walker & bernal, 2004.pdf

COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS

Vol. 35, Nos. 17 & 18, pp. 24952514, 2004

Plant Mineral Nutrition and Growthin a Saline Mediterranean Soil Amended

with Organic Wastes

David J. Walker and M. Pilar Bernal*

Department of Soil and Water Conservation and

Organic Waste Management, Centro de Edafologa y Biologa

Aplicada del Segura, CSIC, Apartado, Murcia, Spain

ABSTRACT

This work describes the effects of a poultry manure and a compost

(prepared from olive mill and cotton wastes) on soil conditions and

plant nutrient status and growth in a saline soil from Mediterranean

Spain, having an electrical conductivity for a 1:5 aqueous extract of

1.51 dSm1. Two Brassica spp. (B. carinata A. Br. and B. oleraceaL.) were selected from a hydroponic screening with two salinity

levels, in which the greater tolerance of B. oleracea seemed to be

related to maintenance of shoot K and restriction of Na and Cl,behavior shown also by B. carinata at the lower salinity level.

*Correspondence: M. Pilar Bernal, Department of Soil and Water Conservation

and Organic Waste Management, Centro de Edafologa y Biologa Aplicada del

Segura, CSIC, Apartado 4195, Murcia 30080, Spain; Fax: +34-968-396213;

E-mail: [email protected].

2495

DOI: 10.1081/LCSS-200030347 0010-3624 (Print); 1532-2416 (Online)

Copyright & 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com

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Brassica carinata and B. oleracea were grown in the soil after

incorporation of the organic materials. The amendments increased

the cation exchange capacity of the soil and the concentrations of

exchangeable K and Mg2. A significant proportion of the K

added by the amendments was retained in the exchange complex. The

equilibrium between soluble and exchangeable K tended toward theexchangeable forms, whereas Na remained mainly in the soilsolution. Addition of manure significantly increased shoot growth

for both Brassica species, while compost markedly improved B.

oleracea shoot growth. These effects may have been related to

increased shoot tissue K:Na ratios and total phosphorus (P)concentrations, reflecting the K and P contents of the amendments.When tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) was grown in the

amended soils used for B. oleracea, its growth was not significantly

greater than in the control. Although the organic amendments raised

the water-extractable boron (B) concentration of the soil, plant tissue

B concentrations were unaffected, possibly due to the elevated

concentration of soluble SO24 in the soil.

Key Words: Brassica; Mineral nutrition; Organic masks; Soil

salinity; Tomato.

INTRODUCTION

Mediterranean Spain is characterized by low rainfall (900mmy1), hasled to the accumulation of Ca2, Mg2, Na, Cl, and SO24 in thesurface soil layers.[2,3] Plants growing in saline media generally exhibittissue accumulation of Na and Cl and/or inhibition of uptake ofmineral nutrients, especially Ca2, K, N, and P.[46] The mechanisms ofgrowth inhibition include disturbance of plant-water relations, due to thehigh osmotic potential of the external medium, and effects on gasexchange, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis.[5,79]

In Spain, the use of waste matter from the olive oil industry(following composting) and animal manures as soil amendmentsrepresents one strategy for the management of the high production ofthese materials. For saline sodic soils, addition of organic matter (OM)can accelerate leaching of Na, decrease the exchangeable sodiumpercentage (ESP) and the electrical conductivity (EC) and increase waterinfiltration, water-holding capacity, and aggregate stability.[1,1013]

2496 Walker and Bernal

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Addition of OM to soil can increase or decrease the soil solution andplant tissue B concentrations, depending on the soil type and the Bcontent of the OM.[14,15] Also, due to their contents of N, P, and K, OMamendments can improve nutrient supply in such soils.[1,1113] However,whether this benefits plant growth depends upon the salinity tolerance ofthe plant species and the initial salinity and nutrient status of the soil,[4]

since, if it is direct salinity stress rather than nutrient deficiency, which islimiting growth, then increasing the nutrient supply will probably beineffective. Also, for animal manures or composts having relatively highsalt contents, elevated application rates can exacerbate soil salinity,leading to soil structural breakdown and/or plant growth inhibition.[16,17]

