water quality standards testing policy

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Protocal

Water quality standards andtesting policy


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Cover picture:

Top and middle:WaterAids partner organisation Centre for Integrated Urban Development (CIUD)s colleagues

teaching the water users community to test water quality in the training.

ENPHO

Bottom:WaterAids partner organisation Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH) staff testing water in rural Nepal.

NEWAH

WaterAid transforms lives by improving access to safe water, hygiene

and sanitation in the worlds poorest communities. We work with

partners and influence decision makers to maximise our impact.

This document provides a framework to support improved access to safe water for low-incomecommunities through the enhancement of water facilities. It is intended to help WaterAidspartner organisations in Nepal deliver safe water facilities to the communities they work with.

This document will reinforce WaterAids initiatives for ensuring the quality and sustainabilityof water supplies for millions of users. It is also hoped that this document will be of valueto other organisations involved in improving safe water access, particularly for poor people.This document was prepared with reference to the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality(WHO, 2004), National Drinking Water Quality Standards(MPPW, 2005) and ImplementationDirectives for National Drinking Water Quality Standards(MPPW, 2005).

The production of this document was led by Kabir Das Rajbhandari from WaterAid in Nepal .Colleagues from WaterAids partners in Nepal , and Vincent Casey from the Technical SupportUnit in WaterAids office in London undertook reviews of the document, providing valuableinput. Colleagues from the Advocacy team in Nepal also reviewed the document.

This document should be cited as WaterAid in Nepal (2011) Protocol - Water quality standardsand testing policy.

The document can be found in the documents section of the WaterAid in Nepal countryprogramme website www.nepal.wateraid.org

A WaterAid in Nepal publication

September 2011


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Abbreviation ii

1. Background 1 1.1 Physical setting 1

1.2 Social setting 2

1.3 Economic setting 3

1.4 Geology 3

1.5 Water resources 3

1.5.1 Surface water resources 4

1.5.2 Groundwater 5

1.5.3 Rain water resources: 7

2. Policy on water quality management 9

2.1 WaterAids principles and objectives 9

2.2 In the context of WaterAid in Nepal 9

2.3 Objectives of water quality standards and testing policy 10

2.4 Standards 10

2.5 Scope of water quality standards and testing policy 12

3. Key sector stakeholders / organisations 13

3.1 Institutional arrangement 13 3.1.1 Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW) 13

3.1.2 Ministry of Local Development (MLD) 15

3.1.3 Ministry of Health (MoH) 16

3.1.4 Local authorities and water users committee 16

3.1.5 Donors, INGOs, NGOs, and private sector 17

3.1.6 Consultation with the stakeholders 17

4. Roles and responsibilities for water quality testing 19

Contents


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5. High risk (principal) contaminants 21

5.1 Water resources 21 5.1.1 Surface water 21

5.1.2 Groundwater sources 23

5.2 Principal (high risk) contaminants of water and risks

to human health 25

5.2.1 Microbiological contamination 26

5.2.2 Arsenic contamination 27

5.2.3 Nitrate 31

5.2.4 Fluoride 32

5.2.5 Nuisance constituents: aesthetic parameters 33 5.2.6 Other aesthetic parameters 34

6. Appropriate water quality standards 35

6.1 Selection of parameters 36

6.2 WaterAid in Nepal recommended drinking water

quality standards 38

7. Frequency of testing, sampling and analysis regime based

on risk of contamination 45 7.1 Sampling and frequency of testing 46

7.1.1 Arsenic 48

7.1.2 Microbiological contamination 51

7.1.3 Nitrate 53

7.1.4 Iron 54

7.1.5 Free residual and total chlorine 55

7.1.6 Turbidity 55

7.1.7 pH 56

7.1.8 Colour, odour and taste 56

8. Information, record keeping, reporting and dissemination

of results 59

8.1 Background 59

8.2 Reporting and communicating 59

8.3 Interaction with community and consumers 60


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9. Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) 63

9.1 Background 63 9.2 Significance of Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) 64

9.3 Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) components 64

9.4 Points to be considered in a sanitary inspection survey 64

9.5 Risk assessment in Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) 65

9.6 Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) activities 65

9.7 Frequency of Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) of

water supply system 66

9.8 Limitations of SIS in terms of available resources 67

9.9 Alternative sources 68

10. Resources 69

10.1 Human resources 69

10.2 Physical resources 70

10.3 Financial resources 70

10.4 Others 73

11. Follow- up arrangements 75

11.1 Others 75 11.2 Points to be considered while developing plan of action in

the event when standards are failed to meet by the test results 76

10.3 Regular revising and updating the WANs water Quality

Testing Policy 78

12. References 81

13. Annexes 83

Annex 1: River Network of Nepal 83 Annex 2: Comparative water quality parameters and its

guideline/standard values 84

Annex 3: Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) information assessment 86

Annex 4: Water point monitoring form 89

Annex 5: Water quality monitoring and testing form 90

Annex 6: Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) form 94

Annex 7: Summary of risk (Sanitary Inspection Survey) scoring 109


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AAS - Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

ADB - Asian Development Bank

BCHIMES - Between Census Household Information, Monitoringand Evaluation System

BCM - Billion Cubic Metre

BGS - British Geological Survey

BSF - Bio Sand Filter

CBS - Central Bureau of Statistics

CIUD - Centre for Integrated Urban Development

CSP - Country Strategy Paper

Cumec - Cubic Metre

CWRM - Community Based Water Resource ManagementDDCs - District Development Committees

DEO - District Education Office

DOLIDAR - Department of Local Infrastructure Development for

Agriculture Road

DPHO - District Public Health Office

DTO - District Technical Office

DTWs - Deep Tube wells

DWSS - Department of Water Supply and Sewerage

ENPHO - Environment and Public Health OrganizationFEDWASUN - Federation of Water and Sanitation Users of Nepal

FINNIDA - Finland International Development Agency

FRC - Free Residual Chlorine

GDP - Gross Development Product

GoN - Government of Nepal (The then HMG)

GW - Ground Water

HDI - Human Development Index

HMG - His Majestys Government

IDA - International Development Agency

Abbreviation


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IEC - Information, Education and Communication

INGO - International Non-Government OrganizationIRP - Iron Removal Plant

IWRM - Integrated Water Resource Management

KAF - Kanchan Arsenic Filter

Km - Kilometre

m - Metre

mld - Million Litres per Day

MCM - Million Cubic Metre

MF - Membrane Filtration

g/lit - Microgram per litremg/lit (mg/l) - Milligram per litre

MoH - Ministry of Health

ML - Million Litre

ml - Millilitre

MLD - Ministry of Local Development

MOE - Ministry of Environment (Previously it is Ministry of

Population and Environment)

MOU - Memorandum of Understanding

MPPW - Ministry of Physical Planning and WorksNBSM - Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology

NDWQS - National Drinking Water and Quality Standards

NESS - Nepal Environment and Scientific Services

NEWAH - Nepal Water for Health

NGO - Non Government Organization

NGOFUWS - NGO Forum for Urban Water and Sanitation

NPC - National Planning Commission

NRCS - Nepal Red Cross Society

NTU - Nephelometer Turbidity UnitNWP - National Water Plan

NWSC - Nepal Water Supply Corporation

PoU - Point of Use

ppb - Parts per billion

ppm - Parts per million

RCS - Rapid Convenient Survey

RW - Rain Water

RWSSFDB - Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development

Board


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RWSSP - Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme

SIS - Sanitary Inspection SurveySq. Km. - Square Kilometre

STWs - Shallow Tubewells

SW - Surface Water

TCU - Total Colour Unit

TON - Threshold Number

UCs - Users Committees

UEMS - Urban Environment and Management Society

UMN - United Mission to Nepal

UNICEF - United Nations Childrens FundUSAID - US Agency for International Development

VDCs - Village Development Committees

WA - WaterAid in London

WAN - WaterAid in Nepal

WATSAN - Water and Sanitation

WB - World Bank

WECS - Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

WHO - World Health Organization

WQ - Water Quality


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Background

Although Nepal is rich in water resources, its history of supplied drinkingwater is not very old as planned development of water supply andsanitation started since Fourth Plan (1970 75) of the country whenthe national coverage of the water supply system was only about 4%. Aseparate institution named Department of Drinking Water Supply andSewerage (DWSS) was established during that period.

By the end of the UN water supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-1990),the coverage substantially increased to 36% of the total population with33% and 67% coverage in rural and urban areas respectively. The recentreport produced by NMIIP, GWSS, 2009 indicates that national watercoverage is to 80%.

