ....... ...... ........ .. .......... .......................... ..... ... ... .... 9-57 Pressu re Transmitters ......................... .... .... . .................................................. ....... ...... .... . ......... 9-57 Hydrau lic Fuse ....................... .... .... .... .... .... . ............................................................... .. .................... 9-58

CHAPTER 10Fuel Systems

Introduction to Fuel Systems .. ................................................... .. .... .... .... ......... ... ... ..... ................... Aviation Gasoline - Avgas ............ .. .... ..................................................................................................... ...................................... Static Dissipaters ................................. ...................................................... Grades of Avgas ...... ...................................................................... ...................................... .............. 80 Grade ......................... ............................................. .................................................................. .......................... 100 Grade ......................... ...... ... ......... 100LL Grade ..................... ...................... .... ....... .... . ............................................................ ...................... Chemical Stability ............... .......................................................................... ..................... Grades of Avtu r ................................... ............................................................................. Jet B .................. ......................................................................... .......... .. .............................. . ....... Jet A .................................................. ............................... ..................................... . ..... Jet A1............................... .................................................................... ...... ......................... .......... Fuel Contamination ...................................................................................................................................

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-4 10-4 10-5 10-5 10-5

Aviation Kerosene - Avtur ................ ......... .......... ... .. ... .. ... .. ..... ... .. ..... ........ ... .... ........ ............................... .. 10-4

Water Co ntamin ation ................................................................................. .......................................... 10-5

Dissolved Wate r ............................................................................................ . ............... 10-5 Free Wate r .............................................................................................................................. ................. 10-5 ............................... .. .......... . .. ... ..... .... .... . ................................... 10-6 Fungal Contamination Water Sediment Checks ............................ .. ......................... .. .... 10-6 Fuel Tank . ................................................................ .......... 10-7 Types. ........ ..... ..... . .................................. ..... 10-7 Rigid Tanks .......................... .. .... .... .... .... . ...... .... .... ............ ... .... 10-7 Flexible Tanks ....... ............ . . ...... .. .... ..... ......................................... ............ 10-8 Integral Tanks .... ............. ................ .................................................................................... 10-9 Flapper Va lve ......................................................................................................................................... 10-10 Unusable Fuel, Stack Pipe, and Sump ............. .... .. .. .. .. .. ........................................................................ 10- 10 Sumps................................................. ................... ................................................ .... 10-11 Water Drain Valves ............. ............................... ........ .......... ................................ 10-11 Gravity Feed Fuel Systems for a Singe-Engine Light Aircraft ..................................... ........ 10-11 Primer Pump............................................................................. . .................... 10-1 2 Manually Operated Fuel Selector .................................................... ........ .... .... ....... ............................ 10-12 Pressure Feed Fuel System for a Single-Engine Light Ai rcraft ...... .............................. ...... .. .. 10-13 Auxi liary Fuel Pump.. ................................................... ........................................ ................. 10-13Fuel Press ure Indications ................................ . ........ 10-14

Vapour Lock .................. ........................... ..... ........................ Fuel System for a Light Twi n Engine Ai rcraft ............................................... ................................. Ve nting of Light Aircraft Tanks . ............................ ..................... ...... . ............................ .. Light Aircraft Fuel Fillers and Caps .............................. . .. ................................................ Light Ai rcraft Fuel Quantity Indications ........................ .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .................... .............................. Resistance Fuel Gauging System .... .. .. ........... ... .................................................................................... Large Ai rcraft Fuel Systems.. ..................................................................... .................... .... ........ Introduction ..................................................................................... .............................. ......

