Chapter 11Chapter 11

Ethics: Reason and EmotionEthics: Reason and Emotion

Opposing Views of Opposing Views of MoralityMorality

• For the ideal moral person, acting virtuously is For the ideal moral person, acting virtuously is easy and natural; it does not require careful easy and natural; it does not require careful rational deliberation.rational deliberation.

• Moral acts require special effort: the moral path is Moral acts require special effort: the moral path is narrow and difficult, and staying the course is narrow and difficult, and staying the course is never easy.never easy.

Hume on EthicsHume on Ethics

• There is no place for reason in the basic There is no place for reason in the basic operations of ethics. operations of ethics.

• Ethics is an area of emotion, dealing with Ethics is an area of emotion, dealing with what we find agreeable and disagreeable, what we find agreeable and disagreeable, with our sympathies and desires.with our sympathies and desires.

• Reason can play only a subordinate role: Reason can play only a subordinate role: – Once our feelings have set the basic goal, Once our feelings have set the basic goal,

reason can help us discover the best means of reason can help us discover the best means of reaching that goal.reaching that goal.

– Reason can tell us whether our factual Reason can tell us whether our factual judgments are false.judgments are false.

Utilitarian EthicsUtilitarian Ethics

• For utilitarians, the basic goal of ethics is to For utilitarians, the basic goal of ethics is to maximize pleasure and minimize suffering. maximize pleasure and minimize suffering.

• Reasoning is useful in helping us discover the best Reasoning is useful in helping us discover the best means to that end.means to that end.

• The right act is the act that produces the best The right act is the act that produces the best consequences overall, including consequences for consequences overall, including consequences for everyone and including long-term consequences.everyone and including long-term consequences.

Teleological Theories of Teleological Theories of EthicsEthics

• Utilitarian ethics is an example of a Utilitarian ethics is an example of a teleological theory of ethics. teleological theory of ethics.

• ““Teleological” comes from the Greek word “telos,” Teleological” comes from the Greek word “telos,” meaning end or goal. meaning end or goal.

• Such theories are sometimes called Such theories are sometimes called consequentialist theories, since they base ethical consequentialist theories, since they base ethical rules and judgments on the consequences.rules and judgments on the consequences.

• Roughly, an act is judged good if it has good Roughly, an act is judged good if it has good results, or if it is productive of worthwhile ends.results, or if it is productive of worthwhile ends.

Quality vs. Quantity inQuality vs. Quantity inUtilitarian EthicsUtilitarian Ethics

• Do some pleasures count for more than others?Do some pleasures count for more than others?

• Should we consider quality of pleasures as well as Should we consider quality of pleasures as well as quantity of pleasures?quantity of pleasures?

• If so, how do we rank pleasures? Which are of If so, how do we rank pleasures? Which are of higher quality and which are of lesser quality?higher quality and which are of lesser quality?

Act vs. Rule Act vs. Rule UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

• Act utilitarianism: The standard utilitarian position Act utilitarianism: The standard utilitarian position that the right act is the specific act that produces that the right act is the specific act that produces the greatest balance of pleasure over suffering for the greatest balance of pleasure over suffering for everyone.everyone.

• Rule utilitarianism: Believes that utilitarian Rule utilitarianism: Believes that utilitarian calculations must weigh in the larger benefits of calculations must weigh in the larger benefits of having such practices as promise-keeping; those having such practices as promise-keeping; those practices make it necessary to suspend act-practices make it necessary to suspend act-utilitarian calculations.utilitarian calculations.

Criticisms of Criticisms of UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

• Utilitarian ethics are a fundamental corruption of Utilitarian ethics are a fundamental corruption of the entire ethical enterprise: focusing ethics on the entire ethical enterprise: focusing ethics on the maximization of pleasure reduces ethics from the maximization of pleasure reduces ethics from the sublime to the trivial.the sublime to the trivial.

• Utilitarianism is psychologically false: It is not true Utilitarianism is psychologically false: It is not true that humans regard maximizing pleasure and that humans regard maximizing pleasure and minimizing suffering as the greatest good.minimizing suffering as the greatest good.

Kantian Rationalist Kantian Rationalist EthicsEthics

• Feelings are notoriously unreliable, Feelings are notoriously unreliable, changeable, and uncertain; they are not changeable, and uncertain; they are not universal, nor are they distinctively human.universal, nor are they distinctively human.

• Ethical principles must be universal, not Ethical principles must be universal, not relative to cultures.relative to cultures.

• Ethics is a distinctively human phenomenon, and Ethics is a distinctively human phenomenon, and so it must be based on what is distinctively so it must be based on what is distinctively human: our power of reason, and particularly our human: our power of reason, and particularly our power of abstract reasoningpower of abstract reasoning

• from principle.from principle.

Kant and Ethical TruthsKant and Ethical Truths

• Ethical truths must be categorical—not merely Ethical truths must be categorical—not merely conditional.conditional.

• Ethical truths must be universal—must apply Ethical truths must be universal—must apply always and everywhere to everyonealways and everywhere to everyone

Kant’s Categorical Kant’s Categorical ImperativeImperative

• When we reason carefully, we can rationally When we reason carefully, we can rationally discover a fundamental true ethical principle:discover a fundamental true ethical principle:

– Always act in such a way that you could will that Always act in such a way that you could will that your act should be a universal law.your act should be a universal law.

– Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, always as an end own person or that of another, always as an end and never as a means only.and never as a means only.

Kant, Emotion, and Kant, Emotion, and EthicsEthics

• Emotion has no place in ethics:Emotion has no place in ethics:– Actions motivated by generous emotions Actions motivated by generous emotions

(i.e., affection and sympathy) have no (i.e., affection and sympathy) have no positive moral worth.positive moral worth.

– Instead, these emotions stand in the way Instead, these emotions stand in the way of genuine moral acts, which must be of genuine moral acts, which must be carried out purely from the rational carried out purely from the rational recognition of the duty to follow the moral recognition of the duty to follow the moral lawlaw

Kant and the Motive for Kant and the Motive for Ethical BehaviorEthical Behavior

• We do our moral duty strictly from an act of will, We do our moral duty strictly from an act of will, which cannot be traced to our feelings or wishes which cannot be traced to our feelings or wishes or our causal history.or our causal history.

• The power of will to follow the moral law, together The power of will to follow the moral law, together with the power of reason to recognize the moral with the power of reason to recognize the moral law, sets us apart—makes us special, almost law, sets us apart—makes us special, almost godlike.godlike.