1.1 Physical setting

Nepal is predominantly a mountainous country formed due to the upliftof the Indian tectonic plate following a collision with the Asian Plate.The country is a land locked in South Asia, between China and India witha total geographical area of 141,800 sq. Km. Topographic variations isextreme and the terrain has a general southward slope. The topographyranges from rugged High Himalayan in the North, to the central hillregion, to the lower-lying Siwalik range (south central) and down to theTerai or Flat River Plain in the south. Thus, the country can be dividedinto five physiographic regions viz:a. High Himalayas (High Mountains)b. Lesser Himalayas (High Mountains)c. Middle Mountains (Mahabharat Range)d. Siwaliks (Churiya Range)e. Terai Plains

Due to orographic features, Nepal experiences a wide range of climatesvarying from the sub-tropical to the alpine type as the elevation variesfrom 64 m above sea level (Kanchan kalan, Terai region in the south) to


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Protocal - Water quality standards and testing: Instructions for partner organisation2

8848 m (Worlds highest peak - Mount

Everest on the north border with China)within a span of less than 200 km. Theselarge topographic variations give riseto a variable climate, ranging from coolsummers with severe winter in the north tosub-tropical summers and mild winters inthe south.

The country also experiences heavy rainsduring June to September due to thesouth-westerly monsoon, which accountsfor 80% of the total rainfall, and winterrains, during November to January,accounting for the rest of the rainfall.The climatic conditions of Nepal aresummarized in Table 1.1.

The average annual rainfall of the countryis about 1530 mm whereas of Kathmanduvalley alone is 1300 mm (Jacobson, 1996).But there is a sharp spatial and temporal

variation in rainfall. The pattern of rainfalldistribution varies in both north southand east west directions. The monsoonrain is more intense in the east and goeson declining westwards, while the winterrain falls heavily in the west and goes ondeclining to the east. The rainfall patternand the existing rugged and mountainoustopography have resulted in the existenceof a rich natural bio-diversity in Nepal,

Table 1.1: Climatic Conditions of Nepal

Ecological Belt Climate Average Annual Precipitation Mean AnnualTemperature

Mountain Arctic / Alpine Snow/150 mm 200 mm < 30C 100C

Hill Cool/Warm Temperate 275 mm 2300 mm 100C 200C

Terai Sub - Tropical 1100 mm 3000 mm 200C 250C

the importance of which is yet to be

adequately realized.

1.2 Social setting

Nepal is inhabited by more than sixty casteand ethnic groups of people belonging toIndo-Aryan and Tibeto-Mongoloid stocks.The majority of people practice Hinduismwhereas Buddhism is the second largestreligion. The population of Nepal was23.15 million in 2001 (CBS 2001) and withthe assumed growth rate of 2.25%, thepopulation in 2006/07 is estimated at25.9 million with 21.5 million rural and 4.4million urban population (NWP, 2005). Thedensity of population has now reached 164per sq. km.

Poverty in Nepal has persisted for decadesand is widespread with around 38% of the

population living below the prescribedpoverty line. The Human DevelopmentIndex (HDI) of Nepal has been computedat 0.504.

Agriculture is an important part ofNepalese Economy, with over 80% ofthe population being employed in theagriculture sector, generally on smalland dispersed plots of low quality land.


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3Protocal - Water quality standards and testing: Instructions for partner organisation

The demand for such agriculture labor,

however, is highly seasonal, and theopportunity for non-farm employment islow. As a result, there is insufficient workand underemployment lingers around50%. Around 34% of the land is givenover to arable or permanent pasture andaround 42% of the land area is forested,although deforestation is widespread andresultant soil erosion has become a majorenvironmental issue.

1.3 Economic setting

Agriculture is the main source of livelihoodfor a majority of the population of Nepal.More than 80% of the population isengaged in agriculture, which is stillthe dominant and largest sector of theeconomy, having a share of around 40% ofthe GDP. Agriculture sector is thus broad-

based and any development in this sectorwill have balanced geographical spread.Agriculture sector in Nepal is, however,characterized by a subsistence orientation,low input use and low productivity.

1.4Geology

Geology controls the topographicvariations in Nepal. High mountains ofthe Himalaya and central hill regionsare dominated by ancient crystallinerocks. These have variable compositions,including metamorphic rocks, granites andold indurate sediments and have beenstrongly contorted and faulted as a resultof the uplift of the Himalayan Mountains.

Young sediments (of Mesozoic toQuaternary age) are largely restricted

to the southern, lower - laying parts

of Nepal and to isolated intermountain

basins in the hill regions (e.g. KathmanduValley, Mugu Karnali Valley). Sediments ofTertiary age (mixed sandstone and shale)outcrop the length of southern Nepal inthe Siwalik range. To the south of thesedeposits, unconsolidated recent alluvialsediments form the low laying Terai plainalong the Indian border. The Kathmanduvalley is a down faulted intermountainbasin is filled with young sediments (ofPliocene-Quaternary age) up to 500 m. thick(Khadka, 1993; Jacobson 1996). The MuguKarnali Valley is also infilled with recentalluvial deposits.

Mineral veins are present in some areas ofthe crystalline rocks. veins of sulphide ores(including pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite,galena) occur in several areas, includingWapsa, Siddhi Khani, the Mrkhu-Kulekhani-Arkhaule area, Baaiis Khani (Baglung),

Nangre Bhorle area, Gyazi Sikpasor andJantar Khani. Pyrite (iron sulphide) has alsobeen recorded in black shale deposits in theAndhi Mohan Ghat area, Gandaki Anchal(Zone) (Khan and Tater, 1969).

1.5 Water resources

High rainfall totals generally give riseto abundant water supplies, at leastseasonally and both surface water andgroundwater are important sources fordomestic, industrial and agricultural use.

Water is Nepals largest known naturalresource. Nepal has more than 6,000 rivers,which provide a dense network of rivers withsteep topographic conditions. All the riversystem drain from north to south towardsthe Ganges. The major sources of water are

rainfall, glaciers, rivers and groundwater.


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Out of 6,000 rivers in Nepal, 33 rivershave a catchment area exceeding 1000sq. km (CBS). The total average annualrunoff from all these river systems isestimated at about 225 billion cubicmetres (BCM). Thus, these rivers arethe most important running surfacewater in terms of water volume and theirpotential development. High rainfall(average 1530 mm/year) generally gives

rise to abundant water supplies, at leastseasonally, and both surface water andground water are important sources fordomestic, industrial and agriculture use.

1.5.1 Surface water resourcesa. The major river systems of Nepal,

which originate in the Himalayas, areKoshi, Narayani (Gandaki), Karnaliand Mahakali and are presented in

the following Table 1.2.

Figure 1:River network of Nepal (Refer Annex 1 for enlarged version)

b. There are five medium river basins, viz:Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti andBabai. Each of them are primary, rain-fed and originate in Mahabharat Range.These rivers are also perennial, withgroundwater and springs sustaining theriver-flow during the dry period. The totalcatchment area of these rivers that lieinside Nepal is computed at around 17,000sq. km. while the average combined runoff

(at various gauging stations) is estimatedat 461 cumec (14.5 BCM per annum).

c. The southern rivers, also called Siwalikrivers, originate in the Siwalik hills,are shallow in depth and mostly dryup during the dry season. The totalcatchment area of these rivers isestimated at around 23,150 sq. km. withaverage combined runoff estimated at

1,682 cumec (53 BCM per annum).


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a. Surface water availability and its use inNepalThe following table shows the availabilityof surface water in Nepal and its annualwithdrawal trend for five years.

1.5.2 GroundwaterGroundwater is abundant in the aquifers ofthe Terai and Kathmandu valley; howevergroundwater availability is more limited inthe populated hill regions because of thelower permeability of the indurated andcrystalline rock types. Despite abundantrainfall, agricultural development is restricted

by the limited development of irrigation.

Table 1.2: Major river systems of Nepal

River Basin Catchment area (sq. km.) Main Tributaries Annual AverageRunoff Discharge(cumec)

Total Within Nepal

Koshi 60,400 46% Sunkoshi, Arun and Tamur 1,409 (45 BCM)

Narayani

(Gandaki)

34,960 90% Trishuli, Budhi Gandaki, Marsyangdi, Seti

and Kaligandaki

1,600 (50 BCM)

Karnali 43,679 94% West Seti, Bheri, Humla Karnali, Mugu

Karnali, Singa Tila, Lahore and Thuli Gad

1,397 (44 BCM)

Mahakali 15,260 34% Not Available

Table 1.3:Availability of surface water and annual withdrawal trend for 5 Years

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Total annual renewable surface water (kmn/year) 224 224 224 224 224

Per capita renewable surface water (000 mn/year) 11.20 11.00 10.60 10.50 10.30

Total annual withdrawal (kmn/yr) 12.95 13.97 15.10 16.00 16.70

Per capita annual withdrawal (000mn/yr) 0.65 0.69 0.71 0.75 0.76

Sectoral withdrawal as % of total water withdrawal

a. Domestic 3.97 3.83 3.68 3.50 3.43b. Industry 0.34 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.27

c. Agriculture 95.68 95.86 96.02 96.22 96.30

Source: WECS (1999); Yogacharya (1996,1998); Bhusal (1999)

a. Groundwater in TeraiThe hydro-geological mapping indicatesthat the Terai has tremendous potentialof groundwater resources. The Terai, witha thick sequence of saturated detritalsediments of alluvial and colluvial origin,is one of the most productive aquifers inthe sub-continent.