10-15 10-16 10-1 8 10-1 8 10-19 10-21 10-23 10-23

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CHAPTER 10 (Continued)Fuel Tanks ......................... ........................................................................................ ........................... ... 10-23 Dry Bays ......................................................... ....................................................................................... ...10-24 Fuel Tank Sumps .....................................................................................................................................10-24 Centre Tank ................................................................................................. ............................................ 10-24 Tank Pressurisation and Venting ............................................................................................................. 10-25 Vent - Surge Tanks ..................................................................................................................................10-25 Fuel System for a Twin Jet... .............................................. ......... ............ ..................................... 10-27 Engine Fuel Supply ...................... .. .......................................................................................................... 10-27 Booster Pumps .................................................................... ............. ...... .. . ...................................... 10-29 Booster Pump Box ....................... ................................................ . ........... ............................ 10-29 Ejector Pump .... ................................................. ....................... .... ........................................ 10-30 ....................................................... 10-31 Scroll Type Booster Pump .................... ...... .................................. Collector Tank ..........................................................................................................................................10-31 Pressure Switches .. ...............................................................................................................................10-32 Non-Return Valves .......... ....................................................................................................................... 10-32 Thermal Relief...........................................................................................................................................10-32 Suction Valve ............................................................................................................................................ 10-33 Low Pressure Fuel Cock - LP Cock ......................................... ...... .. ........................................................ 10-33 High Pressure Fuel Cock - HP Fuel Cock ........................................ ...................................................... 10-34 Fuel Filter ....................................................................................................... ....................................... 10-34 Flight Deck Fuel Control Panel ........................................... ...................................................................... 10-34 Fuel Temperature Gauge.. .. ................................. .. ............................. .................................................. 10-36 Auxiliary Power Unit Fuel Supply ............................................................................................................ 10-37 Under Wi ng Single Point Pressurised Refuel System ............................................................................. 10-37 Refuelling Gallery Pipes ............................. ......... .... .......... ............ .......................................................... 10-39 Fuel Imbalance on the Ground.......................................................... .. .. .................................... 10-40 Defuel ...... ........................................................................ ................... ...................................... 10-41 Capacitive Fuel Contents Measuring System ........................................ ... .......... .................................... 10-41 Flight Deck Contents Indications............................... .. .. ......................... ............. .......... .......... 10-42 Fuel Reconciliation on the Ground ............................... ........................ ......... ........ .......................... 10-44 Fuel Jettisoning ...................................................................................................................................... 10-45 Ai rcraft Certified under JAR 23 ..................................... ....................... ..... .......... ............................... 10-45 Ai rcraft Certified under JAR 25 ................................................................................................................. 10-46 Fuel Trimming .............................................................................. ..... .. ...... .. ............................................. 10-47 Refuelling and Defuelling .................................................................... .... ..... ... ......................................... 10-47 Open line Refuelling .............................................................................................................................. 10-47 Pressure Refuelling from a Bowser .................................. ............. ............................... ......... .. .................. 10-48

CHAPTER 11Ice and Rain ProtectionIntroduction .................................. .......................... ................................................ ................... ...... 11-1 Effects of Rain in Flight .............. ........... ......... .... ................... ... ..... .. ...... .... ........ ............................. ..... 11-1 Windscreen Rain Removal Systems ...................... ............ ............................................ .. .............. 11-2 Windshield Wipers ............. ............. ................................................................. ......................................... 11-2 Rain Repellent ............................................................. .... ....... .......................................................... 11-2 Bleed Air Rain Removal ............................................................ .................................... 11-3 .................................................................. 11-3 Effects of Ice Accretion on an Aircraft ..........................Ice Formations ...................... ...................... ,.. " ... ......... ................................... . .................................... .. 11-4

Frost I Hoar Frost .......................................................... ................... ............................................... .. 11-4 Rime Ice....... .......................................................................................................................................... 11 ' 5 Glaze Ice ............. .................................................. ...................................................................................... 11-5 Mixed Icing ............................................................................................................................ .................... 11-6 Run Back Icing ......... ... ................................................................................... .... .... .... .... ........................... 11-6 Icing Conditions ................................................................................................................................ ......... 11-6 Freezing Conditions .................................................................................................................................... 11-7 Freezing Drizzle .................................................................... ...................................................................... 11-7

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CHAPTER 11 (Continued)Freezing Fog .... ............................................. .. .......... ............................................ .. .... .... ... _ ... _ .. _ _ .. .... ___ 11 -7 __ .. .. _ _ .. _ .. _ _ ___ _ ___ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ ___________ _ _ __________ .. _____ .. .... .. .. .. .. _ _ ____________ _ _11 -8 Freezing Precipitation _ Light Freezing Rain ........................ .. ___________ .. _________ ___ _ _ _ _ __ _ _____ _ _______ ...................... _____ _ ___ 11 -8 Sleet .. _ ... _ .. ________________ .. ____ _ ____________________ .. _ .. . ______ .................. .. _ ..... ___________ _ __ _ ___ __ ___ 11 -8 Slush ____ .. _ .. _.................................. .. .. .. .. .. _. _ _ ____________________________________ .. .. ........ .... ___ __ __ _ ____________________ _11-8 Snow .................. .. .. .. ...... .. _ .... _ .. _ ___ _ ___ _ ___ _ __________ _ __ _ __ .............................. .. .. _ _ .. .. ___ 11 -8 Cold-Soaked Wi ng ..................... ___ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ ______ .. ____ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ ______________ ..................... ... ...... .. ______ .. ___________________ _11 -8 .. _______________ _ _ ___ _ _ ___ ____________ .. _ ........................ __ _______________________ 11-8 Clean Aircraft Policy ...................... ___ .... ___ .. _ Pre Take-Off Check. __ .. __ _ ___________________ _ ______________ .......................... _____________________ 11 -9 Ground De-I cing and