volume 15: foodborne diseases

Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

Foodborne Diseases

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Foodborne DiseasesHandbook of Food Bioengineering,

Volume 15

Edited by

Alina Maria HolbanAlexandru Mihai Grumezescu

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United StatesThe Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

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Contents

List of Contributors .............................................................................................xvForeword .........................................................................................................xviiSeries Preface ....................................................................................................xixPreface for Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases ........................................................ xxiii

Chapter 1: Microbial Foodborne Diseases ...............................................................1Songül Ünüvar1 Section 1. Bacterial Foodborne Diseases .................................................................. 1

1.1 Aeromonas hydrophila–Induced Gastroenteritis ....................................................1 1.2 Bacillus cereus–Induced Gastroenteritis ................................................................2 1.3 Botulism .................................................................................................................6 1.4 Brucellosis ..............................................................................................................6 1.5 Campylobacteriosis ................................................................................................7 1.6 Cholera ...................................................................................................................7 1.7 Clostridium perfringens–Induced Necrotic Enteritis .............................................8 1.8 Enterobacter sakazakii Infection ...........................................................................8 1.9 Enterococcus faecalis Infection .............................................................................91.10 Escherichia coli Infection ......................................................................................91.11 Listeriosis .............................................................................................................111.12 Mycobacterium bovis Infection ............................................................................111.13 Q Fever .................................................................................................................121.14 Salmonellosis .......................................................................................................121.15 Shigellosis ............................................................................................................131.16 Staphylococcus aureus Intoxication .....................................................................141.17 Tularemia .............................................................................................................141.18 Typhoid Fever, Paratyphoid Fever .......................................................................151.19 Vibrio parahaemolyticus-induced Gastroenteritis ................................................151.20 Vibrio vulnificus Infection ....................................................................................161.21 Yersiniosis ............................................................................................................16

2 Section 2. Parasitic Foodborne Diseases ................................................................ 17 2.1 Amebiasis .............................................................................................................17 2.2 Anisakiasis ...........................................................................................................17 2.3 Ascariasis .............................................................................................................20

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2.4 Clonorchiasis ........................................................................................................20 2.5 Cryptosporidiosis .................................................................................................20 2.6 Cyclosporiasis ......................................................................................................21 2.7 Diphyllobothriasis ................................................................................................21 2.8 Fascioliasis ...........................................................................................................21 2.9 Giardiasis .............................................................................................................222.10 Nanophyetiasis .....................................................................................................222.11 Opisthorchiasis .....................................................................................................222.12 Paragonimiasis .....................................................................................................222.13 Taeniasis and Cysticercosis ..................................................................................232.14 Toxoplasmosis and Congenital Toxoplasmosis ....................................................232.15 Trichinellosis ........................................................................................................24

3 Section 3. Viral Foodborne Diseases ...................................................................... 243.1 Hepatitis A..............................................................................................................243.2 Hepatitis E ..............................................................................................................263.3 Norovirus-Induced Gastroenteritis .........................................................................263.4 Poliomyelitis ..........................................................................................................273.5 Rotavirus-Induced Gastroenteritis .........................................................................27

4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 27References................................................................................................................... 28

Chapter 2: Important Emerging and Reemerging Tropical Food-Borne Diseases ...........................................................................................33

Viroj Wiwanitkit1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 332 Food-Borne Disease: Important Problem in Public Health .................................... 353 Examples of Important Food-Borne Diseases ........................................................ 374 Emerging Infectious Diseases and Emerging Food-Borne Diseases ...................... 425 Tropical Food-Borne Diseases: Important Tropical Diseases ................................ 446 Databases and Computational Online Tools for Emerging and Reemerging

Tropical Food-Borne Diseases .................................................................................457 How to Use the New Technologies for Management of the Emerging

and Reemerging Tropical Food-Borne Diseases .....................................................468 Further Important Issues Relating to Emerging Food-Borne Diseases .................. 509 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 52References................................................................................................................... 53

Chapter 3: Foodborne Pathogen–Produced Toxins and Their Signal Transduction ......57Asit R. Ghosh1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 572 Foodborne Pathogens (Bacterial, Viral, Fungal, and Algal) ................................... 59

2.1 Bacteria ..................................................................................................................592.2 Rotavirus ................................................................................................................642.3 Mycotoxins.............................................................................................................652.4 Cyanotoxins ...........................................................................................................65

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3 Toxins That Target Signal Transduction ................................................................. 653.1 Cholera Toxin and ETEC Heat-Labile Toxin .........................................................683.2 Shiga Toxins ...........................................................................................................683.3 ETEC Heat-Stable Enterotoxin ..............................................................................693.4 Superantigens .........................................................................................................69

4 Signal Transduction ................................................................................................ 694.1 Toxins Induce Enterocyte Intracellular Signaling ..................................................70

5 Recent Developments ............................................................................................. 736 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 74References................................................................................................................... 74

Chapter 4: Toxoplasmosis: Prevalence and New Detection Methods .........................79Maryna Galat, Nickolaj Starodub, Vladyslav Galat1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 79

1.1 General Characteristics of the Disease ...................................................................791.2 Definitions, Classification, and General Characteristics of the Individual Types of Biosensors ...........................................................................86

2 Seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis in Animals in Ukraine .................................... 1022.1 Ruminants ............................................................................................................1022.2 Pigs .......................................................................................................................1042.3 Cats.......................................................................................................................1062.4 Poultry ..................................................................................................................108

3 Comparison of New Methods of Diagnostics ....................................................... 1084 Discussion and Conclusions ................................................................................. 110References................................................................................................................. 111

Chapter 5: Campylobacteriosis: An Emerging Infectious Foodborne Disease ...........119Ying-Hsin Hsieh, Irshad M. Sulaiman1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1192 Taxonomy ............................................................................................................. 119

2.1 Flagella .................................................................................................................1202.2 Capsule .................................................................................................................1212.3 Toxins ...................................................................................................................121