Screening experiments, to select more salt tolerant genotypes, arerequired before proceeding to soil-based studies.[18]

The aim of the work described here was to study the effects of a freshmanure and a mature compost on the mineral nutrition and growth ofplants in a saline soil from Mediterranean Spain. The plants used weretwo Brassica species, selected according to their salt tolerance in ahydroponic screening experiment, and the tomato (Lycopersicon escu-lentum Mill.) cv. Moneymaker, which possesses a degree of salttolerance.[9] Changes in the soil environment were determined directlyand by following effects on the growth and tissue levels of mineralnutrients (Ca2, K, Mg2, total N, and total P) and potentially toxicelements (Na, Cl, and B) for successive crops cultivated in this soil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hydroponic Screening for Salt Tolerance

The species tested were B. carinata A.Br., Brassica juncea (B. juncea)(L.) Czern., Brassica nigra (B. nigra) (L.) Koch, and B. oleracea L.(Capitata group). Seeds were sown in vermiculite and were watered with0.5mM CaSO4 (control) or a saline solution (S1 or S2) from sowing today 7. S1 contained (mM): 1.0 KH2PO4, 1.0 K2SO4, 4.0 CaSO4, 4.0NaHCO3, 2.0 MgSO4, 12 Na2SO4, and 14 NaCl, plus 105 mM H3BO3,20 mM Fe Ethylenediaminetetraacetic (EDTA), and Hoagland micro-nutrients.[19] S2 contained (mM): 1.0 KH2PO4, 5.0 KNO3, 3.0 Ca(NO3)2,5.0 CaCl2, 4.0 NaHCO3, 3.0 MgSO4, 22 Na2SO4, and 102 NaCl, plus280 mM H3BO3, 20 mM FeEDTA, and Hoagland micronutrients. S1 andS2 had pH values of 6.6 and 6.7 and EC values (dSm1) of 5.6 and 16.3,respectively. The pots were kept in a growth chamber, with a 16-h day, aday/night temperature of 24/18C, constant relative humidity of 70%,

Plant Mineral Nutrition and Growth 2497

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and a daytime PAR of 350 mmolm2 s1. From day 7 to 11, seedlingswere watered with half-strength Hoagland solution (for the control)[19] ordeionized water (for S1 and S2 treatments) to avoid salt accumulation inthe media due to water loss by evaporation.

Twelve days after sowing, seedlings were transplanted (2 per pot) to1.5-L pots containing aerated nutrient solution. Control seedlings weregrown in half-strength Hoagland nutrient solution, changed to fullstrength (pH 6.0) on day 16. Seedlings watered with S1 or S2 werecultivated in these solutions. There were three replicates of each treatment,arranged in separate blocks. The nutrient solution was replaced every 24days until harvest, on day 30. Root apoplastic solution was removed bybathing for 10min with isotonic sorbitol solution. Plants were thenwashed with deionized water, separated into roots and shoots, and oven-dried (80C for 48 h) weights were determined. Dried tissue was milled anddigested with a 2:1 mixture of nitric and perchloric acids, prior todetermination of K and Na by flame photometry (model PFP7, JenwayLtd., Felsted Dunmow, UK). For determination of anions in shoots,aqueous extracts of oven-dried tissue were analyzed by high-performanceliquid chromatography (HPLC), with a Waters IC-Pak (Waters, Milford,MA, USA) column (4.6 150mm) and an integrated Waters system(pump 510, autosampler 717-plus, conductivity detector 431).