Groundwater is abundant in the aquifersof the Terai. It is estimated that the Terairegion has a potential of about 12 billionmnof this, with an estimated annualrecharge of 5.8 to 9.6 billion mn(the

maximum that may be extracted annually


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without any adverse effects) (WECS 1999).

Current withdrawal is about 0.52 billion mnper year. The aquifer in this region, whichconsists of sediments of alluvial origin, isvery favourable for water accumulationbeneath the surface area.

Shallow and deep aquifers are also presentin the young alluvial sediments throughoutmost of the Terai region (e.g. Jacobson,1996). The shallow aquifer appears to beunconfined and well developed in mostareas, although it is thin or absent inKapilvastu and Nawalparasi (Upadhyaya,1993). The deep aquifer of the Terai (depthunknown) is reported to be artesian ie free-flowing. (Basnyat, 2001)

b. Groundwater in Kathmandu ValleyThough Kathmandu valley has an abundantgroundwater, it is under immense pressureas it is being heavily used for drinking

and for other activities such as carpetindustries for instance.

In Kathmandu valley (area around 500sq. km.), groundwater is abstracted fromtwo main aquifers within the thick alluvialsediment sequence. A shallow unconfinedaquifer occurs at around 0-10 m depthand a deep confined aquifer occursat around 310-370 m (Khadka, 1993).Exploitation of these aquifers, especiallythe shallow aquifer, has increased rapidlyin recent years as a result of the increasingurbanization of the region. About 50% ofthe water used in the Kathmandu valley isderived from the groundwater (total supplyin dry season is 80,000 mnper day). Thishas resulted in a decline in water table.

In 1993, groundwater was abstracted fromthe aquifers of the Kathmandu valley via

22 government production wells and 334

private wells (out of which 188 were STWsand 146 were DTWs). Recent abstraction ofgroundwater from the deep aquifer has ledto a decrease in the groundwater level by 15-20m since the mid 1980s (Khadka, 1993).

The recent study conducted by Metcalf andEddy in 2000 revealed that the ground watertable for deep aquifer in Kathmandu Valleyhas declined from 9m to as much as 68 mover a few years (Metcalf and Eddy, 2000).

c. Groundwater in other areasThe erosion of Siwalik Hills and the outwashfans of rivers form the northern-mostBhabhar Zone. The aquifers are unconfinedand sediments being coarse materials havevery high permeability in the range of 100 150 m/d. The Bhabhar Zone is considered tobe the main source of recharge for the Teraigroundwater.

Groundwater recharge at specific area isestimated to be as high as 600mm perannum; however, it is assumed that overall450 mm is a recoverable recharge figurefor all of the Terai areas. Inner terai areassuch as Chitawan, Dang and Surkhet areestimated to hold good groundwaterpotential. It is, therefore, estimated thatrechargeable groundwater in the Terai isanywhere between 5.8 BCm and 11.5 BCM.

d. Groundwater use in NepalAt present, it is estimated that about 76million cubic meters (MCM) of groundwaterresources are being used for irrigationpurposes and 297 MCM for domesticuses. Hence, there is huge potential ofgroundwater use in the form of shallowtubewells (STWs) and deep tubewells(DTWs) for different uses in the terai areas.


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1.5.3 Rain water resources

This is water obtained from roofcatchments and normally stored in tanks.Rainwater is the purest form of waterunless and until it is intercepted by thecontaminants within the air and the surfaceit falls upon, otherwise it is clear. Thus,it is liable to contamination from birddroppings, dust, and bird nests found on orwithin the catchment surface it falls upon.This source of water may contain biologicalcontaminants that may impart health

risks provided the surface it falls upon is

already contaminated. Rainwater may alsocontain some dissolve contaminants (asrainwater can pick up the dust particlesnear industrial, crowded areas and dustparticles made air borne brought by highwinds) and their by products which in theatmosphere may be in the suspendedform. Though it is rare, however, some andairborne dust particles can be picked up byrain falling nearby industrial areas or dustparticles made airborne by high winds.


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Henceforth, WAN has made its commitment

to enact water quality policies adhering tothe CWRM approach put forward by WA foraddressing the issues of water depletion,source sustainability and pollution control.Similarly, WAN is committed to deliver thewater supply and sanitation services byshifting its project approaches to programmeapproaches streamlining the followingapproaches and concentrating its projectactivities in water stressed/scarce areaswhere access to safe water is still a problem:S Pro-poor approach through pro-poor

policies with affirmative actionsS Community Based Water resource

Management (WRM) approachesS Partnership and collaboration

approaches for service delivery etc.

WAN is therefore also committed to thegoal of delivering, through its partners, safeand high quality drinking water facilities

etc. by including, in its water quality policy,provisions for water quality monitoring andsurveillance in the project activities ensuringthat these activities minimise health hazardsto the consumers of the community.

Giving due consideration to the WANscommitment and to the fact of providing safeand quality water to the consumers, thiswater quality policy has been developed andis applicable to all the surface water, groundwater as well as to any other alternativewater supply technology / options.

2.3 Objectives of water qualitypolicy

The objectives of this water quality policyare to:S Outline the test procedures to be

applied in monitoring the levels of thevarious potential contaminants.

S Specify and provide information on

guideline values or standards set forphysical, chemical, and microbiologicalrequirements for safe drinking water.

S Propose appropriate practicabletreatment measures for contaminatedraw water sources having in view theprevailing environmental conditionsand available resources of the country.

S Assure that the quality of waterdelivered to the consumers for drinkingis safe and clean for their consumption

S Ensure that the working partners useand abide by the provisions made inthis policy while delivering the watersupply facilities to the communitiesboth in rural and urban poor.

S Focus on water quality managementfor enhancing water quality througheffective and efficient water qualitymonitoring and surveillanceprogrammes to reduce contaminations

caused by diffuse source and pointsource pollution to water bodies.

S Facilitate and promote WRM as per thecommitments made.

2.4 Standards

The standards to be achieved shoulddeliver safe drinking water of acceptablequality in terms of health and diseasehazards for the consumers. In thisdocument, standards means standardsappropriate to drinking water that can bemeasured quantitatively. That is to say, thestandards to be adopted for drinking waterin this document are capable of verificationby the analysis of water samples but ofcourse giving due consideration to thefollowing practical limitations:S Resources (ie financial and human)

which may be available from WAN to itspartners and


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S Imposed by water supply technology

which is sustainable in any givenenvironmental context

Considering the above limiting factorsand as mentioned in the WHO guidelinesfor Drinking Water Quality (Volume 3), incountries where economic and humanresources are limited, short and mediumterm targets should be set in establishingstandards so that the most significant risksto human health are controlled first.

The issue of water quality has been keptthroughout in a context of environmenthealth and disease burden on the poor. Forthis, an integrated approach is requiredby promoting sanitation and hygieneimprovement activities with the deliveryof water facilities and this can, no doubt,greatly improve the well being of the ruraland urban poor of the country.

Therefore, in this document, the minimumcriteria for drinking water are outlinedwithin the socio-economic context andavailability of human resources in Nepal.The various water sources and likely risksassociated with them have also beendiscussed after which recommendationson specific interventions for testing, andmitigation measures have been offered toguide programme staff, partners and otherstakeholders (users of this document).

In keeping a measurable balance betweenthe standard technical quality of water,cost of producing water of such acceptablequality, and the ability to maintain andsustain the facilities within the acceptableand affordable limits of the communitybeneficiaries, WAN has set the under-listedas the minimum criteria required for the

quality drinking water for the consumers.

Under these criteria, water shall be:

S Free from pathogens (disease causingmicro-organisms)

S Contain no chemical compoundsor by-products (even at very lowconcentrations) that may have healthhazards (short term or long term) to theconsumers

S Free from suspended solids, colour(ie water should be fairly clear withvery low turbidity and very little or nocolour), offensive odour and taste

Whatever be the technologies adoptedin delivering water services to thecommunities, the associated risksshould be examined and appropriaterecommendations for the solutionsshould be made to guide all the partnerorganisations and programme staff toensure monitoring and evaluation ofwater quality delivered to the community

beneficiaries.

Considering all the facts and discussionsmade above, water quality standards inthis policy document refer to guidelinevalues set for the various water qualityparameters to ensure delivery of drinkingwater of acceptable quality devoid ofany health and disease hazards. Inthe preparation of quality standardsoutlined in this document, the concernedstakeholders of the country wereconsulted and exclusive references werealso made to the National Drinking WaterQuality Standards, 2006). During theabsence of the water quality standards,Nepal adopted WHO guideline values andsometimes Indian Standards were alsoadopted wherever appropriate. Thus,references to these documents were alsotaken at large, particularly WHO Guidelines

for Drinking Water (Volumes I, II, and III).