3 Ecology and Transmission .................................................................................... 1223.1 Water ....................................................................................................................1223.2 Wildlife .................................................................................................................1233.3 Farm and Domestic Animals ................................................................................1233.4 Poultry ..................................................................................................................124

4 Clinical Relevance ................................................................................................ 1254.1 Gastroenteritis ......................................................................................................1284.2 Guillain–Barré Syndrome ....................................................................................1294.3 Miller Fisher Syndrome .......................................................................................1294.4 Reactive Arthritis (RA) ........................................................................................130

5 Epidemiology and Outbreak ................................................................................. 1306 Isolation ................................................................................................................ 134

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6.1 Sample Preparation ..............................................................................................1356.2 Preenrichment and Enrichment ............................................................................1366.3 Isolation and Identification...................................................................................1376.4 Culturing ..............................................................................................................1376.5 Isolation of Campylobacter spp. From Human Samples .....................................139

7 Typing ................................................................................................................... 1408 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 143References................................................................................................................. 145

Chapter 6: Listeria monocytogenes: A Food-Borne Pathogen .............................157Meenakshi Thakur, Rajesh Kumar Asrani, Vikram Patial1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 157

1.1 Microbiology of L. monocytogenes ...................................................................158 1.2 Epidemiology .....................................................................................................158 1.3 Pathophysiology of L. monocytogenes Infection ...............................................160 1.4 Pathogenesis .......................................................................................................162 1.5 Virulence Factors ................................................................................................163 1.6 Molecular Determinants of L. monocytogenes Pathogenesis ............................163 1.7 Adaptation Mechanisms in L. monocytogenes to Survive Under

Adverse Environmental Conditions ................................................................... 166 1.8 Isolation and Detection of L. monocytogenes ....................................................169 1.9 Growth and Incidence of L. monocytogenes in Food ........................................1731.10 Control Measures ...............................................................................................1741.11 Advanced Strategies to Control L. monocytogenes ............................................178

2 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 181References................................................................................................................. 181

Chapter 7: Bacillus spp. as Pathogens in the Dairy Industry .................................193Alyssa A. Grutsch, Pierre S. Nimmer, Rachel H. Pittsley, John L. McKillip1 Bacillus: General Information .............................................................................. 1932 Bacillus in Clinical Settings (General) ................................................................. 195

2.1 Bacillus cereus–Mediated Endophthalmitis .........................................................1953 Bacillus in Food .................................................................................................... 197

3.1 Bacillus spp. Biofilms ..........................................................................................2014 Quorum Sensing ................................................................................................... 2025 Quorum Sensing and Bacillus spp. Pathogenesis ................................................. 2026 Summary and Future Work ................................................................................... 205References................................................................................................................. 207

Chapter 8: Staphylococcus aureus, a Food Pathogen: Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Resistance ......................................................213

Ana Castro, Joana Silva, Paula Teixeira1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 2132 Staphylococcus aureus—General Characteristics ................................................. 214

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3 Occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus ................................................................ 215 3.1 S. aureus in Humans ..........................................................................................215 3.2 S. aureus in Animals ..........................................................................................216 3.3 S. aureus in Food ................................................................................................216

4 Staphylococcus aureus and Clinical Aspects: An Overview .............................. 218 5 MRSA Strains ..................................................................................................... 219 6 Staphylococcal Food Poisoning—Outbreaks ..................................................... 220 7 Presence of Virulence Factors in Staphylococcus aureus ................................... 222

7.1 S. aureus Virulence Factors—An Overview ......................................................222 7.2 Antibiotic Resistance..........................................................................................227

8 Biocontrol and Staphylococcus aureus ............................................................... 229 9 Preventing Staphylococcus aureus—Other Than Antibiotics ............................. 23010 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 231References................................................................................................................. 231

Chapter 9: Food-Borne Mycotoxicoses: Pathologies and Public Health Impact .........239Vikram Patial, Rajesh Kumar Asrani, Meenakshi Thakur 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 239 2 Important Factors for Mycotoxin Production ..................................................... 240 3 Aflatoxins ............................................................................................................ 241

3.1 Effect on Humans ...............................................................................................242 3.2 Effect on Animals ...............................................................................................243 3.3 Pathology ...........................................................................................................244

4 Fumonisins .......................................................................................................... 244 4.1 Effect on Humans ...............................................................................................245 4.2 Effect on Animals ...............................................................................................245 4.3 Pathology ...........................................................................................................246

5 Ochratoxin A ....................................................................................................... 248 5.1 Effect on Humans ...............................................................................................249 5.2 Effect on Animals ...............................................................................................249 5.3 Pathology ...........................................................................................................250

6 Zearalenone ......................................................................................................... 251 6.1 Effect on Humans ...............................................................................................253 6.2 Effect on Animals ...............................................................................................253 6.3 Pathology ...........................................................................................................254

7 Trichothecenes .................................................................................................... 254 7.1 Effect on Humans ...............................................................................................255 7.2 Effect on Animals ...............................................................................................255 7.3 Pathology ...........................................................................................................256

8 Citrinin ................................................................................................................ 256 8.1 Effect on Humans ...............................................................................................257 8.2 Effect on Animals ...............................................................................................257 8.3 Pathology ...........................................................................................................258

9 Moniliformin ....................................................................................................... 258 9.1 Pathology ...........................................................................................................259

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10 Ergot Alkaloids ................................................................................................... 26011 Public Health and Economic Impact of Mycotoxins .......................................... 26212 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 266References................................................................................................................. 266

Chapter 10: Foodborne Botulism From a Systems Biology Perspective ...................275Frank J. Lebeda, Zygmunt F. Dembek, Michael Adler 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 275 2 Food Matrix System: Biophysical Properties ..................................................... 279 3 Bacterial Neurotoxin-Producing System ............................................................ 281

3.1 Growth Models for Clostridium botulinum Type A1 .........................................282 3.2 Progenitor Toxin Complex (PTC) Subsystems ..................................................283