Analysis of Soil, Organic Amendments,and Plant Material

The soil used, from an agricultural area of Valencia (Spain), is aTypic Haploxerepts.[20] Soil was collected from the top 20 cm, air-driedfor 56 days and sieved to

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were measured with a Carlo Erba automatic microanalyzer.[24] The soilOM content was calculated by multiplying OC by 1.72, and OM of theorganic amendments was determined by loss on ignition at 430C. Fordetermination of CaCO3, CO2 released by addition of HCl was measuredwith a calcimeter. The values of pH were determined from saturated soilpastes and from 1:10 organic amendment:water. Electrical conductivitywas determined from 1:5 aqueous extracts. Cation exchange capacity(CEC) was determined by using BaCl2triethanolamine.

[25] Soluble andexchangeable cations in soil were determined from the EC extract and theleachate solution of the CEC, respectively; Ca2 and Mg2 weremeasured by atomic absorption spectrometry (SOLAAR 969; Unicam,Cambridge, UK), and K and Na by flame photometry. For theamendments, samples were milled and digested with a 2:1 mixture ofnitric and perchloric acids, prior to determination of K and Na, byflame photometry, and total P, by a colorimetric method.[26] Solubleanions in the EC extract were determined by HPLC. Soil B was extractedwith boiling water (2 g in 20mL). Soil extracts and amendments wereashed at 450C, prior to being dissolved in 5M HCl for determination ofB by using azomethineH.[27]

Pot Experiments

Three treatments (with 4 replicates per treatment, each having 4 kgair-dried soil per pot) were used: non-amended soil and soil amended

Table 1. Properties of the selected soil, poultry manure, and compost. Values are

on an oven-dry (105C) basis.

Parameter Soil Poultry manure Compost

pH 7.59 7.00 9.27

EC (dSm1) 1.51 5.47 3.35OM (%) 1.42 66.4 82.5

OC (g kg1) 8.25 337 479TN (g kg1) 0.83 32.1 24.5NH4-N (g kg

1) nd 1.96 0.15C/N 11.0 10.5 19.1

Total-P (g kg1) nd 15.9 2.4Total-K (g kg1) nd 25.8 26.7Total-Na (g kg1) nd 4.5 1.0CEC (cmolc kg

1) 8.06 nd 122.8

nd, not determined.


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with compost or poultry manure, at rates that increased the OC level ofthe soil by 1.0% (20.9 and 29.7 g kg1 dry soil for compost and manure,respectively). A mixed fertilizer (15% N,15% P2O5, 15% K2O),1.2 g pot1, was added to all treatments. Pots were then watered withtap water (EC 0.9 dSm1) and left in a glasshouse for 46 days, when14-day-old plants of B. carinata and B. oleracea were transplanted. Thesehad been raised in the glasshouse in a 1:1 (vol) mixture of vermiculite andthe saline soil, watered with tap water. There were two plants per pot forboth species. The glasshouse was not heated, and there was no artificiallighting. The maximum and minimum temperatures recorded were 30and 7C respectively. When the plants were 44 days old, 100mLpot1 ofa solution containing 0.6 g NPK mixed fertilizer, Hoagland micronu-trients (without B), and 20 mM FeEDTA was applied. When the plants ofB. carinata and B. oleracea were 91 and 122 days old, respectively, shootmaterial was harvested, washed, weighed oven-dry, milled, and aciddigested for determination of total P,[26] cations, and anions. Total N wasdetermined by using the automatic microanalyzer. Plant tissue B wasdetermined by using azomethineH, after ashing at 450C.[27] Soilsamples were air-dried, ground, and passed through a 2-mm mesh foranalysis.

The pots of soil used to grow B. oleracea were left dry in theglasshouse for 54 days, when 1.2 g pot1 of N:P:K fertilizer was appliedand 28-day-old seedlings of tomato cv. Moneymaker, previously grownin the glasshouse (in vermiculite watered with half-strength Hoaglandsolution plus 10mM NaCl), were transplanted into the pots (2 per pot).When the plants were 50 days old, 80mL of a solution containingHoagland micronutrients (without B) and 20 mM FeEDTA was appliedto each pot. The plants were harvested when 77 days old. The maximumand minimum glasshouse temperatures had been 35 and 15C,respectively. For each plant, the shoot was divided into the expandingleaves (plus shoot apex) (growing tissue) and the stem plus fully-grown leaves. All of this material was washed, weighed after oven-drying,and the growing tissue was milled, digested, and analyzed.