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2.5 Scope of water quality

policy

This policy note applies to all WAN fundedprogrammes in Nepal. Typically this willcover household and community basedwater supply for domestic drinking waterincluding ground water supplies throughhand pumps, tube-wells, bore-holes etc.,surface (piped) water supplies throughgravity flow schemes and small scale

alternative water supply technologicaloptions such as water points facilities bypossible rain water harvesting system. Thispolicy is not intended to cover larger watersupply schemes such as town/city suppliesbeyond the reach of WAN. For such

schemes, an individual assessment would

be required confirming with standard criteriaand procedures as depicted in the NationalDrinking Water Quality Standards, 2006.

WaterAid is currently implementing itsprogrammes in partnership with a numberof rural and urban focused national NGOs,including NEWAH, LUMANTI, ENPHO,CIUD, UEMS, NGOFUWS, FEDWASUN etc,all of whom are required to adhere to the

standards and testing procedures definedwithin this policy document. And otherorganisations who will be working withWaterAid in Nepal in future will also requireto adhere the protocal.


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Key sector stakeholders /

organisations

National Policy on Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) andprogrammes for water quality monitoring was published by DrinkingWater Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) / Ministry of Physical Planningand Works (MPPW) /Government of Nepal (GoN). While preparing thisdocument, GoN, the then HMG/N constituted a steering committeeincluding representatives from different government departments, I/NGOs and research institutes.

3.1 Institutional arrangement

In this Chapter, Institutional roles and responsibilities are defined for theimplementation and monitoring of as this involves various authorities

from central to local levels. This is very important, as there are manystakeholders involved in Water Quality related policies, strategies,monitoring, surveillance and implementation of water systems. Theagencies concerned with drinking water and their roles, rights andresponsibilities are assigned by NDWQS as follows:

3.1.1 Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW)The Ministry has the overall responsibility of planning, implementingand coordinating and monitoring the water supply and sanitation sectordevelopment activities in the country to its other sectoral responsibilitiessuch as roads and transportation, housing and urban development.The Ministry is responsible for the formulation of sector policy andstrategies, its implementation and monitoring the sector performance.As the sector line ministry of the Government, this ministry will beresponsible for updating the Guideline every five years and determinefrom time to time the community, district, and municipality where thewater quality standard shall be imposed.

Most of the water supply and sanitation projects in rural and urbanareas are implemented through the following three agencies under this

Ministry. They are:


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3.1.1.1 Department of Water Supply and

Sewerage (DWSS)This is the largest sector agency of thegovernment entrusted with the task ofimplementing water supply and sanitationfacilities in the rural and urban areas. TheDepartment provides technical, financialand institutional support to communitiesconstructs new facilities and rehabilitatesand augments existing facilities (includingwater quality improvement works) andhands over the completed facilitiesto communities, Nepal Water SupplyCorporation, and municipalities forsubsequent operation and maintenance andsupplying drinking water to the consumers.

The DWSS has the Water Quality Sectionin its head office at Kathmandu andsub-division and division offices in eachof the 75 district head quarters. TheWater Quality Section of the department

will be mainly responsible to plan thedevelopment of water quality monitoringand surveillance programme in the countrywith the cooperation and coordination ofthe sector related agencies and donors. TheWater Quality Section carries out researchon water quality testing and treatmentappropriate to national conditions anddisseminates the research work among theimplementing agencies, service providersand regulators.

The DWSS is responsible for collectinginformation on technological developmentin the area of water quality testing andepidemiological know-how and examinesand interprets in the national context. TheDWSS provides technical and professionalsupport to the MPPW to update the

guidelines every five-year and advises the

Ministry where to implement the waterquality guidelines in any given area.

The DWSS, as the lead sector agency,will establish a water quality monitoringsection, with appropriate number of trainedpersonnel, in each of its sub-division anddivision offices in phased manner. It willalso establish a water-testing laboratory,with facilities adequate to test parametersprescribed for monitoring and surveillance forthe district concerned, stocks replacementparts for testing equipment and chemicals, ineach of its district-based offices. Tentatively,such facilities will be established.

The sub division and division offices whenprovided with qualified technicians and labfacilities will commence its own in-housewater quality monitoring and surveillanceprogramme. It will also provide its technical

services to other agencies that wish toestablish water quality monitoring andsurveillance programme on a cost basis.The sub-division and division offices ofthe DWSS will forward its water qualitymonitoring report to the District HealthOffice. As per NDWQS, the time span for thisto happen is 10 yrs which is divided into twophases; first phase has 5 years span andsecond phase has next 5 years.

3.1.1.2 Nepal Water Supply Corporation(NWSC)1The Corporation was established with theobjective of improving the services in urbanareas and operates them on a commercialbasis. Initially Kathmandu MetropolitanCity and four other municipalities in theKathmandu valley were included among

1 In Kathmandu Valley, NWSC is now replaced by Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) once the

utility reform process was in place


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the towns and cities then operated

by the Department of Water Supplyand Sewerage. Presently, the NWSC isoperating water systems in 24 cities andtowns. In the context of implementationof the Melamchi Water Supply Project toalleviate the rapidly deteriorating watersupply situation in the Kathmandu valleyand the need to substantially improvethe management of the utility, HMG(presently GoN) has plans to establisha water authority to own the assets anda water utility company to operate thewater services in the Kathmandu valley.Under the new arrangement, NWSC willtransfer the ownership of the assets tothe authority and transfer the operationresponsibility to the company. Forthe initial 5-year period the companyis envisaged to hire the services ofa performance based managementcontactor. The Government will also

establish an independent committeeto determine appropriate tariffs on aperiodical basis.

Various other options of institutionalarrangement for inside and outsideKathmandu towns are under considerationat present. The options include: 1) abolitionof the NWSC and creation of a urban waterauthority to own the assets and plan andinvest in the development of the urbanwater and sanitation sector in all thetowns and cities under the of NWSC. Eachtown and city or their group need to havea separate company for operation and2) NWSC to continue functioning outsideKathmandu valley towns.

The NWSC has moderately equippedcentral water quality laboratory andqualified manpower, for in-house water

quality monitoring and surveillance

purposes, at its Head Office in Kathmandu.

The NWSC or its successor will update itscentral laboratory equipment and facilitiesto fully comply with the requirementsof this guideline. It will also establish awater-testing laboratory, with facilitiesadequate to test parameters prescribedfor monitoring and surveillance for thedistrict concerned, replacement parts andchemicals, in each of its town-based offices.The town water supply offices of NWSC willforward its water quality monitoring reportto the District Health Office.

3.1.1.3 Rural Water Supply and SanitationFund Development Board (RWSSFDB)Most water supply schemes taken up byRWSSFDB and other agencies in rural areasare aimed to bring water to consumerhousehold/or near-by to reduce the timeand effort spent by local people particularly,women in fetching water from distant

sources. Naturally, quality aspect takesonly secondary position. In this connection,RWSSFDB, is implementing a demanddriven Rural Water Supply and SanitationProject funded by IDA. Under this project,a large number of rural schemes have beenidentified and presently, are in variousphases of development.

3.1.2 Ministry of Local Development (MLD)The Ministry of Local Development ismainly responsible for providing technical,institutional and financial support to localbodies, namely, District Developmentcommittees (DDCs), Village DevelopmentCommittees (VDCs), and Municipalities.The funds received through MLD combinedwith their own funds generated locallyare invested for local infrastructuredevelopment. Most of the local levelinvestment made by the local bodies goes

to the water supply sector. The HMG has


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created technical section with manpower

in each DDC to improve upon thetechnical capabilities of the local bodiesto implement infrastructure developmentprojects.

3.1.2.1 Department of Local InfrastructureDevelopment and Agricultural Reform(DoLIDAR)It is the only technical department underthe Ministry of Local Development. It isinvolved in planning and implementationmanagement of the rural infrastructuredevelopment programmes by DistrictTechnical Offices especially under LocalBodies (office DDC). Major focus ofDoLIDAR is planning and managementof rural infrastructures, promotion ofsuitable and local technology (Labour-based Environment Friendly), providingguidelines and technical backup to LocalGovernment Institutions for sustainable

development of rural infrastructure andsearch for probable resources (Local,Internal, External as from Donors).

The responsibility of DOLIDAR throughDistrict Technical Office (DTO) alsolies to monitor the water quality of thesystem built by the government agenciesand other non-government agenciesafter handing over to the water userscommittees at respective districts. TheDTOs also needed to be equipped withnecessary manpower and training for theservices.

3.1.3 Ministry of Health (MoH)The Ministry of Health and Populationis responsible for providing health careservices to the population through itsnetwork of sub health posts, healthposts, health care centers and district,

zonal, regional and national hospitals.

The responsibility for surveillanceof water related diseases has beengiven to the Ministry of Health andPopulation. The District Public HealthOffice (DPHO) will receive and compilethe water quality monitoring report sentby various agencies of the district andpublish a Water Quality Report for thedistrict concerned with its own findings,conclusions and recommendations

The DPHOs will observe from themonitoring report of the concernedagencies that whether or not they arecomplying with the requirements of theguidelines and issue necessary warningsand impose necessary fine. Whereprescribed, it will request the DistrictAdministrators Office to prosecute theviolator of the law. The Ministry of Health(presently as Ministry of Health and

Population) will annually publish a WaterQuality Status Report for the country withhighlights of all water systems.