4 Gastrointestinal Tract System ............................................................................. 285 4.1 Foodborne Botulism: Pathways and Kinetics of Neurotoxin Action .................285 4.2 Intestinal Barrier ................................................................................................286

5 Vascular and Lymphatic Systems ........................................................................ 293 6 Peripheral Cholinergic Neuromuscular Junction System ................................... 294 7 Systems Biology of Secondary Reactions .......................................................... 295 8 Future Directions in Systems Biology of Foodborne Botulism .......................... 296 9 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 29810 Disclaimer ........................................................................................................... 300References................................................................................................................. 300

Chapter 11: Pathogenic Biofilm Formation in the Food Industry and Alternative Control Strategies ..................................................309

Efstathios E. Giaouris, Manuel V. Simões1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3092 Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Meat Industry ............................................. 3143 Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Dairy Industry ............................................ 3194 Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Fresh Produce Industry .............................. 3225 Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Seafood Industry ........................................ 3256 Alternative Antibiofilm Strategies for Use in the Food Industry .......................... 335

6.1 Enzymes ...............................................................................................................3356.2 Bacteriophages .....................................................................................................3416.3 Interference with Cell-to-Cell Communication and Quorum Quenching ............347


Chapter 12: Biosensor-Based Methods for the Determination of Foodborne Pathogens .................................................................379

Burcin Bozal-Palabiyik, Aysen Gumustas, Sibel A. Ozkan, Bengi Uslu1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3792 Causes of Foodborne Diseases ............................................................................. 380

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3 Detection of Foodborne Pathogens ....................................................................... 3823.1 Culture Methods ...................................................................................................3873.2 ATP Bioluminescence Methods ...........................................................................3873.3 Microscopic Methods ...........................................................................................3873.4 Immunological Methods ......................................................................................3893.5 Molecular Methods ..............................................................................................3903.6 Biosensors ............................................................................................................391

4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 411References................................................................................................................. 415

Chapter 13: Molecular Typing of Major Foodborne Pathogens ..............................421Spiros Paramithiotis, Agni Hadjilouka, Eleftherios H. Drosinos1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 421

1.1 PFGE ....................................................................................................................4221.2 MLVA ...................................................................................................................4231.3 MLST ...................................................................................................................423

2 Listeria monocytogenes ........................................................................................ 4242.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................4242.2 PFGE ....................................................................................................................4252.3 MLVA ...................................................................................................................4252.4 MLST ...................................................................................................................431

3 Salmonella ............................................................................................................ 4333.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................4333.2 PFGE ....................................................................................................................4343.3 MLVA ...................................................................................................................4353.4 MLST ...................................................................................................................448

4 Campylobacter spp. .............................................................................................. 4544.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................4544.2 PFGE ....................................................................................................................4544.3 MLST ...................................................................................................................4554.4 Flagellin Locus-Based Typing .............................................................................456

5 Escherichia coli O157:H7 .................................................................................... 4565.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................4565.2 PFGE ....................................................................................................................4575.3 MLST ...................................................................................................................4575.4 MLVA ...................................................................................................................458


Chapter 14: Environmental Pollution and the Burden of Food-Borne Diseases ........473Papiya Deb1 Introduction: The Present Scenario ...................................................................... 4732 Food-Borne Diseases ............................................................................................ 4743 The Most Common Microbe of Food-Borne Ailment, Salmonella sp. ................ 475

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4 Climate Change .................................................................................................. 476 4.1 Global Warming .................................................................................................476 4.2 Contamination in Meat ......................................................................................478 4.3 Climate Change Effect on Root Flavonoids .......................................................479

5 Contaminated Water ........................................................................................... 480 5.1 The Fresh Water Hassle......................................................................................480 5.2 Pathogens in Water .............................................................................................481 5.3 Unprocessed Biosolids in Water ........................................................................483 5.4 Heavy Metals in Water .......................................................................................484 5.5 Arcobacters in Shellfish .....................................................................................485 5.6 Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations .........................................................485

6 Pesticides and Other Chemicals.......................................................................... 486 6.1 Pesticides and the Threat of Cancer ...................................................................488

7 Crops Contaminated With Antibiotics ................................................................ 489 8 Polychlorinated and Polybrominated Biphenyls ................................................ 490 9 Heavy Metals in Air ............................................................................................ 49010 Poor Sanitation ................................................................................................... 49111 Undernourishment and Overnourishment ........................................................... 492

11.1 Lifestyle, Food, and Cancer .............................................................................49412 Genetically Modified Foods ............................................................................... 49413 Rare Earth Elements: A Future Concern ............................................................ 49514 Recommendations and Conclusions ................................................................... 495References................................................................................................................. 497

Chapter 15: Foodborne Illness: Threats and Control ............................................501Mian K. Sharif, Komal Javed, Ayesha Nasir1 Foodborne Illness .................................................................................................. 501

1.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................5011.2 World Scenario .....................................................................................................5021.3 Types ....................................................................................................................502

2 Foodborne Pathogens ............................................................................................ 5042.1 Bacteria ................................................................................................................5042.2 Viruses ..................................................................................................................5042.3 Fungi ....................................................................................................................5052.4 Parasites ...............................................................................................................506

3 Common Foodborne Illnesses .............................................................................. 5063.1 Campylobacteriosis ..............................................................................................5063.2 Shigellosis ............................................................................................................5083.3 Salmonlellosis ......................................................................................................5083.4 Botulism ...............................................................................................................5093.5 Escherichia coli ....................................................................................................5093.6 Listeriosis .............................................................................................................5103.7 Norwalk-Like Virus ..............................................................................................5103.8 Typhoid Fever.......................................................................................................510

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4 Pathology of Foodborne Illness ............................................................................ 5115 Detection Techniques ............................................................................................ 512

5.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction .................................................................................5135.2 Isothermal Amplification......................................................................................5145.3 Microarray Detection ...........................................................................................5145.4 Nucleic Acid Built Recognition ...........................................................................515