Statistical Analysis

By using SPSS version 11.0 software (SPSS, Inc.), data weresubjected to analysis of variance, and differences between means weredetermined by using Duncans multiple range test. Where necessary, datawere log-transformed before analysis.


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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Hydroponic Screening of Brassica Species

Root growth (Fig. 1), when expressed as a percentage of control dry

weight, was 59, 34, 33, and 79% for B. carinata, B. juncea, B. nigra and B.

oleracea, respectively, in the S1 treatment, with the corresponding S2

values being 39, 18, 18, and 32%. All four species showed similar increases

in root Na concentration, with corresponding decreases in K (data notshown). For the S1 treatment, B. carinata, B. oleracea, and B. nigra

exhibited the least salt-sensitive shoot growth (6369% of control dry

weight), while for S2, B. nigrawas the most tolerant andB. juncea the most

sensitive (Fig. 1). Although toxic levels of tissue Na probably

Figure 1. Shoot (a) and root (b) growth (mg DMpot1) of four Brassica speciesgrown, from day 12 after sowing until day 30, in control nutrient solution or in

moderately (S1) or highly (S2) saline nutrient solution.


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contributed to this shoot growth inhibition,[8,18] there was no clearrelationship between Na exclusion ability and salt tolerance. Forexample, B. nigra and B. juncea, despite their differing growth sensitivities,had similar shoot Na levels (Fig. 2). However, the ability of B. oleraceato maintain shoot K and to restrict shoot accumulation of Na and Cl

(Fig. 2) may have contributed to its relative salt tolerance.[18,28] Tissuelevels of Ca2, Mg2, H2PO

4 , NO

3 , and SO

24 showed very similar

patterns of change with increasing salinity in all four species (data notshown) and probably did not contribute to growth differences. Theabsence of clear relationships between salt tolerance and tissue ionconcentrations mirrors earlier results[29,30] for these four Brassica species.

Figure 2. Shoot DM concentrations of Cl, K, and Na for four Brassicaspecies grown as described for Fig. 1.


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Brassica carinata and B. oleracea were selected for the pot experimentbecause of their greater tolerance of moderate salinity (S1).

Pot Experiment

Effects of Organic Amendments on Soil Properties

At harvest, both organic amendments had increased the EC of thesoil used to grow B. carinata (Fig. 3), as a result of the contents of solublesalts of both materials (Table 1), as well as those formed by themineralization of their organic matter. However, significant differenceswere not found between treatments in the soil of B. oleracea, as a result ofthe control soil EC being greater than that of B. carinata. With respect tothe soluble anions contributing to the EC, SO24 always represented thegreatest proportion (Fig. 3), with the different treatments having onlyslight effects, due to the high SO24 concentration in the original soil.

[2,3]

The greatest effects on the anion concentration were for nitrate (Fig. 3),values being higher for manure than for compost (but not significantlyso), because manure provided more inorganic N (NH4 -N) than compost(Table 1), which is easily nitrified after addition to the soil.[31]

The concentration of soluble Kwas greatly increased by the additionof both organic amendments to soil, being the cation most affected bythese treatments (Fig. 4), which reflects the high K contents of the com-post and manure (Table 1), typical of such materials.[14,17,32,33] RegardingNa, the greater amount of Na present in the manure (Table 1) explainsits more marked effect on soluble Na in the soil (Fig. 4).