3.1.4 Local authorities and water userscommitteeThe local authorities such as DDC/VDCand municipalities including water userscommittees are also implementing waterand sanitation systems mainly of smallscale level, at rural and peri-urban areas.The local water users committees maynot be equipped with or have knowledgeon water quality issues. Therefore,training and capacity building activitiesare recommended to be carried outat this level. The following Table 3.1outlines brief summary list of differentGovernment, Non government andDonor agencies with their responsibility/involvement in water quality assessment.


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3.1.5 Donors, INGOs, NGOs, and private sector

Various donor agencies such as WorldBank, Asian Development Bank, SwissDevelopment Cooperation, WHO, UNICEF, UNHABITAT etc.; INGOs like Water Aid, FINNIDA,Helvetas, SNV, Practical Action, CARE Nepal,Concern etc.; and NGOs like Nepal Water forHealth (NEWAH), Environment and PublicHealth Organisation (ENPHO), Nepal RedCross (NRC), etc. are involved in water andsanitation sector. They are either involveddirectly or with Government of Nepal (GoN)for implementation of water supply andsanitation systems. The Private SectorEntities like CEMAT, NESS etc. (these areprivate water and wastewater testing labs)and others are engaged in the domain ofwater quality issues in Nepal.

3.1.6 Consultation with the stakeholdersWhile preparing this policy, most of the

aforementioned stakeholders were

consulted directly or indirectly (formallyor informally) and tried to incorporatetheir suggestions and inputs as relevant.In addition, the comments, suggestionsand inputs that were provided in thenational workshop on dissemination ofNational Drinking Water Quality Standards(NDWQS) by different sector stakeholdersand practitioners were also consideredand taken care of while developing thispolicy. In addition, the organisations withwhom WAN partners with were consultedand sought their inputs as well as fieldexperiences while finalizing this politykeeping in mind that they are the ultimateusers of this policy. Similarly, whilepreparing this policy, Nepals NationalDrinking Water Quality Standard, 2006has been referred and consulted with thepeople involved during its preparation.

Table 3.1:Summary list of organisations involved in water quality assessment

Name of the organisation Responsibility Type of organisation Remarks

Ministry of Physical Planning

and Works (MPPW)

Policy framework Government

Ministry of Population and

Environment (MoPE)

Regulation Government

Department of Water Supply

and Sanitation (DWSS)

Setting and enforcing Drinking

Water quality policy

Government

Nepal Water Supply

Corporation (NWSC)

Maintaining the water

quality standards within thejurisdictions of its Urban water

supply network

Autonomous Public

body but requiringgovernment subsidy for

operating costs

Manages water

supply networksin 28 out of 58

Municipalities

including Kathmandu

Valley

Rural Water Supply

and Sanitation Fund

Development Board

(RWSSFDB)

Supports local NGOs for Water

and Sanitation projects.

Quasi government

Public body

Nepal Red Cross society

(NRCS)

Implements Water and

sanitation Projects

NGO


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Name of the organisation Responsibility Type of organisation Remarks

Nepal Water for Health(NEWAH)

Helps local NGOs forimplementation of water and

sanitation projects

NGO

Environment and Public

Health Organisation

(ENPHO)

NGO specialized in Water

quality testing

NGO

UNICEF Working with DWSS on water

quality and sanitation

UN Organisation

UN-HABITAT Working with government

agencies like MPPW/DWSS

and DUDBC; MLD and with

other sector players in WASHsector of Nepal. Predominantly

working in urban water and

environmental sanitation

under its Water for Asian Cities

(WAC) Programme in Nepal

UN Organisation

WHO Working with DWSS on water

quality

UN Organisation

WaterAid Supports NEWAH, Lumanti,

ENPHO, CIUD, UEMS and NGO

Forum for water and sanitation

projects.

INGO

FINNIDA Working with District Authorityfor implementation of Water

and sanitation project in

Lumbini Zone.

INGO

World Bank Funding support to RWSSFDB

for implementation of 1st

Phase project

International Financial

Institution

Asian Development Bank

(ADB)

Funding support to DWSS for

rural water supply, small town

water supply and Kathmandu

Valley water supply project.

International Financial

Institution


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Roles and responsibilities for

water quality testing

The overall responsibility for water quality issues in WaterAid in Nepal (WAN)will lie with the WANs Country Representative. WAN will assist partners ontechnical and practical issues and will also support them to prepare theirown water quality testing policy, having a testing programme on a regularbasis and follow up actions. In WAN, urban programme manager, who atpresent is assigned as WANs technical focal person, will be responsible formaking partners capable to implement and deal with water quality issues inaccordance with this WQ testing policy. Similarly, WANs programme officerswill be responsible for making sure that partners are adhering to WANs WQpolicy. Whereas Partner organisations will be fully responsible for conductingWQ test for all the water points installed for delivering safe water to the poorand deprived communities both in rural and urban areas. Thus, for partnerorganisations, the head of organisations and their respective technical/

engineering division/section will be responsible for water quality issues.

The summary of the roles and responsibilities for Water Quality Testing inWaterAid in Nepal (WAN) is tabulated below:

Table 4.1:Roles and responsibilities for Water Quality Testing in WAN

S.N. Roles and responsibilities Responsible person Remarks

1 Drafting/Updating a CountryProgramme Water QualityStandards and Testing Policy

Urban ProgrammeManager

WAN assigned its urban programmemanager as a Focal person for WaterQuality and other technical endeavours

2 Implementing a Country

Programme Water QualityStandards and Testing Policy

Country

Representative

Supports will be sought from respective

programme managers and officers forimplementing the policy on the ground

3 Conducting Water QualityTesting and making sure thatpartners are adhering withWANs WQ policy

ImplementingPartners and WANsProgramme Officers

WANs programme officers will makesure that all the water points (new/rehab) installed by partners are testedfor quality of water

The partner organisations with whom WAN partners with in delivering WASHservices to the poor and deprived communities of both rural and urban areasare practicing the following formats (Format 1 and Format 2) mentionedin the subsequent pages (ie Page 20) for recording and reporting the waterquality test results.


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Fo

rmat1:Quarterlyreportingon

waterquality

Reporting

period

Constructed(Water

sourcesandpoints)

Tested(Watersources

andpoints)

Nottested(Watersources

a

ndpoints)

Remarks

Notes

New

Rehab

Exist.

New

Rehab

Exist.

New

Rehab

P

reviousyear

D

etailedWQfindingsshouldbesubmitted

asannexinAnnualReport

S

Highlightkeywaterqualityproblems

andchallenges

S

Explainanymitigationactiontaken

or

planned

S

Achievementinmitigationonwater

quality(includeinAnnualReport)

Q

1

Q

2

Q

3

Q

4

T

OTAL

Fo

rmat2:Recordingwaterquali

tytestresults

T

ested

w

ater

p

oints

No

Testedparameters

Coliform

Ammonia

Iron

Nitrate

pH

Hardness

Chloride

Within

standard

Outo

f

standard

Within

standard

Outof

standard

Within

standard

Outof

standard

Within

standard

Outof

standard

Within

standard

Outof

standard

Within

standard

Outof

standard

Within

standard

Outof

standard

T

ubewell

D

ugwell

P

ublicTap

s

tands

C

ommunity

Tapstands

K

uwa

S

tonespout

*Standardreferstopermissiblelimitm

entionedinWANsWQprotocol


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History of water quality studies in Nepal is not very old. Due to theineffective institutional capacity and poor economic condition, waterquality has not yet been prioritized compared to the focus givento increasing water supply coverage. The first water quality testinglaboratory for basic physio-chemical parameters was established inSundarijal Water Treatment Plant during 1965. Except few studiesconducted by USAID in 1971/73 on groundwater quality monitoring ofKathmandu Valley and Microbiological Quality studies of Kathmanduwater supply system by Central Public Health Laboratory of TribhuvanUniversity, there were not any significant studies carried out on drinkingwater quality sector till mid of 1980 (WHO, 1999).

Although a water quality testing programme existed in the last decade,

a water quality data management system does not exist or if it exists,it cannot be accessed easily. Till 1998, the testing of water quality waslimited mostly to microbiological quality and a few non-health relatedchemical parameters. In 1999, different agencies started to look overthe growing concerns on arsenic and started to investigate into thepossibilities of arsenic contamination in shallow ground water aquiferand finally felt the need of water quality testing programme.

Therefore, it can be said that there is a notable lack of water qualitydata for Nepal and hence the assessment of the main quality problemsis difficult. Many of the documented problems are related to pollutionof both surface waters and shallow ground waters from domesticagriculture and industrial wastes.