6 Impact on Human Health ...................................................................................... 5156.1 Foodborne Illness and Acute Illness ....................................................................5156.2 Foodborne Illness and Chronic Diseases .............................................................5176.3 Food Preservatives ...............................................................................................518

7 Prevention of Foodborne Illness ........................................................................... 5187.1 Food Safety Risk Assessment ..............................................................................5197.2 A Shared Responsibility .......................................................................................519


Index ..............................................................................................................525

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List of Contributors

Michael Adler US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, MD, United StatesRajesh Kumar Asrani Dr. G.C. Negi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, IndiaBurcin Bozal-Palabiyik Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, TurkeyAna Castro CBQF—Center for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry, Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, PortugalPapiya Deb SVKM’s Mithibai College, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, Maharashtra, IndiaZygmunt F. Dembek Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United StatesEleftherios H. Drosinos Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, GreeceMaryna Galat National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, UkraineVladyslav Galat National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, UkraineAsit R. Ghosh Centre for Infectious Diseases & Control, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, IndiaEfstathios E. Giaouris Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of the Aegean, Myrina, Lemnos, GreeceAlyssa A. Grutsch Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United StatesAysen Gumustas Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, TurkeyAgni Hadjilouka Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, GreeceYing-Hsin Hsieh US Food and Drug Administration, Atlanta, GA, United StatesKomal Javed National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, PakistanFrank J. Lebeda Systems Biology Collaboration Center, US Army Center for Environmental Health Research, US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Frederick, MD; Johns Hopkins University, Washington, DC, United StatesJohn L. McKillip Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United StatesAyesha Nasir National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, PakistanPierre S. Nimmer Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United StatesSibel A. Ozkan Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, TurkeySpiros Paramithiotis Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, GreeceVikram Patial CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, IndiaRachel H. Pittsley Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United States

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Mian K. Sharif National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, PakistanJoana Silva CBQF—Center for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry, Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, PortugalManuel V. Simões LEPABE, University of Porto, Porto, PortugalNickolaj Starodub National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, UkraineIrshad M. Sulaiman US Food and Drug Administration, Atlanta, GA, United StatesPaula Teixeira CBQF—Center for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry, Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, PortugalMeenakshi Thakur Dr. G.C. Negi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, IndiaSongül Ünüvar İnönü University, Malatya, TurkeyBengi Uslu Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, TurkeyViroj Wiwanitkit Hainan Medical University, Hainan, China; University of Niš, Niš, Serbia; Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji, Osun, Nigeria; Surin Rajabhat University, Surin, Thailand; Dr. DY Patil Medical University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

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Foreword

In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of

Foreword

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basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the “food of the future.”

Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

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Series Preface

The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

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The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we

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aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

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All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

Alina M. HolbanUniversity of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alexandru M. GrumezescuPolitehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

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Preface for Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

The quality and amount of daily food intake represent one of the most important factors in balancing health and disease in humans. Along with the nutritional value of ingested food, other factors, such as contaminants, contribute to food quality and may determine foodborne diseases. These health-threatening conditions may occur as a result of various chemical and biological contaminants, which may also have a huge impact on the food quality. Biological contaminants include microorganisms, such as bacteria, microfungi, and protozoa; but also viruses and parasites and nonetheless their toxins. Infectious and parasitic foodborne diseases cause severe illness in consumers, and sometimes epidemiologic outbreaks. In this book, we aim to present and dissect basic and novel information on the types of food-associated risks, foodborne diseases, main contaminants, and their characteristics; but also current and future perspectives for the early detection and prevention of food contamination.

The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Turkey, Greece, Thailand, USA, Ukraine, Portugal, India, and Pakistan.

The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, microbiologists, medical doctors, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, industrial companies; and also for any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of foodborne diseases.

Chapter 1, entitled Microbial Foodborne Diseases, prepared by Ünüvar, introduces the readers in the field of foodborne diseases, focusing on the classification, causes, clinical features, and new approaches to reduce/prevent the risk of microbial related foodborne diseases.

Chapter 2, Important Emerging and Reemerging Tropical Foodborne Diseases, written by Wiwanitkit, reviews and discusses emerging and reemerging tropical foodborne diseases and ways to combat this public health problem.

Chapter 3, entitled Foodborne Pathogens—Produced Toxins Acting on Signal Transduction, was prepared by Ghosh. This manuscript discusses dominant pathogens that produce one or more toxins targeting signal transduction of the host, which finally leads to pathophysiological changes and subsequently to disease. Some inhibit protein synthesis; some are neurotoxic or some other target different cellular functions.


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Chapter 4, Toxoplasmosis: Prevalence and New Detection Methods, written by Galat et al., describes toxoplasmosis, the causing parasite, as well as prevalence of this parasitic disease. It is currently believed that the use of advanced biosensors to detect contaminated products would decrease the rate of diseases and associated defects.

Chapter 5, entitled Campylobacteriosis: An Emerging Infectious Foodborne Disease, prepared by Hsieh and Sulaiman, offers an overview regarding Campylobacter infections, the wide spread of this disease and currently investigated methods to early detect and avoid the occurrence of massive infections. Recovery of these emerging infectious bacteria from food is still a difficult task. Molecular typing has been effective in characterizing Campylobacter isolated from food, outbreak, sporadic cases, surveillance, and environmental samples. Currently, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and whole genome sequencing (WGS) is increasingly applied in epidemiologic investigations and transmission dynamics of bacteria causing foodborne diseases.

Chapter 6, Listeria monocytogenes: A Foodborne Pathogen, prepared by Thakur et al., describes the most frequent illness produced by this foodborne pathogen, such as invasive listeriosis, gastroenteritis, septicemia, endocarditis, meningitis, rhombencephalitis, perinatal infections, ophthalmitis, and abortion. Various aspects of Listeria monocytogenes pathogenesis involving mechanisms of virulence, survival under adverse conditions, incidence and growth in food, methods of detection, and control measures so as to facilitate the development of better ways of disease prevention are presented here.