The organic amendments increased the CEC of the soil (Fig. 5), aswell as the exchangeable Mg2 and K. In previous reports of increasesin soil CEC after manure and pig slurry amendments,[34,35] closerelationships between OC and CEC were found, which indicated thatthe OM provided to the soil with the manure and slurry was the mainfactor responsible for the increased CEC. Although the concentration ofexchangeable Na was slightly lower in the manure treatment than in thecontrol soil (0.079 in control, 0.085 in compost, and 0.065 cmol kg1 inmanure), the differences were not statistically significant. When theresults were expressed as the relative percentages of exchangeable cations,the increases in Mg2 and K and decreases in Ca2 were clearly shownin the manure and compost treatments. Therefore, part of the K addedby the organic amendments was retained in the exchange complex,because of the relative enrichment of the soil solution in this cation(Fig. 4). The equilibrium between soluble and exchangeable K tended


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toward the exchangeable form,[16] while, for Na, it tended toward thesoil solution. So, the ESP remained more or less constant in all treatmentswith low values (ranging from 0.65 to 1.11), and differences were notstatistically significant.

Effects of Organic Amendments on Plant Growth and Mineral Nutrition

Shoot growth of B. carinata was increased significantly (P< 0.05) bymanure addition, growth of B. oleracea was improved significantly by

Figure 3. Electrical conductivity of saturation extracts and concentrations of

soluble SO24 , NO3 , and Cl

determined for soil (non-amended control oramended with compost or manure) at harvest of B. carinata and B. oleracea.


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both compost and manure, and compost and manure increased tomatoshoot dry matter (DM) by 17 and 18%, respectively, although these effectswere not statistically significant (Fig. 6). For control plants of B. carinata,the shoot tissue Na level (1324mmol kg1) was almost certainly toxicand K (1206mmol kg1) was probably suboptimal (Fig. 7).[8,18] Forcontrol plants of B. oleracea, the shoot tissue Na (1184mmol kg1) andCl (901mmol kg1) concentrations may have been toxic, with K

(1206mmol kg1) being sufficient.[8,18,36] Thus, the growth stimulation ofB. carinata by manure may have been related to the slight decline and

Figure 4. Concentrations of soluble Na, K, Mg2, and Ca2 determined forsoil (control or amended with compost or manure) at harvest of B. carinata and

B. oleracea.


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increase in shoot Na and K concentrations, respectively (Fig. 7), suchthat the tissue K:Na ratio increased from the control value of 0.94 to1.38. This was probably because of increased competition for uptakebrought about by the greatly increased soluble K levels in the soil.[4]

Similarly, for B. oleracea the compost treatment raised the K:Na

ratio to 1.44, from the control value of 0.93, due to a significant rise inshoot K (Fig. 7). Shoot growth of Brassica spp. under salinity has beenshown to be both related[18,28] and unrelated[29] to the K:Na ratio.

Figure 5. CEC and concentrations of exchangeable Na, K, Mg2, and Ca2

determined for soil (control or amended with compost or manure) at harvest of

B. carinata and B. oleracea.


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For tomato, the Na concentration in growing shoot tissue of controlplants (587mmol kg1) probably did not inhibit growth,[9] while thecontrol K level was in excess of growth requirements.[6,7]

The relatively minor effects of the amendments upon soluble

concentrations of Ca2, Mg2, Cl, and SO24 (Figs. 3 and 4) weremirrored in the absence of significant effects upon shoot levels of these

ions (Figs. 7 and 8). For all three species, the shoot concentration of total

N was very similar in amended and non-amended soil (Fig. 8) and

previous results for B. carinata and B. oleracea[18,36] and tomato[37]

suggest that no plants were N deficient. Both amendments significantly

increased tissue total P, except for tomato/manure, as a function of their

respective P contents (Table 1, Fig. 8). However, the measured tissue P

level in control tomato plants (109mmol kg1) may have been sufficientfor growth requirements.[6,37] Conversely, control Brassica plants,

especially B. oleracea, may well have been P deficient (Fig. 8),[36] due

to decreased P availability in this saline soil and/or inhibition of its

uptake by Cl or SO24[4] and the amendment-provoked increases in

tissue P probably contributed to the enhanced DM production.Previous work has shown that the levels of B in animal manures or

composts prepared from plant materials are similar to those in the

present study.[17,32] Their application to soil can raise hot-water

extractable and plant tissue B levels,[14] which are closely related.[14,38]

At harvest of the Brassica species, both compost and manure had

Figure 6. Shoot growth (g DMpot1) of B. carinata, B. oleracea, and tomato(grown in soil used for B. oleracea) grown in control soil or soil amended with

compost or manure.