5.1 Water resources

5.1.1 Surface waterThese are surface derived water sources and include rivers, impoundedreservoirs, lakes, streams and others. Much of the Nepalese populationuses surface water for potable supply which is most vulnerable to

pollution caused by untreated sewage, industrial wastes, agricultural

High risk (principal)

contaminants


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run-off, vegetation etc. These sources

are distributed to the consumers throughgravity flow technology without anytreatment. The available data on waterquality testing (basically of rural areas)conducted by various agencies over 128samples indicate that:S All the chemical quality of water found

within WHO guideline values.S Faecal coliform contamination found to

be widespread in majority of gravity fedsurface water schemes.

S Faecal coliform contamination situationdid not seem to improve even wherechanges in intake system were made.

S In Terai schemes, the contaminationproblem, particular due to calciumand magnesium carbonate, seemed tobe serious due to the elevated watertemperature.

S Scaling potential in gravity flow supplythough existed due to calcium and

Table 5.1:Percentage of coliform grade in gravity flow surface water supply schemes

Faecal coliform count (Per 100 ml) Faecal coliform grade Health risk % of samples

0 A No Risk 12

1 10 B Low Risk 23

11 100 C High Risk 26

101 1000 D Very High Risk 38

Note: No of Samples is 128

Source: Rural Water Supply and Water Quality Status in Nepal by Dr. R. R. Shrestha for UNICEF and HMG/ADB/CBWSS/PPTA in 2002

Table 5.2: Percentage of scaling potential grade in gravity flow surface water schemes

Scaling potential grade Risk No. of samples % of samples

A No Risk (free) 55 69

B Moderate Risk 15 18

C High Risk 10 13

Note:No of Samples is 80Source:Rural Water Supply and Water Quality Status in Nepal by Dr. R. Shrestha for UNICEF and HMG/ADB/

CBWSS/PPTA in 2002

magnesium carbonate; it is not serious

in all over the region. Out of the studyconducted over 80 schemes, only10 schemes (ie 13 % of the total 80samples) showed high scaling potential,18% of the samples showed moderatewhereas 69% of the total samples arefree from scaling problem.

Degree to health risk:Owing to thelimited resources available for testing, itis recommended that priority be accordedto the contaminants that pose significantthreat to the health of the community. Othercontaminants that confer aesthetic defectsto drinking water could cause consumers torevert to unsafe traditional sources whichshould also be tested. It is only when thereis no alternative that surface water sourcesshould be considered, as surface water hashigh probability of pathogenic (coliform)micro-organisms and chemical by-products.


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High risk (principal) contaminants:

The principal contaminants of surfacewater sources include pathogenicmicro-organisms; In addition, iron andmanganese and nitrates along with othernaturally occurring trace elements alsocontribute to surface water contamination.

Requirements for distribution systems:Piped gravity-flow surface water suppliesfrom head works to the consumers draw-off should be disinfected and shouldhave a residual chlorine of 0.5 to 1.0 mg.Water should be conditioned at the headworks to attain a ph value within therange of 8 to 8.5 to prevent corrosion ofthe distribution pipelines. It is thereforerecommended that surface water sourcesderived for mass distribution be subjectedto conventional treatment processes atthe head works before feeding into thedistribution network for consumption.

5.1.2 Groundwater sourcesThese are derived from aquifers occurringwithin pervious strata from water whichnormally originates from the precipitationthat percolates through the soil and is

confined by an impervious stratum. The

water may pick up considerable amountsof dissolved mineral compounds, organicmatter, soil particles and mirco-organisms.Fertilizers and pesticides may also befound in dissolved form. Filtration andabsorption take place naturally and mayresult in the removal of bacteria, muchof the suspended matter and possiblydissolved minerals as well. Ground waterresources include hand dug wells, tubewells and bore holes. Hand pumps on thetube wells and hand dug wells (with orwithout hand pumps) are common in theTerai regions of the country. Water qualitystudy of groundwater (shallow well anddug well) was started in 1990 by analyzingsome physio-chemical (non-health relatedparameters) and microbiological tests.

Degree of health riskShallow groundwateris at risk from

surface contamination: pathogenicbacteria, pesticides, chemical fertilizers,nitrates, industrial (though nature ofindustrial effluents is not known indetail but the greatest sources arelikely to be from the textiles and carpet-

Table 5.3: Water quality status of sampled shallow groundwater in Terai region of Nepal

Sites (District) Chloride

(mg/l)

Ammonia

(mg/l)

Nitrate

(mg/l)

Iron

(mg/l)

Manganese

(mg/l

Coliform

(cfu/100ml)

Panchgacachi (Jhapa) 15.4 0.70 0.2 6.0 0.8 11.1

Baijnathpur (Morang) 16.4 0.50 0.2 4.5 0.5 15.9

Bayarban (Morang) 17.6 0.50 2.4 6.0 0.6 0.0

Takuwa (Morang) 21.0 1.00 1.0 10.4 0.4 45.9

ShreepurJabdi (Sunsari) 37.2 .90 0.2 8.0 0.6 25.5

Bandipur (Siraha) 195.6 0.70 3.5 0.4 0.4 0.0

Naktiraipur (Saptari) 54.5 1.20 0.3 12.0 1.3 16.0

WHO standard 250.0 1.24 10 0.3 0.5 Nil

Source: ENPHO (1990)


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manufacturing industries) and domestic

pollutants (urban, especially Kathmanduand peri-urban areas) are likely to bethe greatest problems encountered inshallow groundwater in Kathmanduvalley in particular. In Terai region, theshallow aquifer is reported to be largelyunconfined; the vulnerability to surfacepollution may be relatively high becauseof the sandy and permeable nature ofsurface sediments. The following Table 5.3 shows water quality status of shallowgroundwater for seven sites in Terai region.

Spring waterfrom Karstic limestoneaquifer at depth in the Kathmandu valleyand mid hills in western part of Nepalespecially in Lumbini zone are reported/found to be of calcium-bicarbonate typewith good inorganic chemical quality,although the amount of data is limited.

Deep groundwaterpresent in theKathmandu Valley and the Terai are lessvulnerable to surface pollution, but havea different set of potential water-qualityproblems arising from the anaerobiccondition of the aquifers. Increasedconcentration of Iron, manganese,ammonium and possibly arsenic may occurin these circumstances.

The ground water quality in the Kathmandu

Valley is also contaminated due to pollutedsurface water, leachate, and sewage. Thefollowing Table 5.4 shows that, there iscertain degree of contamination of groundwater sources. Dug wells and ponds areamong the most contaminated water source.

Principal contaminants:The principalcontaminants of ground water sources includearsenic, iron and manganese, and pathogenicmicro-organisms, In addition, nitrates andnitrites along with other trace elements alsocontribute to the ground water contamination.

Requirement for the development ofgroundwater: Wells should not be sitedin fissured rocks and Karstic formationsespecially where fissures reach out to thesurface area. Such formations can serve asan entry points for sewage, human wasteof all kinds and run-off contamination of

the aquifer. Such formations facilitatefast transmission of contaminants overdistances of several kilometres.

Wells should be sited as advised below:S Nearest well should be at least 10 m (30

ft.) away if there is 4 m of fine soil belowthe base pit of latrines, refuse dumpsetc. and up to 50 m distant if the pit is

Table 5.4: Status of microbiological contamination in groundwater in Terai region

Faecal coliform(Per 100 ml)

Value as % of sample units of 15 WHO guidelinevalueDug

wellShallow

wellDeepwell

Spring Stonespout

Pond Pipedwater

0 0 60 80 40 20 0 60 Nil

1-100 40 30 15 30 40 0 20 Nil

101-1000 30 5 5 30 40 0 20 Nil

>1000 30 5 0 0 0 100 0 Nil

Source:ENPHO (1999); NWSC (1999)


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close to the ground water level or if the

stratum is very porous or fissured rock.S The base of the pit latrines, refuse

dumps etc. should be at least 1 mabove highest recorded or expectedground water level. If otherwise, 5 m(15 ft.) clear vertical distance betweenthe base of the pit and level water tableshould be maintained at any cost.

S Wells should have a parapet extendingabout 1 m above the ground level toprevent surface water flooding backinto the well.

S WAN through its implementingpartners Will be analyzing the distanceto be maintained (both vertical andhorizontal) between source of waterand source of contamination to avoidpossible ground water contamination.

Wells should be provided with a coverand preferably a hand pump to prevent

contamination from ropes and buckets.In addition, the wells should have a watertight inner lining made of any constructionmaterials to provide protection againstcollapse and prevent crumbling groundfrom filling up the excavation.

Water from deep boreholes may containhigh level of dissolved iron and thus needpreliminary treatment like aeration andsedimentation. All newly drilled boreholesshould be disinfected and routinemonitoring of water quality performed.

5.2 Principal (high risk)contaminants of water andrisks to human health

The High Risk (Principal) contaminantsof drinking water that present risks to

human health in Nepal are discussed in

the tables- 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 presented.

