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In 1922, Walter Lippmann published an influential book entitled Public Opinion. In this book,

Lippmann was very suspicious and critical of any model of democracy that placed excessive

faith and power in the hands of the public. For instance, he argued that participatory democracy

was unworkable, that the democratic public was a myth, and hence that governance should be

delegated exclusively to political representatives and their expert advisors.

Based on empirical evidence about the efficacy of political propaganda and mass

advertisement to shape people's ways of thinking, Lippmann contended that public opinion was

highly shaped by leaders. Lippmann called this process of manipulation of consciousness 'the

manufacture of consent', a concept that Noam Chomsky would popularize many years later in his

writings.

Lippmann argued, first in 'Public Opinion' and later in 'The Phantom Public', that since

ordinary citizens had no sense of objective reality, and since their ideas are merely stereotypes

manipulated at will by people at the top, deliberative democracy was an unworkable dogma or

impossible dream. In his view, the most feasible alternative to such democracy consisted of a

technocracy in which government leaders are guided by experts whose objectives and

disinterested knowledge go beyond the narrow views and the parochial self-interests of the

average citizens organized in local communities.

Lippmann saw advocates of participatory democracy as romantic and nostalgic

individuals who idealized the role of the ignorant masses to address public affairs and proposed

an unrealistic model for the emerging mass society. He opposed such a model with his own

model of 'democratic realism' based on political representation and technical expertise.

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The paper for which Lazarsfield and Merton is best known is their Mass Communication,

Popular Taste, and Organized Social Action (1948). Widely anthologized, the paper has been

proposed as a canonical text in media studies. Lazarsfeld and Merton set out to understand the

burgeoning public interest in problems of the media of mass communication. After a critical

consideration of how common and problematic approaches to the mass media noting that the

sheer presence of these media may not affect our society so profound ly as is widely

supposedthey work their work through three aspects of what they see as the problem. They

highlight three social functions that cast a long shadow into the present day. The first of these is

status conferral function, or the way that the mass media confer status on public issues, persons,

organizations and social movements. The second function is the enforcement of social norms,

where the mass media uses public exposure of events or behaviour, to expose deviations from

these norms to public view. The third function, and perhaps best known, is the narcotizing

dysfunction, in which energies of individuals in society are systematically routed away from

organized actionbecause of the time and attention needed to simply keep up with reading or

listening to mass media: Exposure to this flood of information may serve to narcotize rather

than to energize the average reader or listener.

The remainder of Lazarsfeld and Mertons paper discusses structure of ownership and operation

of the mass media specific to the U.S. especially the fact that in the case of magazines,

newspapers, and radio advertising supports the enterprise: Big business finances the

production and distribution of mass media he who pays the piper generally calls the

tune.They point out the ensuing problems of social conformism, and consider the impact upon

popular taste (a controversy which rages unabated until the present). The final section of the

paper considers a topic of great salience in the post-World War II period, propaganda for social

objectives. Here they propose three conditions for rendering such propaganda effective, terming

these monopolization (the absence of counter propaganda), canalization (taking established

behaviour and enlisting it in a particular direction), and supplementation (the reinforcement of

mass media messages by face-to-face contact in local organizations). Lazarsfeld and Mertons

classic essay has long been criticized as a high point of the dominant effects tradition in

communication theory. However, revisionist accounts have now drawn attention to the mix of

ideas it contains from critical communication traditions, as much as empirical, methodological,

and quantitative approaches.