Chapter 7, Bacillus spp. as Pathogens in the Dairy Industry, written by Grutsch et al., reveals the current status of knowledge with Bacillus spp. relevant to the dairy industry, virulence potential, and biofilm production from the perspective of food safety. This bacterial genus is capable of contaminating a wide range of food products, including rice, chicken, vegetables, spices, and dairy products, and causing many health-threatening conditions.

Chapter 8, Staphylococcus aureus, a Food Pathogen: Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Resistance, prepared by Castro et al., aims to show the main virulence determinants and issues related with Staphylococcus aureus food contamination, empathizing on the great risk of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics were widely used not only in human but also in animal husbandry and other agricultural activities. The occurrence of multiresistant strains in food has been increasing; contaminated food is considered as an important vehicle for antimicrobial resistance. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) commonly carry enterotoxin genes and antibiotic resistance associated to enterotoxins genes made S. aureus an evolving threat.

In Chapter 9, Food-Borne Mycotoxicoses: Pathologies and Public Health Impact, Patial et al. present recent information regarding mycotoxins and the health-threatening conditions that they induce after the ingestion of contaminated food. This chapter discusses important food


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mycotoxins and the main diseases they produce, such as: aflatoxin, a liver damaging toxin; ochratoxin A, associated with kidney damage; fumonisins, causing liver damage, cancer, and developmental defects; moniliformin, causing acute cardiac damage; deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, causing immunotoxicity and gastroenteritis.

Chapter 10, Foodborne Botulism From a Systems Biology Perspective, written by Lebeda et al., highlights the impact of a systems approach in helping scaling of the effectiveness of therapies and reduces the costs of hospitalizations in patients with botulism. Computational models describing Clostridium botulinum spore activation, bacterial growth, and neurotoxin production in food could be linked to risk assessments that help improve food safety proce-dures and public health policies. Combining experimental and clinical data is also critical in developing models designed to simulate illness onset times and durations.

Chapter 11, entitled Pathogenic Biofilm Formation in the Food Industry and Alternative Control Strategies, was prepared by Giaouris and Simões. The ability of foodborne bacterial pathogens, such as Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp., Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus, to attach to various surfaces and create biofilms on them is a worrying hygienic trouble for the food industry, as this may cause serious food contamination and diseases transmission. The purpose of this chapter is to review the current knowledge related to pathogenic biofilm formation in the main food in-dustries (meat, dairy, fresh produce, and seafood) and also to provide up-to-date data on some potential alternative or supplementary antibiofilm strategies.

Chapter 12, Biosensor-Based Methods for the Determination of Foodborne Pathogens, written by Bozal-Palabiyik et al., gives an overview regarding the main progress made for the development of rapid methods for the detection of foodborne pathogens. Early screening of foodborne pathogens in foods plays an important role in preventing and controlling the outbreaks of foodborne diseases. Biosensors design is one of the important methods for foodborne pathogen detection, which present sensitive, rapid, and low-cost technologies. This study focused on the methods of immobilization of biological component to generate biosensors, applications of mostly used electrochemical and optical biosensors, and recent prospects for foodborne pathogen detection and determination.

Chapter 13, Molecular Typing of Major Foodborne Pathogens, prepared by Paramithiotis et al., presents accurate methods for the identification of the infection source and the transmission route for the effective implementation of preventive measures against microbial foodborne pathogens. Techniques, such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multilocus variable number of tandem repeats analysis (MLVA), and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) are dissected and examples on typing approaches in Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella serovars, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Campylobacter spp. are integrated and critically discussed.


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In Chapter 14, Environmental Pollution and the Burden of Food-Borne Diseases, Deb reveals the connection linking environmental contamination to foodborne ailments. Various types of environmental pollutions lead to distress, as they are often indirect and reliant on numerous adaptive forces. Numerous menaces to ecosystem directing to foodborne ailments comprise change in climate, contaminated water, use of excess fertilizers-pesticides, poor sanitation, etc. Climate change lays stress on agricultural production causing mass malnutrition and vulnerability to diseases. Furthermore, the dissemination and activity of carriers of food-borne pathogens as insects and rodents alter with changes in weather conditions; producing diseases. Atmospheric contaminants often migrate in food in small amounts causing life-threats. Environmental pollution causing foodborne diseases being an area of serious concern at all echelons, the chapter discusses each of these issues in detail with special reference to the developing countries.

Chapter 15, Foodborne Illness: Threats and Control, prepared by Sharif et al., gives an overview of the current threats in foodborne diseases, types, pathology, symptoms, adverse effects, contributory factors, major foodborne pathogens, molecular detection methods, toxin synthesis, hazard and risk analysis, and control measures. Furthermore, current and future efforts to be made to comprehensively deliberate impact of food quality, storage, and preservation on human health, role of consumer toward ensuring food security will be also dissected.

Alina M. HolbanUniversity of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alexandru M. GrumezescuPolitehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

1Foodborne Diseaseshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811444-5.00001-4 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

CHAPTER 1

Microbial Foodborne DiseasesSongül ÜnüvarInönü University, Malatya, Turkey

This chapter reviews microbial foodborne diseases caused by bacteria, parasites, and viruses and their significance as a health concern. Microbial foodborne illnesses constitute the majority of foodborne diseases (Fig. 1.1). Several pathogens cause serious microbial diseases in humans. Each year millions of people become sick or even die from food poisonings. Pathogen-induced foodborne diseases are a major health problem worldwide (Fig. 1.2).

1 Section 1. Bacterial Foodborne Diseases

This section focuses on the classification, causes, and clinical features of bacterial foodborne diseases and on risk reduction and prevention of these diseases (Table 1.1).