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increased significantly (P< 0.05) the hot-waterextractable B in the soil(Table 2). These increases were proportional to the B contents of theamendments (67.4 and 38.6mg kg1 for compost and manure, respec-tively) and suggest that the B supplied by the amendments outweighedany increase in B adsorption due to the OM.[15] However, there was nosignificant treatment effect on shoot B concentration (or total shootaccumulation, data not shown) (Table 2). This restricted B accumulationprobably reflects the saline nature and high soluble SO24 level of thissoil.[2,39,40] Also, compost and, for B. carinata, manure slightly increased

Figure 7. Shoot DM concentrations of Mg2, Ca2, K, and Na of B. carinata,B. oleracea, and tomato (grown in soil used for B. oleracea) grown in control soil

or soil amended with compost or manure.


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the soluble SO24 concentration (Fig. 3). The measured tissue levels of Bwere unlikely to have been toxic (or deficient), judging from previousresults for Brassica spp.[38,41] and tomato.[42]

CONCLUSIONS

Brassica carinata and B. oleracea showed greater salinity tolerancethan B. juncea and B. napus in screening hydroponic experiments,

Figure 8. Shoot DM concentrations of total P, SO24 , total N, and Cl of

B. carinata, B. oleracea, and tomato (grown in soil used for B. oleracea) grown

in control soil or soil amended with compost or manure.


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therefore, they were selected for the pot experiment. The ability of

B. oleracea to maintain shoot K and to restrict shoot accumulationof Na and Cl, in the hydroponic experiment, may have contributedto its relative salt tolerance. Promotion of shoot growth by the

compost and manure for the two Brassica spp. studied was pro-

bably related to the K and P added by the amendments to the soil,which would have stimulated uptake of these nutrients, otherwise

restricted by the high levels of competing ions in this saline soil, thus

increasing the tissue P concentrations and, in some cases, K/Na ratios.The low ESP values, and the fact that the addition of organic

amendments generally increased the concentration of soluble salts,

indicate that the soil salinity could be diminished by leaching with

high-quality (low EC) water, however, the low rainfall in this

Mediterranean area, together with the poor quality of the irrigation

water, make this unlikely. Addition of these amendments can also

improve soil factors such as CEC. However, the Na content of thecompost would be a cause for concern if repeated applications were

performed.

Table 2. Mean values of hot-waterextractable soil B (at harvest of B. carinata

and B. oleracea) and tissue B (in whole shoot DM of B. carinata and B. oleracea

and in growing shoot tissue of tomato), for plants grown in soil (control or

amended with compost or manure).

Species TreatmentaExtractable B

(mgkg1)Plant tissue B

(mgkg1)

B. carinata Control 1.053 d 43.0

Compost 1.492 ab 36.1

Manure 1.297 bc 38.0

B. oleracea Control 1.132 cd 46.9

Compost 1.676 a 45.1

Manure 1.387 b 41.2

Tomato Control nd 35.1

Compost nd 35.0

Manure nd 40.2

aFor extractable B, analysis of variance indicated that the treatment effect was

significant at P< 0.001. Mean values denoted by different letters differsignificantly, according to Duncans Multiple Range Test (P< 0.05). For planttissue B, there was no significant treatment effect.

nd, not determined.


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Dr. M. Carmen Bolarin (Department of

Physiology and Plant Nutrition, CEBASCSIC, Murcia, Spain), Dr.

Carmina Gisbert (IBMCPCSIC, Valencia, Spain), and Dr. Cesar

Gomez Campo (ETSIA, Madrid, Spain) for providing seeds, and Dr.

Juan Pedro Navarro (IBMCPCSIC) for supplying the studied soil. This

work was financed by the European Union and the Spanish Ministry of

Science and Technology, via FEDER project no. 1FD97-1469-C01-02.

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