The most important are microbiologicalcontamination particularly in surfacewater, and naturally occurring arsenic ingroundwater particularly in the shallowaquifers. Concentrations of iron are commonin Nepal; however, the ingestion of iron isnot a major potential health problem. Taste,odour and colour are natural unacceptableand objectionable to the consumers but donot necessarily present a health risk.

Because the resources available fortesting the quality of water are likely tobe limited, prior attention should alsobe given to testing for the presenceof those contaminants, which couldconstitute significant threat to the healthof a community. It is commonly recognizedfact that the use of contaminated waterfor drinking purposes poses significanthealth risks mainly from micro-organisms

and chemical contaminants. For example,the microbial contamination should beregarded as an acute and ubiquitous threatto the safety of un-chlorinated communitywater supplies, although the importanceof chemical contamination should not beunderestimated as well.

Review of different available literatures in thecontext of Nepal including BGS risk facts/assessment sheets at present; considerationof the local or national or expert knowledgeduring consultation at different stages,forums, meetings etc.; and references of theknown national authority on water qualityand sector actors in WASH domain andexperiences of other agencies working in thefield were also undertaken while identifyingthe High Risk (Principal) Contaminants ofwater. Based on this review, the followingHigh Risk (Principal) Contaminants are

identified and discussed below:


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5.2.1 Microbiological contaminationGroundwater should be of goodmicrobiological quality at origin, butcan be contaminated due to unsanitarypractices. Microbiological quality ofshallow groundwater from tube wells wasinitially thought to be free from pathogensin the past, but this has now been foundto be uncertain. Test results showed47% out of 14394 water samples werefound to contain coliforms ie pathogenic

contamination was found in groundwatersamples taken from shallow tube wells(Dr.Shrestha, R.S., 2002; Rural Water Supplyand Water Quality Status in Nepal).

Bacterial quality control of, total coliform,particularly faecal coliforms has, therefore,become a high priority parameter from thehealth risk aspect, because of widespreadcontamination of surface and shallow

ground water indicated (Refer Table 4.4 above). Surface water sources inmany rural areas have been found to becontaminated by human feces and groundwater in many urban areas, especiallyKathmandu, has been contaminated byseepage from septic tanks and soak pits.

The BGS fact sheet referring toAdhikari,1998, indicated that faecal and total coliformcounts are often high in drinking water.

According to BGS, some groundwater

High risk (principal) contaminants Nuisance constituents: Aesthetic parameters:

Microbiological contamination Iron and Manganese

Arsenic Chlorine

Nitrate pH

Fluoride Ammonia

Turbidity

Hardness

Colour, Taste and Odour

samples from deep alluvial aquifers and thekarstic limestone aquifers of the KathmanduValley have detectable coliforms.However, these probably originate fromcontamination at the wellhead rather thancontamination of the aquifer themselves.

The protection of sources and the operationand maintenance of water treatmentfacilities has thus become a critical issue ifthe overall health status is not to suffer as

a result of microbiological contamination inboth surface and ground water sources.

5.2.1.1 Risks of microbiologicalcontamination to human healthAs mentioned previously the biologicalquality of surface water sources in Nepalis extremely poor. A test for ThermoTolerant (faecal) Coliforms (TTC) is usedas a marker for the presence of faecal

matter and hence of likely pathogens. Thefaecal coliform concentration of ponds isalso high and many are chemically andbio-chemically contaminated. Examplesof diseases which are waterborne (causedby contaminated drinking water) includecholera, typhoid, hepatitis, amoebiasis,and dracunculiasis. The causes of thehigh levels of contamination/pollution ofsurface water are often due to hanginglatrines and direct sewage discharge

(without any treatment etc.) into surface


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i) geologically young (ie sediments deposited

in the last few thousands years) and;ii) groundwater characterized by slow

flow conditions, either because of lowhydraulic gradients, low-lying areassuch as flat alluvial basins and the lowparts of deltas, or lack of active rainfalland recharge (arid areas, closed basins)

High concentrations of arsenic are foundin the groundwater from the shallow anddeltaic aquifers. Examples of anaerobicaquifers affected by arsenic include thealluvial and deltaic aquifers of Bangladeshand West Bengal (formed by erosion of theHimalaya in the last few thousand years).

Occurrence in Nepal:Initially nodocumented report existed, but there isanecdotal evidence for the presence ofarsenic in some groundwater from theTerai regions in the south. Before 1999, the

concentrations, distribution and scale of thearea affected by Arsenic are not known.

When arsenic poisoning news fromBangladesh and West Bengal (India)spread all over the region and when thealluvial sediments deposited by riversdraining from the Himalayas has beenidentified as potential sources for arsenic ingroundwater, then study on the possibilitiesof arsenic contamination in groundwater inNepal was initiated.

The deep alluvial aquifers of the Terai arepotentially at greatest risk from arseniccontamination as they are anaerobic.Shallow ground water from the Terai isalso likely to be at risk when anaerobicconditions occur in the shallow aquifers.Evidence of arsenic contamination in

groundwater was found in the southern

plains of Nepal, during the preliminarystudies conducted by DWSS/WHO, NRCS/JRCS/ENPHO and DWSS/UNICEF in 1999 toearly 2000.

By the end of 2002, more than 20, 000water samples had been tested for arsenicby different concerned agencies workingin the water and sanitation sector, out ofwhich 16,000 were tested by AAS-HG andthe remainder were tested by field test kits.Out of the total samples tested, 8% havearsenic concentration of more than 50 ppband 29% showed more than the WHO limitof 10 ppb. The districts of Nawalparasi,Rautahat and Kailali were reported as highrisk districts and many other districts arealso affected to some extent. The agenciesinvolved in the testing of the watersamples for arsenic contamination were:DWSS, UNICEF, NRCS, RWSSSP (FINNIDA),

RWSSFDB, NEWAH, PLAN International,DEO/MoE etc.). The Table 5.5 presentedbelow summarizes the result of arseniclevels at different districts of Nepal from20,240 water samples.

Similarly, a study carried out by DWSSunder Ministry of Physical Planning andWorks and ENPHO - a non- governmentalorganisation and one of WANsurban partner, has found excessiveconcentration of arsenic in ground watersamples taken from shallow tube wellsmainly in the districts of Rautahat, Parsa,Nawalparasi, Banke and Bardia.

An estimate of the number of people inTerai, Nepal who may be using water withhigh arsenic concentration from shallowwells is presented in Table 5.6 below.


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Table 5.6:Preliminary Estimate of Extent of Arsenic Problem in Nepal

Based on WHO guideline(10g/litre or higher)

Based on India and Bangladesh guideline(>50g/litre)

% exposed population % exposed Population

29 3.19 million 5 550,000

Source:ENPHO/DWSS

Table 5.5:Arsenic level in different districts of Nepal (2002)

S.N. District Arsenic concentration (ppb) % of Sample above

0 - 10 >10 - 50 >50 No. oftests

MaxmA s ProposedNepal

standard(50 ppb)

WHOguideline

value50 ppb

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

1516

17

18

19

20

21

Kailali

Kanchanpur

Bardiya

Dang

Banke

Kapilbastu

Rupandehi

Nawalparasi

Chitawan

Parsa

Bara

Rauthat

Saptari

Dhanusha

SirahaSarlahi

Mahottari

Sunsari

Morang

Jhapa

Illam

Total

87

128

386

91

1216

2246

1807

1492

86

1862

1725

1011

532

157

195345

79

303

149

462

14359

66

16

125

7

474

235

225

1135

0

206

240

1191

82

43

5487

10

67

22

42

4

4331

34

9

20

1

31

91

46

953

0

52

46

211

14

9

1313

2

2

2

1

1550

187

153

531

99

1721

2572

2078

3580

86

2120

2011

2413

628

209

262445

91

372

173

505

4

20240

213

221

160

50

270

589

2620

829

456

254

324

98

106

10793

82

70

79

2620

18

6

4

1

2

4

2

27

0

2

2

9

2

4

53

2

1

1

0

8

53

16

27

8

29

13

13

58

0

12

14

58

15

25

2622

13

19

14

9

29

Source:DWSS,NRCS/ ENPHO,RWSSSP (FINNIDA), PLAN, NEWAH, RWSSFDB, DEO/ MOE, 2002


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Occurrences of arsenic, along with other

potentially toxic trace elements, may alsooccur where mineralized veins (containingsulfide minerals) occur in the crystallinebasement rocks and minor occurrencesof black shale. If contamination of waterwith arsenic has occurred in these areas,the contamination is likely to be localizedrather than of regional context.