1.1 Aeromonas hydrophila–Induced Gastroenteritis

Aeromonas hydrophila is a Gram-negative, motile, nonspore-forming, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that causes Aeromonas-induced gastroenteritis. Aeromonas species can be found in various concentrations in drinking water, aquatic environments, sewage, and foods, including seafoods, raw milk, chicken, vegetables, and meats, such as lamb, veal, pork, and ground beef (Janda and Abbott, 2010; WHO, 2008a). The symptoms of infection include watery stools, abdominal cramps, mild fever, and vomiting. Bronchopneumonia and cholecystitis are observed in severe cases (Mossel et al., 1999). Aeromonas infections have been divided into four groups: (1) gastrointestinal tract syndromes, (2) wound infections and connective tissue infections, (3) bloodborne dyscrasias, and (4) a wide-ranging class that includes a myriad of less frequently encountered ailments and infectious processes (Janda and Abbott, 2010). Rehydration therapy and antimicrobial treatment are recommended in cases of chronic dysentery (Farrar et al., 2014). A. hydrophila strains are resistant to most of the β-lactams, including ceftazidime, cefepime, imipenem, and piperacillin-tazobactam (Janda and Abbott, 2010). Antimicrobials, such as fluoroquinolones may be effective (Farrar et al., 2014).

2 Chapter 1

1.2 Bacillus cereus–Induced Gastroenteritis

Bacillus cereus is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, generally mesophilic, heat-resistant, spore-forming rod widely distributed in the environment. The natural environmental reservoir for B. cereus consists of decaying organic matter, fresh and marine waters, foods, such as boiled or fried rice, spices, dried foods, milk, dairy products, vegetable dishes, sauces, fomites, and the intestinal tracts of invertebrates (Bottone, 2010; WHO, 2008a). The pathogenicity of B. cereus is associated with two toxins, namely diarrheal toxin and emetic toxin. Diarrheal toxin causes diarrheal syndrome characterized with acute diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain. Emetic toxin leads to emetic syndrome characterized with acute nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and rarely diarrhea (Ehling-Schulz et al., 2004). B. cereus strains have been generally resistant to penicillins, erythromycin, tetracycline, and carbapenem due to the consequence of β-lactamase production. Empiric antibiotic therapy is recommended

Figure 1.1: Classification of Foodborne Diseases.

Figure 1.2: Global Burden of Foodborne Diseases—2015 (WHO, 2015).

Microbial Foodborne D

iseases 3

Table 1.1: Major bacterial foodborne diseases and clinical features (FDA, 2012; WHO, 2008a).

Organism IllnessIncubation Period Signs and Symptoms Duration Food Sources

Aeromonas hydrophila

Aeromonas enteritis 24–48 h Dysentery-like symptoms, blood and mucus in the stool, abdominal cramps, mild fever, vomiting

Days to weeks

Seafood (fish, shrimp, oysters), snails, drinking water, meats (beef, pork, lamb, and poultry), certain vegetables, such as sprouts

Bacillus cereus B. cereus gastroenteritis

10–16 h Abdominal cramps, watery diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and pain

24–48 h Meats, stews, gravies, boiled or fried rice, spices, dried foods, milk, dairy products, vegetable dishes, fish and sauces, other starchy foods, potato, pasta, and cheese products; food mixtures; puddings, soups, casseroles, pastries, and salads

Brucella spp. Brucellosis 3 weeks Intermittent fever, lassitude, sweat, headache, chills, constipation, arthralgias, generalized aching, weight loss, anorexia, malaise, joint and muscle pain, arrhythmia, edema, or chest pain, meningoencephalitis, stiff neck, confusion or seizures, spondylitis, such as back pain

Weeks to months

Unpasteurized goat’s or sheep’s milk and products made from the milk of infected animals

Campylobacter jejuni Campylobacteriosis 2–5 days Bloody diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, vomiting, nausea, headache, and muscle pain

2–3 weeks Raw and undercooked poultry, beef, pork, unpasteurized milk, contaminated drinking water, vegetables, and seafood

Clostridium botulinum

Botulism 12–36 h Vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, blurred vision, double vision, muscle weakness, slurred speech, difficulty in swallowing, dry mouth, headache, dizziness, constipation

Weeks to months

Home-canned vegetables, fish and fish products, baked potatoes in aluminum foil, condiments (e.g., pepper), meat and meat products, green beans, soups, beets, asparagus, mushrooms, ripe olives, spinach, chicken and chicken livers, liver pâté

Clostridium perfringens

Clostridium perfringens enteritis

8–24 h Abdominal cramps, watery diarrhea, rarely vomiting and fever

1–2 days Meats, poultry, vegetables (spices and herbs), gravy, raw and processed foods, time- and/or temperature-abused foods

(Continued)

4 C

hapter 1


Coxiella burnetii Q fever 2 weeks Very high fever, severe headaches, muscle aches, chills, profuse sweating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dry cough, abdominal cramps, chest pain

1–2 weeks Contaminated unpasteurized milk or dairy products

E. coli E. coli infection 1–6 days Watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, high fever, nausea, malaise

Days to weeks

Water or food contaminated with human feces, raw or undercooked ground-meat products, raw milk from infected animals, vegetables

Enterobacter sakazakii

Cronobacter infection

Variable Poor feeding response, irritability, jaundice, grunting respirations, instability of body temperature, seizures, brain abscess, hydrocephalus, developmental delay

2–8 weeks Contaminated powdered infant formula, milk powders, cheese products, other dried foods

Francisella tularensis Tularemia 3–6 days Symptoms varying according to the type of tularemia from mild diarrhea to severe bowel damage, chills, fever, and headaches

Variable Milk and undercooked meats from infected animals (particularly rabbits and hares)

Listeria monocytogenes

Listeriosis Days to several weeks

Influenza-like symptoms, such as fever, headache and fever, muscle aches, stiff neck, confusion, loss of balance, convulsions, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

Days to weeks

Unpasteurized and raw milk and products (soft cheeses), chocolate milk, ice cream, meat-based paste, hot dogs and deli meats, raw and smoked fish and other seafood, raw vegetables, coleslaw

Miscellaneous Enterobacteriaceae

Miscellaneous bacterial enteric

12–24 h Acute gastroenteritis may include vomiting, nausea, fever, chills, abdominal pain, and watery diarrhea

Days to weeks

Dairy products, raw shellfish, raw vegetables

Mycobacterium bovis Tuberculosis Months to years

Fever, night sweats, fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, chronic cough, bloodstained sputum, chest pain, diarrhea, abdominal pain

Months to years

Raw and unpasteurized cow’s milk and its products, raw or undercooked meats of infected animals

Plesiomonas shigelloides

Plesiomonas shigelloides enteric infection

20–50 h Fever, chills, abdominal pain, nausea; watery, nonmucoid, nonbloody diarrhea; vomiting, dehydration

1–7 days Contaminated water, raw shellfish, improperly cooked or raw foods, seafoods, such as crabs, fish, and oysters

Table 1.1: Major bacterial foodborne diseases and clinical features (FDA, 2012; WHO, 2008a). (cont.)

Microbial Foodborne D

iseases 5


Salmonella spp. Salmonellosis 6–48 h Diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting, nausea, headache

4–7 days Raw eggs, poultry, meat, unpasteurized milk or juice, cheese, chocolate, contaminated raw fruits and vegetables, spices, salads

Salmonella typhi and S. paratyphi

Typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever

10–20 days Nausea, high fever, abdominal pain, headache, rashes, loss of appetite

Several weeks to months

Prepared foods, dairy products, meat products, poultry, eggs, shellfish, shrimp; fruits and vegetables, such as tomatoes, peppers, and cantaloupes; chocolate, coconut, sauces

Shigella spp. Shigellosis or bacillary dysentery

1–7 days Abdominal cramps, fever, diarrhea, vomiting, pus or mucus in stools, tenesmus

5–7 days Raw or uncooked foods, contaminated drinking water, mixed salads and vegetables, raw milk and dairy products

Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus intoxication

2–6 h Severe nausea and vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea and fever, prostration, dehydration, headache, muscle cramping, and transient changes in blood pressure and pulse rate

24–48 h Unrefrigerated or improperly refrigerated meats and meat products, poultry and egg products; salads, such as egg, tuna, chicken, potato, and macaroni; milk and dairy products

Streptococcus spp. Streptococcus spp. intoxication

1–3 days Pain on swallowing, high fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, malaise, rhinorrhea

4 days Milk (both pasteurized and unpasteurized), ice cream, cream, eggs, cooked seafood, salads, such as potato, egg, and shrimp; custard, rice pudding

Vibrio cholerae Cholera 1–3 days Profuse watery diarrhea, severe dehydration, abdominal pain and vomiting, with rice-water stools

Up to 7 days

Seafood, molluscan shellfish (oysters, mussels, and clams), crab, lobster, shrimp, squid, and finfish, vegetables

Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Vibrio parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis

4–90 h Watery and/or bloody diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, fever

2–6 days Undercooked or raw seafood, such as shellfish, raw or undercooked fish and fishery products, raw or improperly cooked oysters, other seafood products, including finfish, squid, octopus, lobster, shrimp, crab, and clams

Vibrio vulnificus Vibrio vulnificus infection

12 h–21 days Vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, bleeding within the skin, nausea, chills, pain in the extremities

Days to weeks

Undercooked or raw seafood, such as shellfish (especially raw oysters)

Yersinia enterocolitica Yersiniosis 24–36 h Abdominal pain, diarrhea, mild fever, sometimes vomiting

1–3 weeks Raw milk and milk products, meats (pork, beef, lamb, etc.), oysters, fish, crabs

6 Chapter 1

in suspected B. cereus infections while awaiting the antibiotic susceptibility testing profile. Vancomycin and broad-spectrum cephalosporins and ticarcillin-clavulanate should be choices for the empirical therapy of patients with suspected B. cereus infection (Bottone, 2010).

1.3 Botulism

Clostridium botulinum is a Gram-positive, spore-forming, anaerobic bacteria motile rod that produces potent neurotoxins. Seven types of toxins have been identified (A–G). F type has been associated with botulism. C. botulinum is responsible for four syndromes: foodborne botulism (due to ingestion of foods contaminated with toxin), infant botulism (intestinal infection, colonization, and toxin production), wound botulism (infection of a wound with C. botulinum), and adult intestinal toxemia botulism (intestinal colonization and toxin production in adults) (Sobel, 2005). Foodborne botulism is caused by ingestion of foods, such as vegetables, condiments, fish and fish products, and meat and meat products contaminated with C. botulinum toxin. Honey consumption is a common vehicle of transmission of infant botulism (Fratamico et al., 2005). Botulism occurs by accidental or intentional exposure to botulinum toxins. Vomiting, abdominal pain, fatigue, muscle weakness, headache, dizziness, visual disturbance, constipation, dry mouth, difficulty in swallowing and speaking, and ultimately paralysis and respiratory or heart failure occur in foodborne botulism. Toxins are potentially lethal in very small doses, binding to the neuromuscular junction, blocking acetylcholine transmission, and causing neuromuscular blockade and flaccid paralysis. Persons with clinically suspected botulism should be admitted to an intensive care setting, with frequent monitoring of vital capacity and institution of mechanical ventilation if required. Paralysis from botulism is protracted, lasting weeks to months, and meticulous intensive care is required during this period of debilitation. The administration of antitoxin is the only specific therapy available for botulism. Antitoxin can arrest the progression of paralysis and decrease the duration of paralysis and dependence on mechanical ventilation (Sobel, 2005).