5.2.2.1 Risks of arsenic to human healthArsenic has long been recognized as atoxin and carcinogen and thus ingestionof any amount of arsenic posses apotential risk. Long term ingestion of highconcentrations of arsenic from drinkingwater can potentially give rise to a numberof health problems, particularly skindisorders, of which the most commonis melanosis (hyperpigmentation,depigmentation etc.) ie pigmentationchanges (dark/light skin sports),

keratosis (warty nodules, usually onpalms and feet), and gangrene. Additionalsymptoms include other more seriousdermatological problems (e.g. skin cancerand Bowenss disease), cardiovascular(black foot disease, Reynolds syndrome,hypertension, gangrene), pulmonary andperipheral vascular diseases, neurological,respiratory and hepatic disease as wellas diabetes mellitus. Such symptomshave been well documented in areas ofknown groundwater contamination suchas Bangladesh, West Bengal, Taiwan,Northern China, Mexico, Chile

A number of internal cancers have alsobeen linked with arsenic in drinking water,particularly lung, bladder, liver, prostateand kidney cancer (e.g. Smith et al., 1992-1998). Much research is being carried outto assess the risks of such cancers at the

levels of the drinking water standards.

Clinical symptoms of arsenic poisoning

and their relative prevalence seem tovary between affected regions and thereis no clear agreement on the definition ofarsenic poisoning.

Some studies have shown a clearrelationship between arsenic dose fromdrinking water and the development ofcancer and other diseases. However,the relationship may be complicatedby other factors such as nutritionaland general health status (hepatitisB may exacerbate the problems) andwater chemistry (e.g. aqueous arsenicchemistry, dissolved iron concentration).Debate also remains over whether athreshold of concentration exists belowwhich the element is effectively safe (e.g.Smith et al., 1999)

Latency periods of several years for the

development of arsenic related healthproblems have been noted in severalinvestigations. This is a factor which inpart explains why many of the problemsin developing countries have onlyrecently emerged despite several yearsof groundwater use.

Therefore, Arsenic is endemic ingroundwater sources from certain areasand causes adverse human healtheffects after prolonged exposure.There is overwhelming evidencefrom epidemiological studies thatconsumption of elevated levels ofarsenic through drinking water iscausally related to the development ofcancer through several sites, particularlyskin, bladder and lung. Arsenic is thusa high priority chemical parameter thatrequires monitoring in water sources

deemed to be at risk from contamination.


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In this regard, The WHO Guidelines for

drinking-water quality also calculatedthe general guideline value based on theconcentration associated with an excesslifetime cancer risk of 10-5 which for arsenicand skin cancer was calculated to be 0.17g/ litre (0.17 ppb). However, consideringthe practical quantification limit, WHOestablished a provisional guideline valuefor arsenic in drinking-water of 0.01 mg/litre (10 ppb). The estimated excess lifetimeskin cancer risk associated with exposureto this concentration is about 6 per 10,000populations. The Nepalese standard of 0.05mg/litre ie 50 ppb (as per NDWQS, 2006)is associated with a higher risk of about 30per 10,000 populations.

5.2.3 NitrateNitrate is the most widespread agriculturecontaminant and is a human health concernsince it can cause methemoglobinemia

in infants. Some nitrate in ground wateris due to naturally occurring sources, butlevels of nitrate (NO

3) above 3 ppm typically

indicate that pollution is seeping in fromlatrines, septic tanks, animal wastes,fertilizers, municipal landfills etc. In shallowgroundwater, the concentrations of nitratefrom agriculture pollutants from domesticand agricultural sources may be high andnitrate concentrations frequently fail WHOguideline values.

High levels of nitrate can develop in groundwaters as a result of:S Run-off from agricultural land using

nitrate fertilizersS Contamination with urine and faecesS Industrial pollution

In Nepal, few tests have been conductedin groundwater and surface water. ENPHO

tested 7 samples from shallow tube wells

from 5 eastern Terai districts in 1990. All

the test result shows far less concentrationof nitrate than the WHO limit of 10 ppm. InFebruary 2002, ENPHO tested 27 samplesfrom Eastern Terai district of Siraha, allthe tube wells have concentration of lessthan 0.1 ppm except two tube wells whichhad a concentration of 6.11 and 0.38ppm. However, the concentration in 3 dugwells out of 6 tested -- exceeds the WHOguideline value measuring 10.2, 24.87 and47 ppm. The test conducted in stone spoutsin Kathmandu and Lalitpur district have highnitrate concentration. In most of the spouts,the concentration of nitrate is up to 37 ppm.

5.2.3.1 Risks of nitrate/nitrite to humanhealthNitrate is the most widespread agriculturecontaminant but presence of nitrate/nitrite is considered to have minimaleffect on the disease burden. Unprotected

ground water sources are particularlysusceptible to contamination. High nitrateconcentration pose a significant healthrisk to bottle-fed infants as nitrate inhibitsthe ability of the bold to convey oxygenaround the body, leading to a potential fatalcondition called blue-baby syndrome ormethahaemogobinaemia. The long termexposure to Nitrate is, however, a humanhealth concern as it may increase stomachcancer. A recent study suggested thatmiscarriage might also be linked to highnitrate levels, although scientists have notconfirmed this.

The WHO guideline value for nitrate indrinking water of 50mg/litre (equivalentto 10mg/litre nitrate-nitrogen) and3mg/l for nitrite (short-term exposure)is established solely to prevent Cyanosis(methahaemoglobinaemia) in babies:

bottle-fed infants (


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5.2.4 Fluoride

Fluoride minerals are abundant in certainrock types. Igh concentrations of fluoridecan be released into ground waters throughdissolution of these fluoride minerals,especially after prolonged contact periodswithin aquifers.

In Nepal, there are limited studiesconducted on fluoride so far. Thus onlysporadic data are available for fluoridein Nepal. However, given the climaticconditions (high rainfall), the presence offluoride at high concentration is unlikely.Concentrations are likely to be below WHOguideline value (1.5 mg/lit) for fluoride indrinking water in both the hill and Terairegions of Nepal.

United Mission to Nepal (UMN) prepareda nationwide fluoride profile of Nepalsdrinking water in 2000. It tested 682 water

samples collected from all the 5 regions.The test results show great similarity in allparts of the country with the aggregated datademonstrating that 95% of samples havefluoride levels below 0.3 mg/l. More than 70%samples of sites register less than 0.1 mg/lit. At the higher end of the scale, 7 samplesenter therapeutic levels (above 0.7 mg/lit)out of them water sample from Janakpur tubewell was found to have a highest level ofconcentration ie 1.07 mg/l. 2 of the 7 samplesfrom Mid Western hot springs (both calledTatopani) found to have a high level fluorideconcentration of 3.8 and 2.9 mg/lit. The studyalso suggested for the introduction of locallyproduced, affordable fluoridated toothpastethat will benefit the dental health of millions ofchildren and adults.

5.2.4.1 Risks of fluoride to human healthLow concentrations of fluoride are beneficial

to dental health (up to 1 mg/lit) and is

known to reduce dental decay when

added to the diet. In drinking water, in aconcentration of 1 mg/lit in a temperateclimate, it is known to reduce dental cariesby up to 65%. However, high fluoride isa toxin harmful to the public health atelevated concentrations.

Regular exposure to slightly elevatedamounts of fluorides during the period oftooth formation, from birth to approximatelysix years of age, can be associated withdental fluorosis. This is characterized bywhite areas, and occasionally brown stains,on the teeth. However, excessive intakesof fluoride can result in moderate to severedental fluorosis, characterized by significantenamel erosion, tooth pain and impairmentof chewing ability.

Long-term exposure to levels of fluoridesin excess of 200 micrograms per kilogram

of body weight per day may be associatedwith skeletal fluorosis. This is a progressivebut not life-threatening condition inwhich the bones increase in density andgradually become more brittle. In mildcases, symptoms of skeletal fluorosis mayinclude pain and stiffness of the joints. Inmore severe cases, symptoms may includereduced mobility, skeletal deformities,and an increased risk of bone fractures.It is likely that individuals must consumeconsiderably higher amounts beforecrippling symptoms will develop.

Fluoride intake can originate from dustinhalation and food sources but drinkingwater containing high concentrations canalso be regarded as a primary source.Fluoride can be classified as a high prioritychemical parameter requiring surveillancein areas where it is likely to occur in ground

waters at high concentrations.


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No fluoride is found reported in Nepalese

Groundwater and data regarding fluoride isalso not available. However, given the climaticconditions (high rainfall), the presence offluoride at high concentrations is unlikely.Concentrations are likely to be much below1 mg/lit., ie less than WHO guideline valuefor fluoride in drinking water, in both the hillregions and the terai (Groundwater Quality:Nepal, BGS Survey, Natural EnvironmentalResearch Council (NERC), 2001). Hence,Fluoride, though this parameter is listedunder prinicipal contaminants, is notrequired for testing while conductingregular Water Quality testing of the waterdelivered from the newly installed orrehabilitated water points.

5.2.5 Nuisance constituents: aestheticparametersWaterAid in Nepal (WAN) recognizes thatother chemical (Inorganic) constituents

exist which could be described asNuisance Constituent: AestheticParameters. These nuisance constituentsare not directly harmful to health but mayimpact on health when exposed to it fora longer period of time. In fact, it directlyimpacts on aesthetic considerationssuch as taste, odour and appearance,and cause people to abandon safesources for traditiona

water quality standards testing policy

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