1.4 Brucellosis

Brucellosis also known as undulant fever, Mediterranean fever, or Malta fever (Gul and Erdem, 2015). Brucella abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis are the most common species that cause brucellosis in humans (Hossain et al., 2014). Characteristics of Brucella spp. are Gram-negative, aerobic, nonspore-forming, short, oval, nonmotile rods that grow optimally at 37°C and pH 6.6–7.4 and are heat-labile (Hui et al., 2001). Sources of Brucella spp. include common host species, especially cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, camels, yaks, buffaloes, and dogs, and consumption of raw or inadequately cooked milk or milk products, meat, and offal derived from these animals (WHO, 2006b). The clinical symptoms of brucellosis are nonspecific and include continuous, intermittent, or irregular fever, as well as lassitude, sweat, headache, chills, constipation, arthralgias, generalized aching, weight loss, and anorexia;

Microbial Foodborne Diseases 7

symptoms may persist for weeks or months. Osteoarticular problems are the most frequent complications of brucellosis, occurring in 20%–60% of cases; also, sacroiliitis, genitourinary complications (including orchitis, epididymitis, or sexual impotence), cardiovascular and neurological conditions, insomnia, and depression have been reported (Hui et al., 2001). Effective antibiotics can contribute to the treatment of human brucellosis. A variety of antimicrobial drugs have in vitro antimicrobial activity against Brucella spp.; however, the results of routine susceptibility tests do not always correlate with clinical efficacy. Tetracyclines (doxycycline), aminoglycosides (streptomycin, gentamicin), rifampicin, fluoroquinolones (nalidixic acid), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and cotrimoxazole have been used to treat brucellosis (WHO, 2006b).

1.5 Campylobacteriosis

Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli are the two predominant species that cause gastrointestinal infections in humans. Campylobacter is an enteric, Gram-negative, nonspore-forming bacterium often found in domestic and wild animals; livestock, such as pigs, cattle, sheep, and birds; and contaminated water. Human transmissions occur by the ingestion of contaminated meat and raw milk, and chickens and turkeys are also considered important vehicles for foodborne campylobacteriosis. Campylobacteriosis typically develops 2–5 days after exposure and is characterized by fever, severe abdominal pain, nausea, and watery and rarely bloody diarrhea. Campylobacteriosis is one of the most frequently reported foodborne diseases in industrialized countries, and is a cause of infant and traveler’s diarrhea, hemolytic uremic syndrome, meningitis, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, colitis, endocarditis, erythema nodosum, and reactive arthritis occurring in approximately 2%–10% of cases. Infection is sometimes misdiagnosed as appendicitis. Campylobacteriosis is usually asymptomatic, and antibiotic treatment is often not required except for infants and children (Williams et al., 2015; WHO, 2008a).

1.6 Cholera

Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative aerobic organism. The bacterium can ferment sucrose and is often found in the environment. V. cholerae spp. are divided into four serogroups as O1, O139, non-O1, and non-O139 (Chowdhury et al., 2016). V. cholerae O1 and O139 can lead to severe dehydration as a consequence of profuse watery diarrhea. Salt and fluid replacement help prevent collapse and death. The other two serogroups, namely non-O1 and non-O139, are associated with cholera-like diarrhea. Cholera infections are generally observed due to ingestion of seafood, vegetables, cooked rice, and ice contaminated with V. cholerae. Person-to-person transmission through the fecal-oral route is also an important mode of transmission (Finkelstein, 1996). Antibiotics provide a beneficial complement to fluid replacement in cholera by substantially reducing the duration and volume of diarrhea and thereby lessening

8 Chapter 1

fluid requirements and shortening the duration of hospitalization. Tetracycline and derivatives have been reported as effective agents in the treatment of cholera (Greenough et al., 1964). Erythromycin can use as an alternative antibiotic to tetracycline in young children and during pregnancy. Both single-dose azithromycin and ciprofloxacin have also been used for treating cholera in adults (Saha et al., 2006).

1.7 Clostridium perfringens–Induced Necrotic Enteritis

Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive, nonmotile, anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium (Wells and Wilkins, 1996). It can be found in many different environments but is most frequently found in the intestines of both sick and healthy animals (Lacey et al., 2016). The fecal-oral route of transmission is common, and other ways of transmission are contaminated feed, water, housing structures, and insects (Lee et al., 2011). C. perfringens causes several symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, rarely vomiting, fever, and a variety of diseases, such as gastrointestinal disorders, liver and kidney damage, dermatitis, and gas gangrene depending on the type of toxins produced by the microorganism (Lacey et al., 2016; WHO, 2008a). Morbidity is associated with these toxins. Food poisoning symptoms occur after ingestion of C. perfringens–contaminated foods (Omernik and Płusa, 2015). Subclinical necrotic enteritis infection is associated with decreased feed intake, which adversely affects growth rate, feed conversion, and flock uniformity; hepatitis; or cholangiohepatitis (Lee et al., 2011). In the absence of early radical surgery, antibiotic therapy, and (if available) hyperbaric treatment, the toxins can easily spread throughout the body, causing shock and coma and resulting in death. Epsilon-toxin produced by type B and D strains of C. perfringens is the third most potent clostridial toxin (Omernik and Płusa, 2015). Future studies that are focused on the immunobiology of host–pathogen interactions will contribute to novel control strategies against this disease, including second-generation recombinant vaccines, new delivery vectors, and novel adjuvants, as well as dietary immunomodulating agents, such as pre- or probiotics (Lee et al., 2011).

1.8 Enterobacter sakazakii Infection

Enterobacter sakazakii, recently reclassified as Cronobacter, is a Gram-negative, motile, rod-shaped, nonsporulating pathogenic bacterium that can cause foodborne illness, primarily among infants and immunocompromised adults. Newborn infants are at high risk due to E. sakazakii contamination of dried foods, such as powdered infant formula. Ingestion of contaminated food is the primary route of exposure. But Cronobacter does not survive in powdered milk that is pasteurized. Cronobacter has been detected in some foods, such as bread, cereal, rice, fruit, vegetables, legume products, herbs, spices, milk, cheese, sausage meat, teas, and fish (FDA, 2012; Hunter et al., 2008). Although the bacterium has also been found in a variety of other foods, only powdered infant formula has been linked to

volume 15: foodborne diseases

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